A Major Project Report on

BILLING AND LOAD CONTROL OF SMART ENEGRY METER USING GSM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By

Rajnish Meena 161113005

Anil Kumar Meena 161113020
Ashish Kumar Lokhande 161113022
Vinay Dawar 161113030

Under the guidance of

Dr. Suresh Kumar Gawre

June 2020
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BHOPAL (M.P.) – 462003

1
 STUDENT’S DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work presented in the dissertation entitled “BILLING AND
LOAD CONTROL OF SMART ENEGRY METER USING GSM” in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical
Engineering submitted in the Department of Electrical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal is an
authentic record of our own work under the guidance of Dr. Suresh Kumar Gawre.

We have not submitted the matter embodied in this dissertation for the award of any
other degree.

S.NO. Scholar No. Name Signature

1. 161113008 Rajnish Meena

2. 161113020 Anil Kumar Meena

3. 161113022 Ashish Kumar Lokhande

4. 161113030 Vinay Dawar

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the above statement made by students is correct to the best of my
knowledge.

Supervisor

Dr. Suresh Kumar Gawre

2
 Assistant Professor,
Department of
Electrical Engineering
MANIT, Bhopal.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The project has been made for the fulfillment of the B.Tech. VIII semester curriculum
2019-20 of the Electrical Engineering Department of MANIT, Bhopal.

We extend our thankfulness to the Director of the College Dr. N.S. Raghuvanshi for
having provided an opportunity for doing major project and enjoying hands on
experience with the technical applications of the knowledge acquired in the college.

Unparalleled gratefulness is due to Dr. Manisha Dubey, HOD for their motivation.

We thank our guide Dr. Suresh Kumar Gawre for his continuous guidance, motivation
and support. We thank him for his valuable time and efforts in conceptualization of our
ideas. We owe him to the technical skills developed in us in the course of the project.

We thank the auxiliary staff of the department for the cooperation during the course of
project.

We heartedly acknowledge every support and guidance from the department and the
college.

3
S.No. Contents Page no.

1. Title 1

2. Student’s Decleration 2

3. Acknowledgement 3

4. Contents 4

5. Existing system : Energy meter 5

6. Conventional system 6

7. Drawbacks of the regular energy meter 7-8

8. Objective of Project 9-10

9. Working principle of energy meter 11

10. Block Diagram 12

11. Components required 13-15

12. Expected results 16

13. Estimated cost 17

14. Applications 17

15. Conclusion 18

16. References 18

1. ABSTRACT 10

2. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 13

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT 15

4. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
4
 4.1 TRANSFORMERS 17

4.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM7805) 19

4.3 RECTIFIER

4.4 FILTER

4.5 MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52/C51) 22

4.6 GSM COMMUNICATION

4.7 GSM MODEM

4.8 ULN2003

4.9 RELAY

4.10 LED

4.11 LCD DISPLAY

4.12 MAX-232

4.13 DB9 CONNECTOR

4.14 ENERGY METER

4.15 OPTOCOUPLER

4.16 1N4007

4.17 RESISTOR

4.18 CAPACITOR

5. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS 56

5.1 IDE 57

5.2 CONCEPT OF COMPILER 57

5.3 CONCEPT OF CROSS COMPILER 58

5.4 KEIL C CROSS COMPILER 59

5.5 BUILDING AN APPLICATION IN UVISION2 59

5.6 CREATING YOUR OWN APPLICATION IN UVISION2 59

5
 5.7 DEBUGGING AN APPLICATION IN UVISION2 60

5.8 STARTING UVISION2 & CREATING A PROJECT 61

5.9 WINDOWS_ FILES 61

5.10 BUILDING PROJECTS & CREATING HEX FILES 61

5.11 CPU SIMULATION 62

5.12 DATABASE SELECTION 62

5.13 START DEBUGGING 63

5.14 DISASSEMBLY WINDOW 63

5.15 EMBEDDED C 64

6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM 66

6.1 DESCRIPTION 67

7. CODING 75

7.1 COMPILER 76

7.2 SOURCE CODE 84

8. HARDWARE TESTING 88

8.1 CONTINUITY TEST 88

8.2 POWER ON TEST 89

9. RESULTS 69

10. CONCLUSION 93

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 94

LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.

2(a) EMBEDDED DESIGN CALLS 19

2(b) EMBEDDED DESIGN CYCLE 19

3BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT

6
 4.1(a) A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER 26

4.1(b) BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE

REGULATOR 28

4.3PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR 21

4.4BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52 24

4.5PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52 25

4.6(a) OSCILLATOR CONNECTIONS 29

4.6(b) EXTERNAL CLOCK DRIVE CONFIG 30

4.7 LCD

4.8 STRUCTURE OF GSM NETWORK

4.9 DB9 CONNECTOR

4.10 ENERGY METER

1. INTRODUCTION

The project consists of a Power meter reader system with GSM (SMS sender device)
interface. The energy department needs to send its employees every month in order to
take energy meter readings. This is an expensive as well as a time consuming system.

Accurate metering, detection of illegal activities and implementation of proper tariff

became some of the challenges of the existing billing system that would manage the

7
consumption of electrical energy. Collecting meter reading remains one of the most
difficult procedures in billing. The traditional electrical energy meter data collection is
such that a person from the utility provider visits the consumer sites periodically to note
the meter reading.

This procedure has lot of drawbacks including that it is time consuming, tiresome,
requires more human resource; even human errors and corruption is a high probability.
The process may be interrupted due to bad weather conditions, also if the consumer is
not available, the billing will be pending and billing officer needs to revisit. In recent
years however, shifts are being made towards prepaid meters and automatic meter
reading (AMR).

Our project determines a more efficient way to get energy meter readings.
Both Electricity Company as well as user gets their energy meter readings via SMS
every month. User may also control the system using SMS.

The energy meter is interfaced to a microcontroller of 8051 family. The energy meter
readings are also read by the microcontroller and displayed on an LCD Screen, this
data is also sent via SMS through a GSM modem interfaced to the microcontroller.

The GSM modem also has SMS receiving capability. On receiving particular user
request it sends required signal to the microcontroller in order to do counting for
required operation. It can switch loads On/Off as desired.

This system will also be used to effectively monitor energy usage, and disconnect the
power supply to the house in case of non-payment of electricity bills or suspicion of
fraud.

2. EXISTING SYSTEM: ENERGY METERING

Conventional System

Conventional System “Energy meters displays kilo watt-hour by continuously

measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts) and current (amperes) to give energy
used in joules’’. The primary type of electricity meter is the electromechanical
induction meter and an electronic meter. In electromechanical induction meter, the
8
total number of rotation of the aluminium disc is directly proportional to the power
consumed. Electronic meters shows the power consumed, power factor, the
reactive power used digitally displayed on LCD or LED display, and also able to
send the energy consumed readings to remote places through some communication
network. It is a single way communication. In addition to measuring energy used,
electronic meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as
instantaneous and maximum rate of usage demands, voltages, power factor and
reactive power used etc. “Traditionally, the electricity meters are installed on
consumer’s premises and the consumption information is collected by meter-
readers on their fortnightly or monthly visits to the premises.”

Drawbacks of the regular energy meter:

 Highly depends on meter reader.

 Human error cannot be avoided for the manual meter reading.

 Always there is no cross checking or recheck of human readers for energy

utilization.

 High chance of stealing and bribery always high to misuse it especially during
events.

 Possibility to change the reading when taking photos of energy meter by

using software tools.

 More number of meter reading employees is extra expenses to the company

for hiring them and their expense on traveling too expensive one.

 Wherever energy meter installed inside the house, which may lead to non-
checking of reading due to lock.

 The consumer is not receiving updates of his regular usage of energy.

The consumer may not receive his energy bill as per regular interval of the due
date.

Objective of Project

The main aim of this study is to design and develop a fully functional “Smart Energy
meter based on mobile communication technology (GSM)” having innovative

9
capabilities like remote metering, load control and billing through SMS the unit
consumption to the consumer. The research is about to handle all the information of the
consumer regarding energy consumption using a software system.

Proposed system-

A smart energy meter works on communication directly with wireless data protocol, so
there will be precise reading & there's no necessary for a meter reader to take energy
meter reading in consumer premises. Smart energy meters can operate in divergent
ways with GSM Module.

There are so many different merits of smart energy meter such as. User new smart
energy meters send precise reading on a regular interval in sequence about customer’s
energy usage to utility (Electricity provider). So the bills will be proper and labor cost is
reduced for taking a reading in consumer residents. If the consumer did not pay the
energy bill within time, the utility can remotely disconnect the service (line) of a
particular consumer and after payment, the service continues to the consumer.

So we can avoid sending an employee to cut off energy from the network and again to
reconnect their connection. We have connected lever switch for tampering attempt
detect. When anyone tries to open the meter cover the button will release and send
information to the service provider. When the power quality is not maintained from the
distribution supply, then the customer equipment can be protected by disconnecting and
reconnecting to the supply by SSR. The proposed system consists of digital energy
meter, an Arduino (microcontroller), GSM modem and SSR. After switching power on
the Arduino and the GSM modem, turn on the SSR and connects the energy meter to
load via SSR. Then read the EEPROM and display the current data.

Arduino checks the readings from voltage and current sensor i.e. PT and CT
respectively. If there is any difference in value between CT’s connected in phase and
neutral line then Arduino turns OFF the relay sends SMS to the service provider.

Also, this Arduino helps the utility for power disconnection when the bill is not cleared by
the customer. From customer point, this is a benefit to monitoring their daily/monthly
consumption, voltage fluctuation and gets disconnected from the supply.

3. Working Principle

10
Energy Meter-

The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilises by the electric load is known

as the energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at
a particular interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring
the power consumption. The meter is less expensive and accurate.

Working of the Energy Meter

The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation determines the power
consumption of the load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt
electromagnet. The shunt magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the
current coil.

The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the
current coil produces it because of the current.

The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the magnetic field of the
current coil because of which eddy current induced in the disc. The interaction of the
eddy current and the magnetic field causes torque, which exerts a force on the disc.
Thus, the disc starts rotating.

The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The
permanent magnet controls their rotation. The permanent magnet opposes the
movement of the disc and equalises it on the power consumption. The cyclometer
counts the rotation of the disc.

11
 4. BLOCK DIAGRAM

4. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

1. VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7805)

2. RECTIFIER
12
 3. FILTER

4. MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52/AT89C51)

5. GSM COMMUNICATION

6. GSM MODEM

7. ULN2003

8. RELAY

9. LED

10. LCD DISPLAY

11. MAX 232

12. DB9 CONNECTOR

13. ENERGY METER

14. OPTO COUPLER

15. 1N4007

16. RESISTOR

17. CAPACITOR

4.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.
13
Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available
in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them
useful in a Wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shutdown and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output
Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be
used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

Internal Block Diagram

14
FIG 4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

4.3 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one
direction, a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be
made of state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C.
The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier
is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. In positive half

15
cycle only two diodes ( 1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle
remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.

4.4 FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of
rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the
mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied,
D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the
output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use
of this filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current
power supplies for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load
current from the supply. This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple
frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below figure can show how the
capacitor charges and discharges.

16
4.5 MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with

8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using
Atmel’s high-density non volatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry
standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program
memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non volatile memory
programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on
a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a
highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The
AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of
RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-
vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and
clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down
to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle
Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt
system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but
17
freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or
hardware reset.
Features:

• Compatible with MCS®-51 Products

• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory

– Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles

• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range

• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz

• Three-level Program Memory Lock

• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

• 32 Programmable I/O Lines

• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

• Eight Interrupt Sources

• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode

• Watchdog Timer

• Dual Data Pointer

• Power-off Flag

• Fast Programming Time

• Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)

• Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option

Block Diagram of AT89S52:

18
FIG 4.5(A): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52
Pin Configurations of AT89S52

FIG 4.5(b): PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

Pin Description:

VCC:
Supply voltage.

GND:
19
 Ground

Port 0:
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-
impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order
address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode,
P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming
and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required
during program verification.

Port 1:
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-
ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external
count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX).

Port 2:
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-
ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program
memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses
(MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting
1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI),
Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.

Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.

RST:
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is
running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the

20
Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to
disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is
enabled.

ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input
(PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however,
that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory.

PSEN:
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory.
When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is
activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped
during each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP:
External Access Enable EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the
device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to
FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on
reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also
receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier
which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a
quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external
clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in
Figure 6.2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal,
since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but
minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

21
FIG 4.5(c): Oscillator Connections

FIG 4.5(d): External Clock Drive Configuration

Idle Mode

In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals remain active.
The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special
functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be
terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset.

Power down Mode

In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that
invokes power down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special
Function Registers retain their values until the power down mode is terminated. The
only exit from power down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not
change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to
its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to
restart and stabilize.

22
4.6 GSM COMMUNICATION

 GSM for mobile system is increasingly popular and established throughout the world.
The term GSM usually means the GSM standard and protocols in the frequency
spectrum around 900MHz. There is also DCS1800 - GSM protocols but at different air
frequencies around 1800 MHz - and in the United States, where spectrum for Personal
Communication Services (PCS) was auctioned at around 1900MHz. As a result of this,
the original and most widely-used GSM frequency implementation is known as
GSM900, and DCS1800 is also known as GSM1800. Though the physical frequencies
used are differed, the protocols and architecture remain the same. The following
sections describe about the functional entities, the radio interface signaling protocol, the
logical and physical channel structure and the TDMA structure based on GSM.
System architecture
The figure below shows the GSM system architecture, which consists of the
switching system, the base station system and the user equipment. Functional entities
are briefly explained as follows.

FIG: 4.6(a) DETAILED ARCHITECTURE OF GSM

23
FIG: 4.6(b) BASIC GSM NETWORK

DESCRIPTION OF MODULES IN GSM ARCHITECTURE

MS - Mobile Station:
The MS is the physical equipment used by a subscriber, most often a normal
hand-held cellular telephone.
BTS -Base Transceiver Station:
The BTS comprises the radio transmission and reception devices, and also
manages the signal processing related to the air interface.
TRAU -The Transcoder Rate Adaptor Unit:
The TRAU functionally belongs to the BTS. The TRAU enables the use of lower
rates (32, 16 or 8 kbps) over the A-bits interface instead of the 64 kbps ISDN
rate for which the MSC is designed. The TRAU can be located at the BTS, the
BSC, or (immediately in front of) the MSC.
BSC- Base Station Controller:
The BSC manages the radio interface, mainly through the allocation, release
and handover of radio channels.
BSS -Base Station System:
The BSS consists of a BSC and one or more BTS’s.
MSC

-Mobile Switching Centre:

The MSC is basically an ISDN-switch, coordinating and setting up calls to and
from MS’s. An Inter-Working Function (IWF) may be required to adapt.

VLR -Visitor Location Register:

24
 The VLR contains all the subscriber data, both permanent and temporary, which
are necessary to control a MS in the MSCs coverage area. The VLR is
commonly realized as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity.
AuC -Authentication Centre:
The AuC database contains the subscriber authentication keys and the
algorithm required to calculate the authentication parameters to be transferred to
the HLR.
HLR- Home Location Register:
The HLR database is used to store permanent and semi-permanent subscriber
data; as such, the HLR will always know in which location area the MS is
(assuming the MS is in a coverage area), and this data is used to locate an MS
in the event of a MS terminating call set-up.
EIR -Equipment Identity Register:
The EIR database contains information on the MS and its capabilities. The IMEI
(International Mobile Subscriber Identity) is used to interrogate the EIR.
GMSC -Gateway Mobile Switching Centre:
The GMSC is the point to which a MS terminating call is initially routed, without
any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining
the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the
MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and
routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is
misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to a MSC.
SMSG: This is the term used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services
Gateways described in the GSM recommendations. The SMS-GMSC (Short
Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for mobile terminating
short messages and SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile
Switching Centre) for mobile originating short messages. The SMS-GMSC role
is similar to that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed
access point to the Short Message Service Centre.

Logical and physical channels

GSM distinguishes between physical channels (the timeslot) and logical channels
(the information carried by the physical channels). Several recurring timeslots on a
carrier constitute a physical channel, which are used by different logical channels to
transfer information for both user data and signaling. The GSM traffic and associated
control channels are illustrated in the figure below.

25
FIG4.6(c): LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL CHANNELS IN GSM

Common channels
The forward common channels are used for broadcasting bulletin board
information, paging and response to channel requests. The return common channel is a
slotted Aloha type random access channel used by the MS to request channel
resources before timing information is conveyed by the BSS, and uses a burst with an
extended guard period.

Dedicated point-to-point channels

The dedicated point-to-point channels are divided into two main groups, the
dedicated signaling channels and the traffic channels. The dedicated signaling channels

26
are used to set-up the connection, and the traffic channel of a variety of rates is used to
convey the user information once the session is established.

4.7 GSM MODEM

A GSM modem is a specialized type of modem which accepts a SIM card, and
operates over a subscription to a mobile operator, just like a mobile phone. From the
mobile operator perspective, a GSM modem looks just like a mobile phone.

 When a GSM modem is connected to a computer, this allows the computer to

use the GSM modem to communicate over the mobile network.  While these
GSM modems are most frequently used to provide mobile internet connectivity,
many of them can also be used for sending and receiving SMS and MMS
messages.
 A GSM modem can be a dedicated modem device with a serial, USB or
Bluetooth connection, or it can be a mobile phone that provides GSM modem
capabilities.
 For the purpose of this document, the term GSM modem is used as a generic
term to refer to any modem that supports one or more of the protocols in the
GSM evolutionary family, including the 2.5G technologies GPRS and EDGE, as
well as the 3G technologies WCDMA, UMTS, HSDPA and HSUPA.
 A GSM modem exposes an interface that allows applications such as SMS to
send and receive messages over the modem interface. The mobile operator
27
 charges for this message sending and receiving as if it was performed directly on
a mobile phone. To perform these tasks, a GSM modem must support an
“extended AT command set” for sending/receiving SMS messages, as defined in
the ETSI GSM 07.05 and 3GPP TS 27.005 specifications.
 GSM modems can be a quick and efficient way to get started with SMS, because
a special subscription to an SMS service provider is not required. In most parts of
the world, GSM modems are a cost effective solution for receiving SMS
messages, because the sender is paying for the message delivery.
 A GSM modem can be a dedicated modem device with a serial, USB or
Bluetooth connection, such as the Falcom Samba 75. (Other manufacturers of
dedicated GSM modem devices include Wavecom, Multitech and iTegno.  We’ve
also reviewed a number of modems on our technical support blog.) To begin,
insert a GSM SIM card into the modem and connect it to an available USB port
on your computer.
 A GSM modem could also be a standard GSM mobile phone with the appropriate
cable and software driver to connect to a serial port or USB port on your
computer. Any phone that supports the “extended AT command set” for
sending/receiving SMS messages, as defined in ETSI GSM 07.05 and/or 3GPP
TS 27.005, can be supported by the Now SMS & MMS Gateway. Note that not all
mobile phones support this modem interface.
 Due to some compatibility issues that can exist with mobile phones, using a
dedicated GSM modem is usually preferable to a GSM mobile phone. This is
more of an issue with MMS messaging, where if you wish to be able to receive
inbound MMS messages with the gateway, the modem interface on most GSM
phones will only allow you to send MMS messages. This is because the mobile
phone automatically processes received MMS message notifications without
forwarding them via the modem interface.
 It should also be noted that not all phones support the modem interface for
sending and receiving SMS messages. In particular, most smart phones,
including Blackberries, iPhone, and Windows Mobile devices, do not support this
GSM modem interface for sending and receiving SMS messages at all at all.
Additionally, Nokia phones that use the S60 (Series 60) interface, which is
Symbian based, only support sending SMS messages via the modem interface,
and do not support receiving SMS via the modem interface.

4.7 ULN2003
RELAY DRIVER:
28
 ULN2003 is a high voltage and high current Darlington transistor array.

DESCRIPTION:

The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor
arrays. It consists of seven NPN Darlington pairs that feature high-voltage outputs with
common-cathode Clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating
of a single Darlington pair is 500mA. The Darlington pairs may be paralleled for higher
current capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers,
display drivers (LED gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers.

The ULN2003 has a 2.7kW series base resistor for each Darlington pair for
operation directly with TTL or 5V CMOS devices.

Fig 4.6( ): ULN 2003

29
 Pin no.:16
 Temperature, Operating Range:-20°C to +85°C
 Transistor Polarity: NPN
 Transistors, No. of:7
 Case Style:DIP-16
 Temp, Op. Min:-20°C
 Temp, Op. Max:85°C
 Base Number:2003
 Channels, No. of:7
 Current, Output Max:500mA
 Device Marking:ULN2003A
 IC Generic Number:2003
 Input Type: TTL, CMOS 5V
 Logic Function Number:2003
 Output Type: Open Collector 
 Transistor Type: Power Darlington
 Voltage, Input Max:5V
 Voltage, Output Max:50V

30
PIN Diagram:

Fig: Schematics of Darlington’s pair

31
Fig: Darlington pair

 
Darlington pairs are back to back connection of two transistors with some source
resistors and when they are arranged as shown in the circuit they are used to amplify
weak signals. The amount by which the weak signal is amplified is called the ‘GAIN’. .

FEATURES OF DRIVER:
 Seven Darlington’s per package
 Output currents500mA per driver(600mA peak)
 Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads
 Outputs can be paralleled for high currents
 TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL compatible inputs.
 Inputs pinned opposite to outputs
 Simplified layout

Figure shows the Darlington pair connection of transistor. The circuit above is a
‘Darlington Pair’ driver. The first transistor’s emitter feeds into the second transistor’s
base and as a result the input signal is amplified by the time it reaches the output. The
important point to remember is that the Darlington Pair is made up of two transistors

FEATURES
* 500mA rated collector current (Single output).
* High-voltage outputs: 50V.
* Inputs compatible with various types of logic.
* Relay driver application.

4.9 RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also
used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal
(with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

32
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts.
The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have
double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram.

Fig 4.8 Relay showing coil and switch contacts

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to
switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay
between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V
relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower
voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to
amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum
output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay
coils directly without amplification.

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch
contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
33
For further information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them
please see the page on switches.

Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to
the pins providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will
be obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in
the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay
coil.

The figure shows a relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on
the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the
switch contacts.

There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them,
making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
 COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
34
35
Applications of relays

Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of

modems or audio amplifiers.
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid
of an automobile.
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers.
 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing
a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper
disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the
disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a
slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston
filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by
increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.

4.9 LED

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and
bright, so bright that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting
applications. They are still pretty expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw
much less current and project a fairly well focused beam.
The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the
beam a little but doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.
When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red
LEDs are now being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal
lights. You will be able to detect them because they look like an array of point sources
and they go on and off instantly as compared to conventional incandescent lamps.

36
 LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the
band gap of the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs
are fairly common. White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a
single LED. The most common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium
Nitride blue LED coated with a phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits
a broad range spectrum that in addition to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.
There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so
of operation, they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more
than their rated current will certainly accelerate this process.
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LED’S.
One is to use individual LED’S that emit three primary colours—red, green, and blue—
and then mix all the colours to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material
to convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light,
much in the same way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible
to have quite different spectra that appear white.
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are
made out of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of
chemical impurities that are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and
nitride.
When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal
light bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce
photons directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 4.9(a): circuit symbol

37
 Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on
dashboards or electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright
enough to rival traditional lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent
bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LED’S
LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the
most common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the
same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often
used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in
extremely tiny packages, such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads. The
main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.

Fig 4.9(b) Different types of LED’S

4.10LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

Description:
This is the example for the Parallel Port. This example doesn't use the Bi-
directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with most, if not all Parallel
Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input for a 16 Character
x 2 Line LCD Module to the Parallel Port. These LCD Modules are very common these
days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic required running them is on
board.

Pros:

 Very compact and light

 Low power consumption
 No geometric distortion
38
  Little or no flicker depending on backlight technology
 Not affected by screen burn-in
 No high voltage or other hazards present during repair/service
 Can be made in almost any size or shape
 No theoretical resolution limit

LCD Background:

Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside world using input and
output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common
devices attached to an 8051 is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs
connected to the 8051 are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line
by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Fortunately, a very popular standard exists which allows us to communicate with

the vast majority of LCDs regardless of their manufacturer. The standard is referred to
as HD44780U, which refers to the controller chip which receives data from an external
source (in this case, the 8051) and communicates directly with the LCD.

FIG 4.10: LCD

44780 LCD BACKGROUND

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for
the data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus
or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines
(3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will
require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus).

39
The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.

The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you
are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line
is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When
the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum
amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end
by bringing it low (0) again.
The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be
treated as a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.).
When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which should be displayed on the
screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information
on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is
effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a
read command. All others are write commands--so RW will almost always be low
.Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation
selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0,
DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

40
4.11MAX 232

The MAX232 is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial
port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a
dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals.
The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. ± 7.5 V) from a single
+ 5 V supply via on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for
implementing RS-232 in devices that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the
0 V to + 5 V range, as power supply design does not need to be made more
complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case. The receivers reduce RS-232
inputs (which may be as high as ± 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels. These receivers
have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V.
The later MAX232A is backwards compatible with the original MAX232 but may
operate at higher baud rates and can use smaller external capacitors (0.1 μF) in place
of the 1.0 μF capacitors used with the original device. The newer MAX3232 is also
backwards compatible, but operates at a broader voltage range, from 3 to 5.5V.

Voltage levels:
It is helpful to understand what occurs to the voltage levels. When a MAX232 IC
receives a TTL level to convert, it changes a TTL Logic 0 to between +3 and +15V, and
changes TTL Logic 1 to between -3 to -15V, and vice versa for converting from RS232
to TTL.
This can be confusing when you realize that the RS232 Data Transmission
voltages at a certain logic state are opposite from the RS232 Control Line voltages at
the same logic state. To clarify the matter, see the table below. For more information
see RS-232 Voltage Levels.

41
Pin Description:

42
Application:

The MAX232 has two receivers (converts from RS-232 to TTL voltage levels)
and two drivers (converts from TTL logic to RS-232 voltage levels). This means only two
of the RS-232 signals can be converted in each direction.

Typically a pair of a driver/receiver of the MAX232 is used for

 TX and RX
And the second one for
 CTS and RTS.
There are not enough drivers/receivers in the MAX232 to also connect the DTR,
DSR, and DCD signals. Usually these signals can be omitted when e.g. communicating
with a PC's serial interface. If the DTE really requires these signals either a second
MAX232 is needed, or some other IC from the MAX232 family can be used.

DB9 CONNECTOR

The DB9 (originally DE-9) connector is an analog 9-pin plug of the D-Sub miniature
connector family (D-Sub or Sub-D). The DB9 connector is mainly used for serial
connections, allowing for the asynchronous transmission of data as provided for by
standard RS-232 (RS-232C).

Fig 4.10: DB9 CONNECTOR

43
Pins:

This is a common connector used in many computer, audio/video, and data

applications. The official name is D-sub miniature, but many people call it “D-sub” or just
“DB”. The connector gets its name from its trapezoidal shape that resembles the letter
“D”. Most DB connectors have two rows of pins. Common types of D-sub connectors
are DB9 and DB25, used on PCs for serial and parallel ports.
One special type of D-sub connectors is the High-Density DB style, which looks
just like a regular DB connector, only with pins that are slightly smaller and placed
closer together. This is typically referred to as an “HD” connector. HD connectors often
have three rows of pins instead of two. The most common HD connector is the HD15,
which is found on PC video cards and monitors. DB- and HD-connectors use
thumbscrews to secure the connector in place.
Another type of D-sub is the MD, or Micro DB connector. This connector is
slimmer than a standard D-sub, with pins even smaller than the ones used on HD
connectors. The MD is also commonly called a “half-pitch” DB connector. These are
often used in SCSI applications, and the most popular types are the MD50 and MD68
connections. MD-connectors can use latch clips or thumbscrews as anchoring
mechanisms.

D-sub connectors are usually described by the total number of pins that they can
hold. In some cases, a DB25 connector may only have 4 or 5 pins loaded into it;
however, it is still called a “DB25” connector and not a “DB4” or “DB5”. Another example

44
is the HD15 connector used by monitors—most monitor cables only are loaded with 14
pins, but it is still called an HD15 connector.

Interfacing Between Microcontroller and Db9 Connector

4.13

ENERGY METER

An energy or electric meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy
consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically-powered device.

Fig 4.2.10: Energy Meter

Electric meters are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one
being the kilowatt hour. Periodic readings of electric meters establish billing cycles and
energy used during a cycle.
In settings when energy savings during certain periods are desired, meters may
measure demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. In some areas, the

45
electric rates are higher during certain times of day, to encourage reduction in use. Also,
in some areas meters have relays to turn off nonessential equipment.

4.14OPTOISOLATOR

Opto-isolators, or Opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a

light sensitive device, all wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection
between the two, just a beam of light. The light emitter is nearly always an LED. The
light sensitive device may be a photodiode, phototransistor, or more esoteric devices
such as thyristors, triacse.t.c.

A lot of electronic equipment nowadays is using optocoupler in the circuit. An

optocoupler or sometimes refer to as optoisolator allows two circuits to exchange
signals yet remain electrically isolated. This is usually accomplished by using light to
relay the signal. The standard optocoupler circuits design uses a LED shining on a
phototransistor-usually it is anpntransistor and not PNP. The signal is applied to the
LED, which then shines on the transistor in the IC. 
 
The light is proportional to the signal, so the signal is thus transferred to the
phototransistor. Optocouplers may also comes in few module such as the SCR,
photodiodes, TRIAC of other semiconductor switch as an output, and incandescent
lamps, neon bulbs or other light source.
 
The optocoupler usually found in switch mode power supply circuit in much
electronic equipment. It is connected in between the primary and secondary section of
power supplies. The optocoupler application or function in the circuit is to:

1. Monitor high voltage

2. Output voltage sampling for regulation
3. System control micro for power ON/OFF
4. Ground isolation

If the optocoupler IC breakdown, it will cause the equipment to have low power,
blink, no power, erratic power and even power shut down once switch on the
equipment. Many technicians and engineers do not know that they can actually test the
optocoupler with their analog multimeter. Most of them thought that there is no way of
testing an IC with an analog meter.

This is the principle used in Opto−Triacs and opto−SCRs, which are readily available
in Integrated circuit (I.C.) form, and do not need very complex circuitry to make them

46
work. Simply provide a small pulse at the right time to the Light Emitting Diode in the
package. The light produced by the LED activates the light sensitive properties of the
Triac or Thyristor gate and the power is switched on. The isolation between the low
power and high power circuits in these optically connected devices is typically several
thousand volts.

OPTOISOLATOR

A lot of electronic equipment nowadays is using optocoupler in the circuit. An

optocoupler or sometimes refer to as optoisolator allows two circuits to exchange
signals yet remain electrically isolated. This is usually accomplished by using light to
relay the signal. The standard optocoupler circuits design uses a LED shining on a
phototransistor-usually it is anpntransistor and not PNP. The signal is applied to the
LED, which then shines on the transistor in the IC. 
 
MCT 2E (LED AND TRANSISTOR)

47
Collector-emitter voltage
This is the maximum voltage that can be present from the collector to the emitter
of the receiving phototransistor (when it is turned off – no light) before it may break-
down.
Cree page distance
This is physically how far a spark would have to travel around the outside of the
package to get from one side to the other. If the package has contaminants on it, solder
flux, or dampness, then a lower-resistance path can be created for noise signals to
travel along.

Forward current
This is the current passing through the sending LED. Typically, an Opto-isolator
will require about 5mAto turn the output transistor on.

Forward voltage
This is the voltage that is dropped across the LED when it is turned on. Most
normal diodes drop about 0.7v, but with LEDs it is typically 1 – 2 volts.
Collector dark current
This is the current that can flow through the output phototransistor when it is
turned off.

Collector-emitter saturation voltage

When the output transistor is fully turned on (saturated), this is the voltage there
will be between the collector and emitter.

Isolation resistance
This is the resistance from a pin in the input side to a pin on the output side. It
should be very high.

48
Response time
The rise and fall times are the times that the output voltage takes to get from zero
to maximum. The rise time is very much dependant on the load resistor, since it is this
that is pulling the output up. Therefore this value is always quoted with a fixed load
resistance. Note however that the value, 100 Ohms, is much less than you are likely to
use in practice. This is another of the manufacturer’s attempts to make the product look
better than it is!

Cutoff frequency
This is effectively the highest frequency of square wave that can be sent through
the Opto-isolator. It is actually the frequency at which the output voltage is only swinging
half the amplitude than at DC levels (-3Db = half). It is therefore linked with the rise and
fall times.

Current Transfer Ratio (CTR)

This is the ratio of how much collector current in the output transistor that you get
given a certain amount of forward current in the input side LED. It is affected by how
close the LED and phototransistor are inside the device, how efficient they both are, and
many other factors. In fact it is not a constant but varies wildly with LED forward current.

4.15 1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full
wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

49
 The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the
market are as follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007
have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current
capacity of 1 Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this
diode of more capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low
capacity cannot be used in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of
IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place
of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001
to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to
diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are
joined together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our
discussion with the operation of the PN junction. But before we can understand how the
PN junction works, we must first consider current flow in the materials that make up the
junction and what happens initially within the junction when these two materials are
joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

50
 Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a
copper wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move
through the crystal just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-
15. The positive potential of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal.
These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the battery.
As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery
will enter the crystal, thus completing the current path. Therefore, the majority current
carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the negative side of the battery
and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material
is by positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive
terminal of the P material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit
enter the negative terminal of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At
the positive terminal, electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new
holes. This process continues as the steady stream of holes (hole current) moves
toward the negative terminal

4.16 RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current

by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are
extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made
of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-
resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

51
 The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they
can dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is
applied voltage. Critical resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor
as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as
integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment
designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating
their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the
terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that
voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R,
since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as
given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits,
particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of
magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required

52
precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the
chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the
resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are
also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated
power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power
electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and
may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to
the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behaviour to depart from
ohms law; this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for
smaller values of resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise
characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise,
and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in
manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular
family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. [1] A family of discrete
resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device
and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg
Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified
and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ
= 10−3 Ω), kilohms (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and mega ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common
usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in
Siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of
an ohm: S = Ω − 1. Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis,
practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than
conductance.

Theory of operation
Ohm's law
The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
passing through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

53
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in
practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the
terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 mill
amperes) will flow through that resistor.

Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but
the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential
difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total
resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same
resistance R, is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductance of the resistors
then add to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance
(Req) of the network can be computed:

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines
"||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this
can be calculated using:

54
As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same
resistance R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be
broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner,

requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge
of which has been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be
measured between two opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can
be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 5⁄6 of the individual resistance. More
generally, the Y-Δ transform, or methods can be used to solve such a problem. One
practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or
parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than
that of the individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all
connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual
resistors is thereby multiplied by N.

Power dissipation
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network)

is calculated as:
The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms
can be derived.

55
The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from
the integral of the power over that period of time:

Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. The
vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorb much less than a watt of
electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their
discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10,
1/8, or 1/4 watt.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power
supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as
power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1
watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred
values, colour codes, and external packages described below.
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating,
damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct
from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it
warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point
where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There
are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.
Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that
it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board,
ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly.
Rated power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air.
Inside an equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor
dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be
outside the area and may prematurely fail.

4.12 CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a
pair of conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists
between the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores
energy and produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest
between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated conductors.

56
 An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to
the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates
passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an
equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field strength limit
resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency
and quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a
digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important
aspects.
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors
separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for
example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many
other purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is
57
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the
ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large
areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an
early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a
breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance
and resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A

dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler
terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are
glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion chemically identical to
the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net
electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus
hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an

58
electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge
on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device. The capacitor is a
reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is
wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on
each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance
to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors
in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in
the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to
return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and
hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow
of a charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through
the dielectric layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate
for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and
consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the
accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal
to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage as discussed above.
As with any ant derivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the initial
voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field
rather than the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging
current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

59
5. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

60
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO KEIL MICRO VISION (IDE)
Keil an ARM Company makes C compilers, macro assemblers, real-time
kernels, debuggers, simulators, integrated environments, evaluation boards, and
emulators for ARM7/ARM9/Cortex-M3, XC16x/C16x/ST10, 251, and 8051 MCU
families.
Keil development tools for the 8051 Microcontroller Architecture support every
level of software developer from the professional applications engineer to the student
just learning about embedded software development. When starting a new project,
simply select the microcontroller you use from the Device Database and the µVision IDE
sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and memory options for you.
  Keil is a cross compiler. So first we have to understand the concept of compilers
and cross compilers. After then we shall learn how to work with Keil.

5.2 CONCEPT OF COMPILER 

Compilers are programs used to convert a High Level Language to object code.
Desktop compilers produce an output object code for the underlying microprocessor,
but not for other microprocessors. I.E the programs written in one of the HLL like ‘C’ will
compile the code to run on the system for a particular processor like x86 (underlying
microprocessor in the computer). For example compilers for Dos platform is different
from the Compilers for Unix platform  So if one wants to define a compiler then compiler
is a program that translates source code into object code.
The compiler derives its name from the way it works, looking at the entire piece
of source code and collecting and reorganizing the instruction. See there is a bit little
difference between compiler and an interpreter. Interpreter just interprets whole
program at a time while compiler analyses and execute each line of source code in
succession, without looking at the entire program.  
The advantage of interpreters is that they can execute a program immediately.
Secondly programs produced by compilers run much faster than the same programs
executed by an interpreter. However compilers require some time before an executable
program emerges. Now as compilers translate source code into object code, which is
unique for each type of computer, many compilers are available for the same
language.  
5.3 CONCEPT OF CROSS COMPILER
  A cross compiler is similar to the compilers but we write a program for the target
processor (like 8051 and its derivatives) on the host processors (like computer of x86).
It means being in one environment you are writing a code for another environment is

61
called cross development. And the compiler used for cross development is called cross
compiler. So the definition of cross compiler is a compiler that runs on one computer but
produces object code for a different type of computer.

5.4 KEIL C CROSS COMPILER

Keil is a German based Software development company. It provides several
development tools like
•         IDE (Integrated Development environment)
•         Project Manager
•         Simulator
•         Debugger
•         C Cross Compiler, Cross Assembler, Locator/Linker
The Keil ARM tool kit includes three main tools, assembler, compiler and linker.
An assembler is used to assemble the ARM assembly program. A compiler is used to
compile the C source code into an object file. A linker is used to create an absolute
object module suitable for our in-circuit emulator. 
 
5.5 Building an Application in µVision2
To build (compile, assemble, and link) an application in µVision2, you must:
1. Select Project - (forexample, 166\EXAMPLES\HELLO\HELLO.UV2).
2. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.µVision2 compiles,
assembles, and links the files in your project.

5.6 Creating Your Own Application in µVision2

To create a new project in µVision2, you must:
1. Select Project - New Project.
2. Select a directory and enter the name of the project file.
3. Select Project - Select Device and select an 8051, 251, or C16x/ST10 device
from the Device Database™.
4. Create source files to add to the project.
5. Select Project - Targets, Groups, and Files. Add/Files, select Source Group1,
and add the source files to the project.
6. Select Project - Options and set the tool options. Note when you select the target
device from the Device Database™ all special options are set automatically. You
typically only need to configure the memory map of your target hardware. Default
memory model settings are optimal for most applications.
7. Select Project - Rebuild all target files or Build target.

5.7 Debugging an Application in µVision2

To debug an application created using µVision2, you must:

62
 1. Select Debug - Start/Stop Debug Session.
2. Use the Step toolbar buttons to single-step through your program. You may enter
G, main in the Output Window to execute to the main C function.
3. Open the Serial Window using the Serial #1 button on the toolbar.
Debug your program using standard options like Step, Go, Break, and so on.

5.8 Starting µVision2 and Creating a Project

µVision2 is a standard Windows application and started by clicking on the
program icon. To create a new project file select from the µVision2 menu Project – New
Project…. This opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you for the new project file
name. We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project. You can simply use
the icon Create New Folder in this dialog to get a new empty folder. Then select this
folder and enter the file name for the new project, i.e. Project1. µVision2 creates a new
project file with the name PROJECT1.UV2 which contains a default target and file group
name. You can see these names in the Project.

5.9 Window – Files.

Now use from the menu Project – Select Device for Target and select a CPU for
your project. The Select Device dialog box shows the µVision2 device data base. Just
select the microcontroller you use. We are using for our examples the Philips
80C51RD+ CPU. This selection sets necessary tool Options for the 80C51RD+ device
and simplifies in this way the tool Configuration.

5.10 Building Projects and Creating a HEX Files

Typical, the tool settings under Options – Target are all you need to start a new
application. You may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the
Build Target toolbar icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, µVision2 will
display errors and warning messages in the Output Window – Build page. A double click
on a message line opens the source file on the correct location in a µVision2 editor
window. Once you have successfully generated your application you can start
debugging.
After you have tested your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX file to
download the software into an EPROM programmer or simulator. µVision2 creates HEX
files with each build process when Create HEX files under Options for Target – Output
is enabled. You may start your PROM programming utility after the make process when
you specify the program under the option Run User Program #1.

5.11 CPU Simulation

µVision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be mapped
for read, write, or code execution access.

63
The µVision2 simulator traps and reports illegal memory accesses. In addition to
memory mapping, the simulator also provides support for the integrated peripherals of
the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals of the CPU you have selected are
configured from the Device.

5.12 Database selection

You have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more
Information about selecting a device. You may select and display the on-chip peripheral
components using the Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of each
peripheral using the controls in the dialog boxes.

5.13 Start Debugging

You start the debug mode of µVision2 with the Debug – Start/Stop Debug
Session Command. Depending on the Options for Target – Debug Configuration,
µVision2 will load the application program and run the startup code µVision2 saves the
editor screen layout and restores the screen layout of the last debug session. If the
program execution stops, µVision2 opens an editor window with the source text or
shows CPU instructions in the disassembly window. The next executable statement is
marked with a yellow arrow. During debugging, most editor features are still available.
For example, you can use the find command or correct program errors. Program
source text of your application is shown in the same windows. The µVision2 debug
mode differs from the edit mode in the following aspects:
_ The “Debug Menu and Debug Commands” described on page 28 are available. The
additional debug windows are discussed in the following.
_ The project structure or tool parameters cannot be modified. All build commands are
disabled.

5.14 Disassembly Window

The Disassembly window shows your target program as mixed source and
assembly program or just assembly code. A trace history of previously executed
instructions may be displayed with Debug – View Trace Records. To enable the trace
history, set Debug – Enable/Disable Trace Recording.
If you select the Disassembly Window as the active window all program step
commands work on CPU instruction level rather than program source lines. You can
select a text line and set or modify code breakpoints using toolbar buttons or the context
menu commands.

64
 You may use the dialog Debug – Inline Assembly… to modify the CPU
instructions. That allows you to correct mistakes or to make temporary changes to the
target program you are debugging. Numerous example programs are included to help
you get started with the most popular embedded 8051 devices.
The Keil µVision Debugger accurately simulates on-chip peripherals (I²C, CAN,
UART, SPI, Interrupts, I/O Ports, A/D Converter, D/A Converter, and PWM Modules) of
your 8051 device. Simulation helps you understand hardware configurations and avoids
time wasted on setup problems. Additionally, with simulation, you can write and test
applications before target hardware is available.

5.15 EMBEDDED C
Use of embedded processors in passenger cars, mobile phones, medical
equipment, aerospace systems and defense systems is widespread, and even everyday
domestic appliances such as dish washers, televisions, washing machines and video
recorders now include at least one such device.
Because most embedded projects have severe cost constraints, they tend to
use low-cost processors like the 8051 family of devices considered in this book. These
popular chips have very limited resources available most such devices have around 256
bytes (not megabytes!) of RAM, and the available processor power is around 1000
times less than that of a desktop processor. As a result, developing embedded software
presents significant new challenges, even for experienced desktop programmers. If you
have some programming experience - in C, C++ or Java - then this book and its
accompanying CD will help make your move to the embedded world as quick and
painless as possible.

65
6. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

(For schematic diagram refer cd)

6.1 DESCRIPTION

POWER SUPPLY
The circuit uses standard power supply comprising of a step-down transformer
from 230Vto 12V and 4 diodes forming a bridge rectifier that delivers pulsating dc which
is then filtered by an electrolytic capacitor of about 470µF to 1000µF. The filtered dc
being unregulated, IC LM7805 is used to get 5V DC constant at its pin no 3 irrespective
of input DC varying from 7V to 15V. The input dc shall be varying in the event of input
ac at 230volts section varies from 160V to 270V in the ratio of the transformer primary
voltage V1 to secondary voltage V2 governed by the formula V1/V2=N1/N2. As N1/N2
i.e. no. of turns in the primary to the no. of turns in the secondary remains unchanged
V2 is directly proportional to V1.Thus if the transformer delivers 12V at 220V input it will
give 8.72V at 160V.Similarly at 270V it will give 14.72V.Thus the dc voltage at the input
of the regulator changes from about 8V to 15V because of A.C voltage variation from
160V to 270V the regulator output will remain constant at 5V.
The regulated 5V DC is further filtered by a small electrolytic capacitor of 10µF
for any noise so generated by the circuit. One LED is connected of this 5V point in
series with a current limiting resistor of 330Ω to the ground i.e., negative voltage to
indicate 5V power supply availability. The unregulated 12V point is used for other
applications as and when required.

STANDARD CONNECTIONS TO 8051 SERIES MICRO CONTROLLER

ATMEL series of 8051 family of micro controllers need certain standard

connections. The actual number of the Microcontroller could be “89C51” , “89C52”,
“89S51”, “89S52”, and as regards to 20 pin configuration a number of “89C2051”. The 4
set of I/O ports are used based on the project requirement. Every microcontroller
requires a timing reference for its internal program execution therefore an oscillator
needs to be functional with a desired frequency to obtain the timing reference as t =1/f.
A crystal ranging from 2 to 20 MHz is required to be used at its pin number 18
and 19 for the internal oscillator. It may be noted here the crystal is not to be understood

66
as crystal oscillator It is just a crystal, while connected to the appropriate pin of the
microcontroller it results in oscillator function inside the microcontroller. Typically
11.0592 MHz crystal is used in general for most of the circuits using 8051 series
microcontroller. Two small value ceramic capacitors of 33pF each is used as a standard
connection for the crystal as shown in the circuit diagram.

RESET

Pin no 9 is provided with anre-set arrangement by a combination of an

electrolytic capacitor and a register forming RC time constant. At the time of switch on,
the capacitor gets charged, and it behaves as a full short circuit from the positive to the
pin number 9.After the capacitor gets fully charged the current stops flowing and pin
number 9 goes low which is pulled down by a 10k resistor to the ground. This
arrangement of reset at pin 9 going high initially and then to logic 0 i.e., low helps the
program execution to start from the beginning. In absence of this the program execution
could have taken place arbitrarily anywhere from the program cycle. A pushbutton
switch is connected across the capacitor so that at any given time as desired it can be
pressed such that it discharges the capacitor and while released the capacitor starts
charging again and then pin number 9 goes to high and then back to low, to enable the
program execution from the beginning. This operation of high to low of the reset pin
takes place in fraction of a second as decided by the time constant R and C.
For example: A 10µF capacitor and a 10kΩ resistor would render a 100ms time to pin
number 9 from logic high to low, there after the pin number 9 remains low.
External Access(EA):
Pin no 31 of 40 pin 8051 microcontroller termed as EA¯ is required to be connected to
5V for accessing the program form the on-chip program memory. If it is connected to
ground then the controller accesses the program from external memory. However as we
are using the internal memory it is always connected to +5V.

ULN 2003 RELAY DRIVER IC

ULN2003 is an IC which is used to interface relay with the microcontroller since
the output of the micro controller is maximum 5Vwith too little current delivery and is not
practicable to operate a relay with that voltage. ULN2003 is a relay driver IC consisting
of a set of Darlington transistors. If logic high is given to the IC as input then its output
will be logic low but not the vice versa. Here in ULN2003 pin 1 to 7 is IC inputs and 10 to
16 are IC outputs. If logic 1 is given to its pin no 1 the corresponding pin 16 goes low. If
a relay coil is connected from +ve to the output pin of the uln2003,(the relay driver) then
the relay contacts change their position from normally open to close the circuit as shown
below for the load on (say a lamp to start glowing). If logic 0 is given at the input the
relay switches off. Similarly up to seven relays can be used for seven different loads to
67
be switched on by the normally open (NO) contact or switched off by the normally closed
contact (NC)

Load off Load on

OPTO COUPLER:

Opto-isolators, or Opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a

light sensitive device, all wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection
between the two, just a beam of light. The light emitter is nearly always an LED. The
light sensitive device is a phototransistor. When signal is given at pin 1 and 2 is
grounded the transistor inside the opto isolator conducts between 5 and 4 which is used
in the project by interfacing to the microcontroller for change of logic state from the
energy meter unit pulsing led in series with the opto led at pin no 1and 2 for pulse
counting purpose.

68
 MAX232
The MAX232used in the project is an integrated circuit that converts signals from
an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits
like microcontroller. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX,
TX, CTS and RTS signals.

OPERATION

CONNECTIONS:
The output of power supply which is 5v is connected to 40 th pin of microcontroller and Gnd
is connected to 20th pin of microcontroller. Pin 2.0 to pin 2.7 of port 2 of MC is connected to
data pins i.e., D0 to D7 of LCD display. Pins 4, 5, 6 i.e., RS, RW, EN. Of LCD are given to p
0.0 to p 0.2 of port of 0 of MC. Pin 3.0 and pin 3.1 of port 3 of MC are connected to pin 11
and pin 12 of Max232. Pin 3.3 of port 3 of MC is connected to pin 5 of Opto coupler. Pin 1
& 2 of Opto coupler are connected to energy meter. Pin 14 & 13 of Max232 are given to
pins 2 & 3 of DB9 male connector. Pin 2 & pin 5 of DB9 Female Connector are given to
GSM modem. The output of the power supply which is 5v is connected to the 40 th pin of MC
and GND is connected to its 20th pin. Pin 31 of MC is connected to 2nd pin of Max232. Pin
14 of Max232 is connected to pin 3 of DB9 Male connector. Pin 13 of Max232 is connected
to pin 2 of DB9 connector. Pin 11 & 12 of Max232 is connected to port 3.0 and 3.1 of MC.
Port 2.0 to 2.7 of MC are connected to pin D0 – D7 of LCD display. Port 0.0 to 0.2 of MC are
connected to 4, 5, 6 pin’s of LCD display. Port 0.3 to 0.6 of MC are connected to pin’s (1, 2,
3, 4) pin’s of ULN2003A. Pins (1, 2, 3, 4) C of ULN2003A are connected to relay’s.

WORKING:
The project uses a commercial digital energy meter and derives positive pulses
from the same by taking a connection from the pulsing LED. The pulsing LED pulses

69
3200 times for 1 unit of electrical energy i.e., 1 kilo watt hour. As it is not feasible to wait
for consuming 1000 Wt Hr. the program assumes 10 pulses for unit, which is fed to the
microcontroller to send 1 unit consumption through the GSM Modem duly interfaced to
the microcontroller through Max232, Therefore the 1 unit so sent shown have to be read
as 1/3200 unit.
The project uses a GSM modem. Upon a missed a call to the project board GSM
modem, the caller’s number gets stored in the microcontroller for further communication to
that number only. This gives the unique flexibility for changing number by the user at will
without going through the cumbersome process of writing the number while burning the
program on to the microcontroller .Thus in that case only that number is used for
communication and the user has no option to change that . The ‘AT’ commands from which
are received by the micro controller through level shifted IC Max232. The program while
executed drives relays from the microcontroller through relay driver IC ULN2003. Loads are
switched ON and switched OFF based on the corresponding command sent from the GSM
modem. As per the program, an acknowledgement is received by an SMS being sent from
the controller to the user upon the status of the load depending on port 0 logic outputs
responsible for operating the loads. The complete operation is displayed on the LCD
screen.

Operating procedure:
1. The mobile number stored in the microcontroller will get constant
messages regarding the unit consumed and the price.
2. To switch the load on and off, do the following operations from any other
mobile number not from the phone whose number is stored and send the
message to SIM in the modem:
i) Send 1 to switch ON load 1.
ii) Send 2 to switch OFF load 1.
iii) Send 3 to switch ON load 2.
iv) Send 4 to switch OFF load 2.
v) Send 5 to switch ON load 3.
vi) Send 6 to switch OFF load 3.
vii) Send 7 to switch ON load 4.
viii) Send 8 to switch OFF load 4.

4. To get the status of the loads send ‘S’ from any other mobile phone(whose
number is not stored inside the controller) and send it to SIM inside the modem.
Status will be sent to mobile whose number is stored on the controller.

70
71
7.PROJECT LAYOUT

72
8. BILLS OF MATERIAL

{ PLEASE REFER CD}

73
7. CODING

7.1 COMPILER
1. Click on the Keil Vision Icon on Desktop
2. The following fig will appear

74
3. Click on the Project menu from the title bar
4. Then Click on New Project

5. Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own
folder sited in either C:\ or D:\

75
6. Then Click on Save button above.
7. Select the component for u r project. i.e. Atmel……
8. Click on the + Symbol beside of Atmel

9. Select AT89C51 as shown below

76
10. Then Click on “OK”
11. The Following fig will appear

12. Then Click either YES or NO………mostly “NO”.

13. Now your project is ready to USE.
14. Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option “Source group
1” as shown in next page.

77
15. Click on the file option from menu bar and select “new”.

16. The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double
clicking on its blue boarder.

78
17. Now start writing program in either in “EMBEDDED C” or “ASM”.
18. For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension “. asm” and
for “EMBEDDED C” based program save it with extension “ .C”

19. Now right click on Source group 1 and click on “Add files to Group Source”.

79
20. Now you will get another window, on which by default “EMBEDDED C” files
will appear.

21. Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file
22. Click only one time on option “ADD”.
23. Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.

80
24. If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously.
25. The new window is as follows

26. Then Click “OK”.

27. Now click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as
shown in fig below.

81
28. Drag the port a side and click in the program file.

29. Now keep Pressing function key “F11” slowly and observe.
30. You are running your program successfully.

82
8. HARDWARE TESTING

8.1 CONTINUITY TEST:

In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if

current flows (that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by
placing a small voltage (wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such
as a piezoelectric speaker) across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by
broken conductors, damaged components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".
Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multi meters which
measure current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic
devices, generally with a simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two
ends belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance
between the "right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.
83
 This test is the performed just after the hardware soldering and configuration has
been completed. This test aims at finding any electrical open paths in the circuit after
the soldering. Many a times, the electrical continuity in the circuit is lost due to improper
soldering, wrong and rough handling of the PCB, improper usage of the soldering iron,
component failures and presence of bugs in the circuit diagram. We use a multi meter to
perform this test. We keep the multi meter in buzzer mode and connect the ground
terminal of the multi meter to the ground. We connect both the terminals across the path
that needs to be checked. If there is continuation then you will hear the beep sound.

8.2 POWER ON TEST:

This test is performed to check whether the voltage at different terminals is
according to the requirement or not. We take a multi meter and put it in voltage mode.
Remember that this test is performed without microcontroller. Firstly, we check the
output of the transformer, whether we get the required 12 v AC voltage.

Then we apply this voltage to the power supply circuit. Note that we do this test
without microcontroller because if there is any excessive voltage, this may lead to
damaging the controller. We check for the input to the voltage regulator i.e., are we
getting an input of 12v and an output of 5v. This 5v output is given to the
microcontrollers’ 40th pin. Hence we check for the voltage level at 40 th pin. Similarly, we
check for the other terminals for the required voltage. In this way we can assure that the
voltage at all the terminals is as per the requirement.

84
9. RESULTS

85
10. CONCLUSION

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT BOOKS REFERED:

1. “The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded systems” by Muhammad Ali Mazidi and
Janice GillispieMazidi , Pearson Education.

2. ATMEL 89S52 Data Sheets.

WEBSITES

 www.atmel.com

86
 www.beyondlogic.org

 www.wikipedia.org

 www.howstuffworks.com

 www.alldatasheets.com

87