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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER

GENERATION SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

BADISETTI DILEEP KUMAR (21EM5A0201)


GUNDE MAHENDRA (21EM5A0207)
PERUPALEM L.N.MURTHY (21EM5A0214)
SHEIK RAHIM (21EM5A0216)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr. M. RAJA SRINIVAS M.Tech


Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SWARNANDHRA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &


TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E,New Delhi Affiliated to J.N.T. University,Kakinada
Accredited by NAAC with “B” Grade)
Seetharampuram,Narsapur-534 280,W.G.Dist.(A.P)

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY : KAKINADA

2021-2024
SWARNANDHRA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi Affiliated By J.N.T.University,Kakinada.
Accredited By NAAC)
Seetharampuram,Narsapur-534 280,W.G.Dist.(A.P)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to Certify BADISETTI DILEEP KUMAR (21EM5A0201), GUNDE
MAHENDRA (21EM5A0207), PERUPALEM L.N.MURTHY (21EM5A0214),
SHEIK RAHIM (21EM5A0216) That the Main Project Report Entitled has
to be “HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION
SYSTEM” is a Bonafide work of Carried out during the academic year
2023- 2024 in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree “BACHELOR
OF TECHNOLOGY”

Mr.M.Raja Srinivas, M.Tech. Mr.A.Satyanarayana, M.Tech.,Ph.D


Assistant Professor Associate Professor
PROJECT GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER


SWARNANDHRA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Approved By A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi Affiliated By J.N.T.University,Kakinada.
Accredited By NAAC)
Seetharampuram,Narsapur-534 280,W.G.Dist.(A.P)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DECLARATION
This is to Certify that the project work title “HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND
TURBINE POWER GENERATION SYSTEM” being submitted in partial
fulfillment for the award of “BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY” is the
original work carried by us. It has not formed the part of any other project work
submitted for the award of any degree, either in this or any other university.

Name of the Student Reg no. Signature


BADISETTI DILEEP KUMAR (21EM5A0201)
GUNDE MAHENDRA (21EM5A0207)
PERUPALEM L.N.MURTHY (21EM5A0214)
SHEIK RAHIM (21EM5A0216)

I Certify that the declaration made above by the candidates is true

PROJECT GUIDE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We, the members of project express our deep sense of gratitude and profound
thanks to our project guide Mr. M.Raja Srinivas, M.Tech, Assistant Professor.
for her fabulous guidance and incentive. Her prodigious experience and
profound knowledge helped us in the completion of our project.

We express our gratitude to our chairman Mr.K.V Satyanarayana Garu,


Treasurer Mr.K.V Swamy Garu, Director Mr.A Srihari Garu and Principle
Dr.P.Pandarinath M.Tech.,Ph.D for providing necessary facilities to make
this project a success.

As this work takes its present shape,the author’s express their in depth thanks
and gratitude to Mr.A Satyanarayana, M.Tech.,Ph.D Associate Professor
and Head of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department for his
inspiring guidance,sustained encouragement and valuable suggestions
throughout in this course of project work.

With Sincere Regards

BADISETTI DILEEP KUMAR (21EM5A0201)


GUNDE MAHENDRA (21EM5A0207)
PERUPALEM L.N.MURTHY (21EM5A0214)
SHEIK RAHIM (21EM5A0216)
HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

ABSTRACT

The fast depletion of conventional energy resources and the issue of global warming have
encouraged researchers worldwide to come up with the best energy solution. Renewable
energy resources such as wind and solar energy have been widely adopted as an
alternative source of energy. In this work, an integrated solar and wind energy system were
implemented aiming to produce the maximum possible output power from the available
renewable energy resources such as solar irradiance and wind energy. The proposed
system comprised two solar modules and horizontally rotating wind blades. An energy
storage system plus a charge controller were also used aiming to improve the overall
energy conversion efficiency. The results showed that this system demonstrated superior
performance compared with the solar modules and wind system when they had worked
individually. The proposed system was generating an average energy of 61.729 Wh daily.
Therefore, it was estimated that the system can generate an annual output power of about
207.4 kWh. During the conducted experiments, the solar panels worked as the main source
of the generated energy while the wind system acted as a secondary source of energy during
the solar absent times.

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LIST OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. TITLES PAGE NO.
I ABSTRACT i
II LIST OF CONTENTS ii
III LIST OF FIGURES iv

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY 3
1.5 SYSTEM WORKING 6
1.6 DESIGN METHADOLOGY 6
1.7 PROJECT BACKGROUND 7
1.8 SPECIFICATIONS 10
2. HYBRID TOPOLOGY 11
2.1 PREVIOUS WORK 12
2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF VAWTS 13
2.3 WIND TURBINE CLASSIFICATION 15
2.4 VAWT 16
2.5 THE EFFECTS OF SHROUDS ON VERTICAL AXIS 16
2.6 BACKGROUND TO WASP 17
2.7 VOLTAGE SENSOR 19
2.8 TEMPERATURE DETECTION 20
2.9 CALCULATE BATTERY PERCENTAGE 20
2.10 CURRENT CALCULATION 20
3. SOFTWARE TOOLS AND WORKING 23
3.1 SOFTWARE 24
3.2 COMPONENTS USED 25
3.3 POWER SUPPLY 25
3.4 TRANSFORMER 26
3.5 BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER 27

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3.6 THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER 27


3.7 BRIDGE RECTIFIER 28
3.8 CONSTRUCTION 28
3.9 WORKING 29
4. COMPONENTS AND WAVE FORMS 31
4.1 MONOLITHIC IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR 32
4.2 DIODES 32
4.3 VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE 33
4.3.1 Forward Characteristics Of Diode 34
4.3.2 Reverse Characteristics Of Diode 34
4.4 RESISTORS 35
4.5 VOLTAGE REGULATORS (7805) 36
4.6 LM7805 REGULATOR 36
4.7 16X2 LCD DISPLAY 38
4.8 ARDUINO NANO 40
4.9 INVERTER 50
4.12 ALTERNATOR 54
5. RESULTS OF WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY 57
5.1 THEORY 58
5.2 SOLAR PANEL 60
5.3 ANTHONY FERNANDEZ 62
5.4 HOW DO SOLAR PANELS WORK 62
5.5 RESULTS 64
6. CONCLUSION 65
6.1 CONCLUSION 66
6.2 FUTURE SCOPE 67
REFERENCES 68

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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLES PAGE NO.

1.3 Block Diagram 4


1.4 Circuit Diagram 5
1.7 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 8
1.7.1 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine 9
1.7.2 Comparison Of Height With Wind Speed And Power 9
2.2 Correlation Of Height With Wind Speed And Power 14
2.3 Hawt 15
2.3.1 Aerofoil Wing 15
2.4 Vawt 16
2.5 Savanious Vawt 17
2.6.3 Scoop Blades 18
2.7 Voltage Sensor 19
2.7.1 Voltage Driver Network Calculation Circuit Diagram 20
2.10 Current Sensor 21
2.10.1 Working of Current Sensor 21
3.4 Transformer 26
3.5 Primary And Secondary Winding 27
3.8 Bridge Rectifier 28
3.9 Positive Half Cycle Bridge Rectifier 29
3.9.1 Negative Half Cycle Bridge Rectifier 30
3.9.2 Wave Forms 30
4.2 In 4007 Diodes 32
4.2.1 Pn Junction Diodes 33
4.2.2 Diode Symbol 33
4.3 Diode Characteristics 34
4.4 Carbon Film Resistor 35
4.6 Pin Out Diagram Of An Lm7805 Regulator 37

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4.7 16*2 Lcd 38


4.7.1 Lcd 16*2 Pin Diagram 40
4.8 Arduino Nano 41
4.8.1 Arduino Nano Pin Out 41
4.8.2 Memory 48
4.9.3 Square Wave 51
4.9.4 Sine Wave 51
4.10 Waveform Produced By Acigarette Lighter 12v Dc To
120v Ac 60 Hz Inverter 52
4.11 Mosfet With Pwm 53
4.12 Alternator 55
4.12.1 Insie An Alternator 55
5.2.1 From Solar Cell To A Pv Cell 60
5.2.2 Schematic Representation Of A Solar Cell 62
5.5 Prototype Model of the Project 64
5.5.1 Inverter Circuit 64
5.5.2 Controll Unit Circuit 64
5.5.3 Wind Charging Circuit 64
5.5.4 Solar Charging Circuit 64

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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

A windmill uses blades to transform wind energy into rotational energy. The blades of a
windmill are aerodynamically optimized to make the most of the energy in the wind and turn it
into rotational energy making the blades spin around. The windmill is designed with a number of
variations in the blade and the windmill designed for this research work has 4 blades. Through a
gearbox that in turn turns the shafts, these blades are linked to a generator, which transforms
mechanical energy from the blades' spinning into electrical energy. Once the electricity is
produced and is ready to enter the local grid, it may then be used to power devices. For storage of
power, we will require an inverter which stores the electricity converted by the turbine. When
there is insufficient wind required for the windmill, the circuit will be made to switch power
from the inverter to the load, this creates an unlimited amount of sustainable energy. According
to the wind circumstances the blade twists or shreds the wind. It is well known that proper
shaping of the blades of a windmill and the proper alignment of the physical axis of that mill in
fences to a large extent, the efficiency of the said mechanical converter to convert the ’raw’ wind
power to a considerable value of rotational energy ordered by the blades of the mill. About 80%
of the global energy supply depends on fossil fuels including coal, oil and gas. Consider that if
fossil fuel demands increases, side effects toward the globe are bound to escalate. Hence, to
acquire solution to this problem, alternative energy sources are needed to be urgently developed
and introduced to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels. The main problem with renewable energy
system is its incapability to provide continuous power supply to the end user. Nationwide goal is
to improve the usage of renewable energy system; hence the hybrid system is introduced. A Solar
Wind Turbine hybrid system is capable to meet the load demand as for basis for continuous
supply. By implementing Solar PV and Wind Turbine as a single generation system, the power
demand can be supply uninterruptedly. However, the consumption of electrical power form a
hybrid system is often difficult to gauge – consider that there are too many external variables to
take into consideration – potentially resulting fluctuation of power. Conventional battery with
battery charge or discharge rate is restricted because of low power density, hence capable to
supply a steady continuous power, and vice versa. A supercapacitor that functions to accept and
deliver charge much faster than batteries, are well suited to incorporate with hybrid system. Any
power fluctuate will be absorbed and supplied by the supercapacitor, in essence allowing control
of battery output and ensure battery efficiency.

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1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

1) A HYBRID PIEZOELECTRIC-SOLAR BASED POWER GENERATION SYSTEM:

This project implements an efficient way to power generation system, using solar power and
piezoelectric power. Solar energy system is used to collect maximum power from sun. The idea
is to use the solar panels more efficiently and to carry out a realistic experimental approach to
enhance the solar output power to a significant level. Piezoelectric based energy harvesting
technology is applied to generate electricity from mechanical stress (vibrations). Using
piezoelectric material to harvest vibration energy from humans walking, machinery vibrating, or
cars moving on a roadway is an area of great interest, because this vibration energy is otherwise
untapped. Since movement is everywhere, the ability to capture this energy cheaply would be a
significant advancement toward greater efficiency and cleaner energy production. The goal of
this experiment is to investigate whether piezoelectricity would be able to provide sufficient
source of voltage to charge the parent battery in case of rainy or cloudy days. This configuration
allows the two sources to supply the load separately or simultaneously depending on the
availability of the energy sources. This project implements an efficient way to electrify or
generate electricity using solar power and piezoelectric energy harvesting circuit.
2) SOLAR PV-WIND HYBRID POWER GENERATION SYSTEM:

Renewable energy sources i.e., energy generated from solar, wind, biomass, hydro power,
geothermal and ocean resources are considered as a technological option for generating clean
energy. But the energy generated from solar and wind is much less than the production by fossil
fuels, however, electricity generation by utilizing PV cells and wind turbine increased rapidly in
recent years. This project presents the Solar-Wind hybrid Power system that harnesses the
renewable energies in Sun and Wind to generate electricity. System control relies mainly on
micro controller. It ensures the optimum utilization of resources and hence improves the
efficiency as compared with their individual mode of generation. Also it increases the reliability
and reduces the dependence on one single source. This hybrid solar wind power generating
system is suitable for industries and also domestic areas.

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1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 1.3 Block Diagram

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1.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 1.4 Circuit Diagram

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1.5 SYSTEM WORKING

Aim of project is to charge battery with wind turbine and run inverter on it, while doing this we want to
take care of battery and show different information on lcd. Battery must be charge when wind turbine is
generating power and battery needs charging , when wind turbine voltage is greater than battery and
battery id not full charge charging relay 31 Title of the project is kept on. When battery is discharge its
voltage level gets decrease. when battery voltage is less than 9v load (inverter) must be disconnect to
prevent battery from deep discharge . Initially we are showing welcome massages on display. Then
input /output ports are configured. Reading wind turbine voltage and showing on display. Reading battery
voltage and comparing with turbine voltage if it is greater, charging relay is made on. If turbine voltage is
less than battery, charging relay is kept off. Respective massage is shown on LCD. Now we will take
decision of making load relay on or off. If battery voltage is too low it means below 9v for 12 v battery it
means battery is discharge and if it further used it will get flat and while charging it will need more
current for charging due to voltage difference between battery and battery charger voltage.

1.6 DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Ours is an age of electricity. Electricity is replacing other sources of energy like water, oil and
coal, because it is comparably cheap, efficient and useful. Electricity supplies every kind of
energy to man to improve his scientific inventions and increase his social amenities. From house-
lighting to the running of giant factories, it is the invisible current that flows through the thin
copper wire of insignificant dimension. Just switching on of button releases power and man has
not failed to avail himself of both the constructive and destructive potentialities of electrical
energy. Consider the constructive side of electricity. It is a source of light, heat and other
comforts. Houses, streets, parks, pleasure- houses and places are lighted with electricity. Heating
and cooling processes are also carried on by it. Air-conditioning is a feat of modern electrical
engineering. Refrigerators not only condition the temperature but also preserve and facilitate
man’s food supply. Transport of perishable foods, drugs and drinks, in good condition, from one
corner of the globe to another, is made possible by this device. Again, labor in every form in the
house, in the office, and in the factory is simplified by the introduction of electrical devices.
Among domestic services, machinery of every type is worked more cheaply and efficiently by
electricity. And many a labor-saving and time-saving device using electrical energy has been
introduced to minimize drudgery at home and at office Modern communications and transport
are rendered safer speedier and more comfortable by the introduction of the wireless telephone
and the telegraph, the electric train, tram and motor Recent inventions like the gramophone, the
talkie, radio and television are some of the other triumphs that man has achieved by its
application. Electricity has also come to play an important part in the treatment of diseases by
electrotherapy. Wind and solar energy has been used since the earliest civilization to grind grain,
pump water from deep wells, and power sailboats. Windmills in preindustrial Europe were used

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION
for many things, including irrigation or drainage pumping, grain-

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

grinding, sawmilling of timber, and the processing of other commodities such as spices, cocoa,
paints and dyes, and tobacco. Before the U.S. installed an infrastructure of electricity wires, both
waterpumping windmills and small wind electric turbines (“wind chargers”) were vital to
farming and developing the American Great Plains and west. In recent decades, the industry has
been perfecting the wind turbine to convert the power of the wind into electricity. The wind
turbine has many advantages that make it an attractive energy source, especially in parts of the
world where the transmission infrastructure is not fully developed. It is modular and can be
installed relatively quickly, so it is easy to match electricity supply and demand. The fuel – the
wind – is free and plentiful, which eliminates or reduces the need to purchase, ship, and store
expensive fuels. It is flexible – with the power generated, households use can use appliances,
such as lighting and refrigeration, schools can use computers and televisions, and industries can
access a reliable power source. Perhaps most importantly, the generator does not produce any
harmful emissions in the process of generating the electricity, unlike many other generation
sources. Renewable energy sources such as solar energy and wind energy have been deemed
clean, inexhaustible, unlimited, and environmental friendly. Such characteristics have attracted
the energy sector to use renewable energy sources on a larger scale. However, all renewable
energy sources have drawbacks. The one that is common to wind and solar sources is their
dependence on unpredictable factors such as weather and climatic conditions. Fortunately, due to
both sources’ complementary nature, some of these problems can be addressed by overcoming
the weaknesses of one with the strengths of the other. This brings us to the hybrid solar-wind power plant
concept.

1.7 PROJECT BACKGROUND

Energy is the main economy base of any country. Sources of energy are not easy to have. Having
multiple sources of energy is extremely important to secure the basic living requirement of any
country. Utilizing the nature could help in converting some of the natural phenomena such as
sun, wind, sea and oil into useful energy. This kind of energy called renewable energy. Science
Daily Research Newspaper has defined renewable energy as a form of energy resource that is
replaced rapidly by a natural process such as power generated from the sun or from the wind.
Recently, the increasing demand of renewable energy is very well noticed. According to a report
by the International Energy Agency, the increase of amount of electricity produced from
renewable sources increased from just over 13% in 2012 to 22% the following year. They also
predict that that figure should hit 26% by 2020. The traditional power plants in Kenya are mainly
working on the fuel either gas or oil which are not environmental friendly. EcoSpark
environmental charity has considered oil power plants as one of the most contributors of
environment pollution. EcoSpark environmental charity has listed the below most significant
environmental impacts:

• Oil causes air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION
• Oil uses large amounts of water, and creates water pollution and thermal discharge.

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

• Oil creates hazardous sludge and solid waste.

• Extracting and refining oil is environmentally destructive.

• Transporting oil is risky and can harm the environment.

• Oil is a non-renewable electricity source.

Such of the above environment affects lead us to think seriously about the renewable energy
sources, which will eliminate the environment hazard and improve health and life style. 3 Wind
energy is one of the most important energy sources. The concept of wind energy is transforming
the wind’s kinetic energy into mechanical energy. This energy drive blades that turn generators
that produce electricity. Our project is fitting with wind energy source. The idea of this project is
to convert the wind by using Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) into power. They are two
types of wind turbines, Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT) as shown in figure 2.1 that is
more commonly used across the world and they are used as a power plants. These kind of
turbines are the most efficient of wind turbine. However, the blade span of horizontal wind
turbines is larger than vertical axis machines which limits placement confined spaces. Some
people also find the large blade area of horizontal axis machines objectionable.

Figure 1.7 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

The other type of wind turbine is the Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) as shown in figure
2.2. VAWT is the most popular of the turbines that people are using to make their home a source
of renewable energy.

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

Figure 1.7.1 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

VAWT is not as commonly used as the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. The reason behind that is
that VAWT is less efficient than HAWT when considered as a power plant generator. However,
for the small scales like homes, parks, or offices VAWT is more efficient. Vertical axis turbines
are powered by wind coming from all 360 degrees, and even some turbines are powered when
the wind blows from top to bottom. Because of this versatility, vertical axis wind turbines are
thought to be ideal for installations where wind conditions are not consistent, or due to public
ordinances the turbine cannot be placed high enough to benefit from steady wind. Figure 3 shows
the configuration of HAWT vs VAWT.

Figure 1.7.2 Comparison of HAWT and VAWT

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

1.8 Specifications:

SI. COMPONENTS COMPONENTS

NO SPECIFICATION
1. RechargeableBattery 12 Volt, 7.2 Ah
2. Relay 12 Volt DC

3. Diode Simple P-N junction


diode
4. Zener Diode 11Volt , 0.5 Watt

5. L.E. D 3-3.2 Volt forward


voltage drop
6. Transistor Silicon based BJT
(forward biased voltage
drop Vce=0.3 v)
7. Transformer 230v to 16-0-16v

8. MOSFET Drain current of 49A


and Rds. value of 17.5

9. Bulb 230 Volt , 5 Watt
230 Volt, 20 Watt
10. Resistor 10kΩ,100kΩ

11. Dc Generator 12 volts

12. 16*2 LCD Display Operating voltage:4.7V to


5.3V,1mA
13. Voltage regulator 7805 I/P voltage up to+40V &O/P
voltage 5V,max current 5A
14. Capacitor 100μF,25V&1000μF,25V&
220μF,63V&680 μF,50V&
4.7 μF,50V
15. NPN Transistor Emitter Base Voltage- 6V,Base
Current- 5mA max

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

CHAPTER-2
HYBRID TOPOLOGY

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HYBRID SOLAR AND WIND TURBINE POWER GENERATION

CHAPTER-2
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
2.1 PREVIOUS WORK

There are two different styles of vertical wind turbines. One is the Savonius model, which is our
project is based on, and the other type is the Darrieus model. The first model looks like a gallon
drum that is been cut in half with the halves placed onto a rotating shaft. The second model is
smaller and looks much like an egg beater. Most of the wind turbines being used today are the
Savonius models. Renewable Energy UK website provided some information about these two
model. “A Savonius is a type of vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) generator invented in 1922
by Sigurd Johannes Savonius from Finland though similar wind turbine designs had been
attempted in previous centuries." “A Darrieus is a type of vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
generator. Unlike the Savonius wind turbine, the Darrieus is a lift-type VAWT. Rather than
collecting the wind in cups dragging the turbine around, a Darrieus uses lift forces generated by
the wind hitting aerofoils to create rotation.” In Jun 2.15, International Research Journal of
Engineering and Technology (IRJET) has Published a research titled “DESIGN, ANALYSIS
AND FABRICATION OF SAVONIUS VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINE” This research
discussion was to showcase the efficiency of Savonius model in varying wind conditions as
compared to the traditional horizontal axis wind turbine. It evaluated some observation that
showed that at low angles of attack the lift force also contributes to the overall torque generation.
Thus, it can be concluded that the Savonius rotor is not a solely drag-driven machine but a
combination of a drag- driven and lift-driven device. Therefore, it can go beyond the limit of
Maximum power coefficient Cp established for the purely dragdriven machines. Some of this
researched conclusions are that the vertical axis wind turbine is a small power generating unit
with the help of free source of wind energy. It is designed under consideration of household use.
Generally, At least 10% power of the consumption can be fulfil by the Savonius model. The
research has also resulted that this turbine is generally suitable for 8 to 10m of height above
ground level. Because at ground level velocity of air is very less. And finally the alternate option
for turbine blade material is reinforced glass fiber because of its more elastic nature but it is
costlier than aluminum alloy. To have the best efficiency of the power output from our turbine,
we have done some brainstorming in what are the most significant factor that affect the turbine,
the blade angle was agreed to be the most significant one. 6 By doing some researches, we found
an article that focusing in the turbine blade angle. A research article published by Advances in
Mechanical Engineering (AIME) with a title of “EFFECT OF THE BLADE ARC ANGLE ON
THE PERFORMANCE OF A SEVONIUS WIND TURBINE”.

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2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF VAWTS

a) Savonius Wind Turbines: The Resistance Runner Savonius wind turbines have blades built
around the vertical shaft in a helix form, which basically looks like DNA or fusilli pasta. Wide,
solid wind-receiving area of the blades is one of the most significant features of a Savonius wind
turbine. When in operation, Savonius wind turbines rely on the flow resistance mechanism to
turn their rotors. In simple words, the dynamic pressure of the wind against the blades pushes the
rotor into rotation. At the same time, the opposite side of the blades encounters a force of
aerodynamic resistance or “drag.” This is just like what we experience when cycling or running:
There’s always the air flow coming against us. Because of this, Savonius wind turbines can only
turn as fast as the wind speed.

b) Darrieus: The Uplift Runner Often called the “egg-beater” and named after the French
inventor Georges Darrieus, classic Darrieus turbines have long, curved wings with each end
attached to the top and bottom of the rotor shaft. Another model of the Darrieus turbines has
three straight wings connected to the shaft parallelly, forming the “H” shape. In terms of
operation, Darrieus utilizes the “lift” aerodynamic force to rotate. By flowing around the
structure, the wind creates a suction on the front side of the turbine, driving the wings to rotate.
Because of the shape of the wings, they do not experience as much drag as Savonius turbines do.
Once the rotation starts, Darrieus wind turbines are able to accelerate to rotate faster than the
wind speed.

i) WIND ENERGY

Wind is generated from solar energy unevenly heating the earth. This uneven heating creates
pressure changes in the atmosphere, generating wind. This wind can then be harnessed by a wind
turbine. As the wind pushes the blades of a turbine, a generator attached to the axis of the shaft
and when spun creates electricity that can be sent to the grid and used in households for
electricity. (windies.gov, 2012) Wind turbines are a clean way to generate power, yet there are
many significant problems with them as well. One problem is that they are extremely expensive
to design and install, and in order to generate enough energy for communities and cities require
space for wind farms. Another issue is that they have to be created in locations where there is
enough wind energy to generate enough electricity to justify the cost of the machine.

ii) POWER DENSITY

Geography can greatly effect wind speed, and in effect the power from the wind. Knowing this
information prior to setting up a wind turbine is imperative. Calculating the average power from
wind is a simple equation: P= 1 2 𝜌𝑣 3𝐴…………………………………………….......................
(!) Equation 1 indicates the importance of wind speed in power generation because power
generation increases proportionally as wind increases to the third power. Knowing the power
density will allow wind turbines to be placed in efficient locations for generating electricity. 𝑉(𝑧)
= 𝑉(𝑍𝑟𝑒𝑓) [ 𝑧 𝑍𝑟𝑒𝑓 ] 𝛼 …………………..………………………….... (2)

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iii) WIND SPEED

Another important factor is the height of the turbine rotor. One of the major reasons wind turbine
costs are so high is because the higher altitude the turbine is located, the higher the velocity of
the wind, which in turn increases the power output from the generator. Equation 2 is the power
model which estimates the effect that height has on wind. 8 V(zref) is the reference point that can
be looked up in a chart, z is the height above the ground, and alpha is the power law exponent in
which is affected by the surface geometry of the land and needs to be researched. Figure 4
contains equation 2 against height to show how wind velocities exponentially affect power
output.

Figure 2.2 Correlation of height with wind speed and power

As figure indicates, below 30m in the air the wind velocity increases at a faster rate than the
corresponding power density. However, once an altitude of 30m is reached, the power density
increases at a faster rate than wind velocities increases. This demonstrates that the higher a wind
turbine is, the more energy can be obtained from the turbine.

Power Coefficient The power coefficient is the percentage of power received by the wind turbine
through the swept area of the turbine blades. Equation depicts how to calculate the coefficient of
power. 𝐶𝑝 = 4 𝑉𝑡 2 𝑉𝑈 2 [1 − 𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑢 ]....................(3) In equation 3, Vu is the velocity of the
wind
as it approaches the wind turbine and Vt is the velocity of the wind as it passes through the swept
area of the wind turbine blades. The maximum theoretically possible coefficient of power is
called the Betz limit which is 0 593. Most current turbines today have a power coefficient
between 0.3
and 0.4. α = πR Vu….................(4) Tip Speed Ratio Equation 4 defines the tip speed ratio is the

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ratio of the tip speed of the blade divided by the wind speed. The equation for tip speed ratio is
described below: In equation 4, ƛ is the tip speed ratio, Omega is the rotor rotational speed in
radians per second, R is the rotor radius in meters and Vu is the wind speed.

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2.3 WIND TURBINE CLASSIFICATION

The two major classifications of wind turbines are horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines,
(HAWT and VAWT). The horizontal axis wind turbines are the most common and have blades
rotate on an axis parallel to the ground.

Figure 2.3. HAWT

Figure shows a typical Horizontal axis wind turbines. The horizontal axis axil is attached by
bearings at the top of the tower were the blades are also attached to the axel. The axil is enclosed
in a nacelle. The nacelle is where the gearbox and generator are located. Horizontal axis wind
turbines utilize airfoil design to generate the spinning of the blades. The concept of the wind foil
of a HAWT blade is that the wind travels over the top of the blade rather than under it, creating
less pressure on top of the blade generating lift and creating rotational movement. Figure 6
depicts this information.

Figure 2.3.1. Aerofoil wing

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2.4 VAWT

The other major classification for wind turbines are vertical axis wind turbines. These turbines
spin on a vertical axis. Figure 2.8 is an example of a Darrieus vertical axis wind turbine. This
turbine is an example of a commercially used vertical axis turbine. One of the major problems
with vertical axis wind turbines is that an initial force is required to start the turbine’s spinning.
Another issue is that they are difficult to be designed for high altitudes. The blades on a vertical
axis wind turbine can utilize an airfoil design like the VAWT; however a VAWT can also use
blades that directly face the wind, as shown in figure .

Figure 2.4. VAWT

2.5 THE EFFECTS OF SHROUDS ON VERTICAL AXIS

Turbines (VAWT) Research confirms that a three bladed turbine design with air foil blades
outperform and is more efficient at lower speeds then the equivalent flat blade design.

SAVONIUS VAWT The design utilizes an open overlapping two half cup designs that is very
beneficial to wind turbine design. Some of the most appealing benefits of the Savonius design
are it simple and cheap to construct, it has low noise and angular velocity when in use, and it can
accept wind from any direction and can withstand extreme weather conditions without
significant Damage. In addition there are multiple variations to the design that change the
performance of the turbine depending on blade configuration.

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Figure 2.5. savanious VAWT

2.6 BACKGROUND TO WASP

WASP is a PC-program for the vertical and horizontal calculation of wind climate statistics. It
contains different models to describe the wind flow over different areas and terrains. This
program is mainly for predicting wind climates, wind resources, and power productions from
wind turbines and wind farms. The predictions are based on wind data measured at
meteorological stations in the same region. The program includes a complex terrain flow model,
a roughness change model, a model for sheltering obstacles, and a wake model.

2.6.1 MOUNTING SYSTEM

The most common method for a mounting structure for wind turbines is a monopole design. This consists
of some sort of base, usually concrete, with a steel structured pole that extends to the owners desired
height. As the progression of turbines has grown there has been desire for roof mounted systems. These
roof mounted systems have not had the amount of research as the traditional monopole design. As the
growth of roof mounted turbines rises there is an urge to design out the flaws that has been shadowing
previous roof mounted systems.

2.6.2 NOISE AND VIBRATIONS

Wind turbines can create a constant humming noise that is considered an annoyance as well as
produce vibrations that over time can ruin the integrity of a roof. This has hindered the popularity
of consumers wanting to have wind turbines mounted to their roof. As a wind turbine is spinning
and producing electricity it creates a constant vibration. This constant vibration can damage the
shingles around the base as well as damage the trusses around the area where they are mounted.

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These vibrations are very difficult to prevent, so it is important to have a mounting system that
will disperse the vibrations before reaching the actual structure of the house. This will dissuade a
consumer away from having a wind turbine mounted on the roof.

Another issue that dissuades a consumer from using wind turbines is the constant humming noise
produced when a turbine is generating electricity. A VAWT as opposed to a horizontal axis
turbine does not produce as much noise as the traditional turbines due to design differences of
the turbines as well as the path of motion of the blade. Another reason that VAWT are more for
residential areas is their ability to operate at peak efficiency with turbulence that is produced by
roof contours. When wind is traveling over roof peaks and different slopes of roofs they produce
a turbulent wind pattern that actually disrupts horizontal axis turbines from producing electricity.
This turbulent wind pattern caused by roof peaks does not disrupt the functioning of VAWTs, as
well as produce as loud of noise compared to HAWT systems.

2.6.3 FABRICATION OF TURBINE BLADE

Savonius blades are a crucial and basic part of a wind turbine. They are mainly made of
aluminum, fiber glass or carbon fiber. Strong Plastic pipe was selected because they provide
batter strength to weight ratio. The design of the individual blades also affects the overall design
of the rotor. Rotor blades take the energy out of the wind; they capture the wind and convert its
kinetic energy into rotation of the hub. We used a one meter pipe. We cut it into two halves. We
then made two holes in which cables will pass through and fix them into position.

Figure 2.6.3. Scoop blades

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2.7 VOLTAGE SENSOR

Figure 2.7.VOLTAGE SENSOR

Voltage Sensor A voltage sensor is a sensor used to calculate and monitor the amount of voltage
in an object. Voltage sensors can determine the AC voltage or DC voltage level. The input of this
sensor is the voltage, whereas the output is the switches, analog voltage signal, a current signal or
an audible signal. The input voltage range is 0V-25V whereas the voltage detection range is
0.02445V to 25V.

A) VOLTAGE DETECTION

The cut-off voltage of the battery is 2.8V, while the battery's maximum voltage is 25V. The
Arduino Nano Analogue Pin will successfully support any voltage below 3.3V. We must first
descend from the higher voltage level. Two resistors are present, and the supply voltage is 4.2V.
A result of 2.1V will occur from this. The base value is 2.8V in essence, and the cut-off voltage
drops down to 1.4V using the same voltage divider organisation. As a result, the Arduino Nano
Analogue Pin maintains both the higher and lower voltage. If the voltage rises beyond 4.2V, the
automated supply of power will be cut off.

B) VOLTAGE DIVIDER NETWORK CALCULATIONS

The cut-off voltage of the battery is 2.8V, while the battery's maximum voltage is 25V. The
Arduino Analogue Pin can readily accommodate any voltage lower than 3.3V. We must first
descend to the higher voltage level.

Two 100K resistors are present, and the supply voltage is 4.2V. A result of 2.1V will occur from
this. The base voltage is also 2.8V, and the cut-off voltage drops down to 1.4V using the same

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voltage divider structure. Consequently, the Arduino Analogue Pin maintains both the upper and
lower voltage.

Figure 2.7.1 Voltage Driver Network Calculation circuit diagram


2.8 TEMPERATURE DETECTION

We will plan a framework to screen NTC 103 temperature, battery voltage, alongside charging
and releasing status. For the microcontroller, we use Arduino and NodeMCU, which has an
ESP8266 Wi-Fi-empowered chip. You can likewise utilize a more modest board like the Wemos
D1 Mini. This Wi-Fi chip can associate with the Wi-Fi organization and routinely transfer the
information to the server. The Out pin of the NTC 103 sensor is associated with the digital pin of
the Arduino. SCL and SDA pins are associated with D1 and D2 pins. Though VCC and GND of
DHT11

2.9 CALCULATE BATTERY PERCENTAGE

We show the battery percentage on the Blynk template dashboard and show it on the mobile
screen. Battery percentage showing in between 1 to 100.special feature is Blynk IoT user can
access the data directly anywhere in the world. The mechanized Battery Monitoring System
vehicle with different control components can be worked by making associations. For the
microcontroller, we utilize the Arduino and NodeMCU, which has an ESP8266 WIFI-
empowered chip. You can likewise utilize more modest sheets like the Wemos D1 Mini. This
Wi-Fi chip can interface with a Wi-Fi organization and transfer information to the server
routinely.

2.10 CURRENT CALCULATION

The Hall sensor is used to measure the current flow in the circuit. The Allegro™ ACS712 is a
Hall sensor imparting in your price range and unique answer in industries, business and verbal

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exchange structures. The hall sensor is utilised to gauge current flow in the cable. The hall sensor
can gauge

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the current by applying a rigid resistance to the wire. In order to pass past the corridor sensor, a
portion of the wire from the transistor that is heading to the appliance is cut down. Three pins
make up the corridor sensor: a voltage pin, a ground pin, and an output pin. The output pin is
connected to the analogue pin within the Arduino, and the voltage pin is connected to the 5-volt
supply from the Arduino. The floor pin is connected to the ground. The Arduino pin analog is
connected to the analogue pin A2 of the hall sensor, which measures the current in the fan, and
the analogue pin A2 of the light sensor, which measures the current in the light.

A) CURRENT SENSOR

Figure 2.10 CURRENT SENSOR

The 5A range Current Sensor Module ACS712 consists of an explicit, low-offset, linear Hall
circuit with a copper conduction path placed near the surface of the die This ACS721 current
module is based on the ACS712 sensor, that can accurately detect AC or DC current. The
maximum AC or DC which can be detected can reach 5A, and the present current signal can be
read via analog I/O port of Arduino.

B) WORKING OF CURRENT SENSOR

Figure 2.10.1 Working of Current Sensor

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The working principle of capacitive sensors involves the formation of an electric field between
two conductive plates. When an object, typically a dielectric material, comes close to the plates,
it affects the electric field and causes a change in capacitance. This change is detected by the
sensor's circuitry, which then generates an output signal proportional to the change in
capacitance.

There are two main types of capacitive sensors: parallel plate and interdigital. Parallel plate
capacitive sensors consist of two flat, parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric
material, while interdigital capacitive sensors have interlocking conductive fingers. The choice
between these two types depends on the specific application and desired sensitivity.

The working principle of piezoelectric sensors is based on the piezoelectric effect, which occurs
in specific materials, such as quartz, certain ceramics, and some polymers. When these materials
experience mechanical stress, they generate an electric charge proportional to the applied force.
This charge can be measured and converted into an output signal, which is then used to
determine the magnitude of the force.

Piezoelectric sensors typically consist of a piezoelectric material sandwiched between two


electrodes. When the material is subjected to mechanical stress, it generates a voltage across the
electrodes, which can be measured and processed by the sensor's circuitry. The output signal is
often proportional to the rate of change of the applied force, making piezoelectric sensors well-
suited for dynamic measurements.

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CHAPTER-3
SOFTWARE TOOLS AND WORKING

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CHAPTER-3
SOFTWARE TOOLS AND WORKING
3.1 SOFTWARE

For the software we use the Blynk IoT Platform. In this platform first you need create account,
after creating account define the parameters what you want. In this module we designed for
measure the temperature, voltage, current and presence of gases.

3.1.1 CONFIGURING THE BLYNK IoT DASHBOARD

Setting up the Blynk IoT Cloud dashboard is required before you can monitor sensor and battery
data on the Blynk IoT Server. Please go to https://blynk.cloud/ to configure the Blynk Server.
Create a new account or sign in if one already exists.

A) MAKING THE BLYNK TEMPLATE

A template is a task that allows us to build a web and mobile dashboard for certain hardware. It
is an IoT smart device in our scenario. You need to select the New Template in order to start a
project.

 Enter a template name. I am Giving it “Smart IoT”.


 Select the hardware board (ESP8266).
 The connection type will be Wi-Fi.
 You can add a description of your project. If required
 Select "Done."
 The template has now been made.

You may then select a category based on your project after that. Don't worry if your category
isn't on the list; you may select another. A temperature sensor is what I'm choosing.

b) Making Events for Notification Alerts on Blynk

Systems for notifying and alerting users use events. I'm making events now to track Battery
Percentage. A notice is delivered to your mobile phone and an event is triggered if the battery
percentage falls below the threshold level.

 Press the add event button.


 Enter the event Name. For me, it’s “Battery Low “
 Choose your event color. I am selecting Red.

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 Select the type of event. I am choosing Critical.

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 Enter the description of your event.


 Now go to the notification tab then enable notification.
 Then select push notification to device owner every 1 minute.
 Click on save

3.2 COMPONENTS USED

1.Arduino Nano

2.esp8266(NodeMCU)

3.Relay(5v)

4.Voltage Sensor (0-25vdc)

5.Current Sensor(30amp) (ACS712)

7.Temperature Sensor (NTC 103)

8.Transformer

9.Bridge Rectifier

10.Dc Motor

11. 1.5ohm 10w Resistor

3.3 POWER SUPPLY

A power supply (sometimes known as a power supply unit or PSU) is a device or system that
supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads. The term is most
commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to
others.

All digital circuits work only with low DC voltage. A power supply unit is required to provide
the appropriate voltage supply. This unit consists of transformer, rectifier, filter and a regulator.
AC voltage typically of 230Vrms is connected to a transformer which steps that AC voltage
down to the desired AC voltage level. A diode rectifier then provides a full wave rectified
voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage. This
resulting DC voltage usually has some ripple or AC voltage variations. Regulator circuit can use
this DC input to provide DC voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains
in the same DC value, even when the DC voltage varies, or the load connected to the output DC
voltage changes. The required DC supply is obtained from the available AC supply after
rectification, filtration and regulation.

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The main components used in the power supply unit are Transformer, Rectifier, Filter and
Regulator. The 230V AC supply is converted into 12V AC supply through the transformer. The

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output of the transformer has the same frequency as in the input AC power. This AC power is
converted into DC power through diodes. Here the bridge diode is used to convert AC supply to
the DC power supply. This converted DC power supply has the ripple content and for normal
operation of the circuit, the ripple content of the DC power supply should be as low as possible.
Because the ripple content of the power supply will reduce the life of the circuit. So, to reduce
the ripple content of the DC power supply, the large value of capacitance filter is used.

This filtered output will not be the regulated voltage. For this purpose, IC7805 regulator IC is
used in the circuit.

3.4 TRANSFORMER:

Transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors — the transformer's coils or "windings". Except for air-core
transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around
separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding
creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying magnetic
field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This
effect is called mutual induction.

Figure 3.4. Transformer

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary winding
of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load connected in the
secondary circuit.

The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a
factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:

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By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage
To be stepped up — by making

NS more than NP — or stepped down, by making it

3.5 BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:


1. A primary coil or winding.

2. A secondary coil or winding.

3. A core that supports the coils or windings.

Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The primary
winding is connected to a 60-hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up
(expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting
magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an
alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating current to flow stepped up or
down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.

Figure 3.5. Primary and Secondary Windings

3.6 THE COMPONENTS OF A TRANSFORMER


Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some cases the
coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In effect, the core
material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE TRANSFORMER. Transformers used
at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz, require a core of low-reluctance magnetic
material, usually iron. This type of transformer is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER.
Most power transformers are of the iron-core type. The principle parts of a transformer and their
functions are:

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 The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.
 The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.
 The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding and
delivers it to the load.
 The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture, and
mechanical damage.
3.7 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Many electronic circuits require a rectified DC power supply to power various electronic basic
components from the available AC mains supply. Rectifiers are used to convert an AC power to
a DC power. Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the most efficient rectifier circuit.

We can define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a
bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC)
current. In the next few sections, let us learn more about its construction, working, and more.

3.8 CONSTRUCTION

The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier circuit is
made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in a
closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current
(DC). The main advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tapped
transformer.

Figure 3.8. Bridge Rectifier

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The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained across
the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a
way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D 1 and D3 are pairs that
conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D 2 and D4 conduct
electric current during a negative half cycle.

3.9 WORKING

When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive during the
positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1 and D3
becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.

a) The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:

Figure 3.9. Positive half cycle Bridge Rectifier

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes negative.
This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and D3 to be reverse
biased.

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b) The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:

Figure 3.9.1. Negative half cycle Bridge Rectifier


From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor R L is the same
during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either
completely positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is
reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.

Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half cycles of
the input AC signal.

The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

Figure 3.9.2. wave forms

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CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

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CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

4.1 MONOLITHIC IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

A voltage regulator is a circuit that supplies a constant voltage regardless of changes in load
currents. Although voltage regulators can be designed using op-amps, it is quicker and easier to
use IC voltage regulators. Furthermore, IC voltage regulators are versatile and relatively
inexpensive an o/p after comparing. By using this kind of system, we can avoid human
negligence and prevent failures. Maintenance cost also reduces. Available with features such as
programmable output, current/voltage boosting, internal short-circuit current limiting, thermal
shutdown and floating operation for high voltage applications Here we are using 7800 series
voltage regulators. the 7800 series consists of 3-terminal +ve voltage regulators with seven
voltage options. These ICs are designed as fixed voltage regulators and with adequate heat
sinking can deliver output currents in excess of 1A. Although these devices do not require
external components, such components can be used to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
For proper operation a common ground between input and output voltages is required. In
addition, the difference between input and output voltages (Vi – Vo) called drop out voltage,
must be typically 1.5V even during the low point as the input ripple voltage. Furthermore, the
capacitor Ci is required if the regulator is located an appreciable distance from a power supply
filter. Even though Co is not needed, it may be used to improve the transient response of the
regulator. Typical performance parameters for voltage regulators are line regulation, load
regulation, temperature stability and ripple rejection. Line regulation is defined as the change in
output voltage for a change in the input voltage and is usually expressed in milli volts or as a
percentage of Vo. Temperature stability or average temperature coefficient of output voltage
(TCVo) is the change in output voltage per unit change in temperature and is expressed in either
milli volts/ºC or parts per million (PPM/ºC). ripple rejection is the measure of a regulator’s
ability to reject ripple voltage. It is usually expressed in decibels. The smaller the values of line
regulation, load regulation and temperature stability the better the regulation.

4.2 DIODES

Figure 4.2. 1N4007 Diodes

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In electronics a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance. It


has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one

direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance(tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and
to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes
them useful in certain types of circuits.

The diode consists of a die, a package and two electrodes. The die is a PN junction. A lead is
drawn at each end of the PN junction, and a plastic diode, glass or metal material is used as the
package to form a crystal diode, as shown in the following figure. The electrode drawn in the P
region is referred to as a positive electrode or an anode, and the electrode extracted in the N
region is referred to as a negative electrode or a cathode.

Figure 4.2.1 PN Junction Diode Figure 4.2.2 Diode symbol

4.3 VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE:

The volt-ampere characteristic of a diode is the relationship between the voltage applied across
the diode and the current flowing through the diode. The curve used to qualitatively describe the
relationship between the two is called the volt-ampere characteristic curve. The volt-ampere
characteristics of the silicon diode observed by the transistor plotter are shown in the figure
below.

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Figure 4.3. Diode Characteristics

4.3.1 FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE

1) When the applied forward voltage is small, the diode exhibits a large resistance, the forward
current is almost zero, and the curve OA segment is called a non-conducting region or a dead
region. Generally, the dead zone voltage of the silicon tube is about 0.5 volt, and the dead zone
voltage of germanium is about 0.2 volt. This voltage value is also called the threshold voltage or
the threshold voltage.

2) When the applied forward voltage exceeds the deadband voltage, the electric field in the PN
junction is almost cancelled, the resistance of the diode is small, the forward current begins to
increase, and enters the forward conduction region, but the voltage is not proportional to the
current, for example, AB. segment. The forward current increases rapidly with the increase of the
applied voltage. For example, the characteristic curve of the BC section is steep, and the volt-
ampere relationship is approximately linear, and is in a fully conducting state.

3) The forward voltage at both ends after the diode is turned on is called the forward voltage
drop (or tube voltage drop) and is almost constant. The tube pressure drop of the silicon tube is
about 0.7V, and the tube pressure drop of the germanium tube is about 0.3V.

4.3.2 REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE

1) When the diode is subjected to a reverse voltage, the internal electric field of the PN junction
is strengthened, and the diode exhibits a large resistance, and there is only a small reverse
current. In practical applications, the smaller the reverse current, the larger the reverse resistance
of the diode and the better the reverse cutoff performance. Generally, the reverse saturation

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current of a silicon

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diode is below several tens of microamps, the germanium diode is several hundred
microamperes, and the high power diode is slightly larger.

2) When the reverse voltage increases to a certain value, the reverse current sharply increases
and enters the reverse breakdown region, and its corresponding voltage is called the reverse
breakdown voltage. If the current is too large after the diode is broken down, the tube will be
damaged. Therefore, the reverse voltage of the diode must not exceed the breakdown voltage
except for the Zener diode.

4.4 RESISTORS

Figure 4.4. Carbon Film Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as


a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by magnitude. When specifying that
resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to
the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The
temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heatsinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a
given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to
incinerate when current is run through it.

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4.5 VOLTAGE REGULATORS (7805):

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage


regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design,
it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are
found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by
the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator
plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system,
voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers
receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

Voltage regulator is any electrical or electronic device that maintains the voltage of a power
source within acceptable limits. The voltage regulator is needed to keep voltages within the
prescribed range that can be tolerated by the electrical equipment using that voltage. Such a
device is widely used in motor vehicles of all types to match the output voltage of the generator
to the electrical load and to the charging requirements of the battery. Voltage regulators also are
used in electronic equipment in which excessive variations in voltage would be detrimental.

In motor vehicles, voltage regulators rapidly switch from one to another of three circuit states by
means of a spring-loaded, double-pole switch. At low speeds, some current from the generator is
used to boost the generator‘s magnetic field, thereby increasing voltage output. At higher speeds,
resistance is inserted into the generator-field circuit so that its voltage and current are moderated.
At still higher speeds, the circuit is switched off, lowering the magnetic field. The regulator
switching rate is usually 50 to 200 times per second.

Electronic voltage regulators utilize solid-state semiconductor devices to smooth out variations in
the flow of current. In most cases, they operate as variable resistances; that is, resistance
decreases when the electrical load is heavy and increases when the load is lighter. Voltage
regulators perform the same function in large-scale power-distribution systems as they do in
motor vehicles and other machines; they minimize variations in voltage in order to protect the
equipment using the electricity. In power-distribution systems the regulators are either in the
substations or on the feeder lines themselves. Two types of regulators are used: step regulators,
in which switches regulate the current supply, and induction regulators, in which an induction
motor supplies a secondary, continually adjusted voltage to even out current variations in the
feeder line.

4.6 LM7805 REGULATOR

The LM78XX series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO 220 package
and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications

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Figure 4.6. Pin out diagram of an LM7805 regulator

Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area
protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
deliver over 1A output current

i) EXPLANATION:

The input supply i.e., 230V, 50 Hz AC is applied across the primary of a step-down transformer
(usually a 09-0-09, i.e., the output is either 5V; a transformer is an electromechanical static
device, which transforms one voltage to another without changing its frequency). The output is
taken across the secondary coil and is applied to a rectifier section. The rectifier section is Bridge
Rectifier, formed by arranging four IN4007 diodes in a bridge pattern. Diodes are used for
rectification purposes. The output of the bridge circuit is not pure d.c; an a.c component is also
present in the form of a ripple. In order to reduce this ripple, an electrolytic capacitor (1000̊F) is
connected at the output of the diode bridge. The Cathode terminals of the diode‘s D2 & D3 are
connected to the positive (+ve) terminal of the capacitor and thus the input of the IC Regulator
(7805).

The voltage regulators here are used to obtain the fixed voltage as per requirement. A voltage
regulator is a circuit that supplies a constant voltage regardless of changes in load currents. These
IC‘s are designed as fixed voltage regulators and with adequate heat sinking can deliver output
currents in excess of 1A.Similarly, for negative voltage the Anode terminals of the diodes D1 &
D4 are connected to the negative terminal of the capacitor and thus to the Input pin of the IC
regulator with respect to ground Power module provides supply to the circuit and drives all other
modules. 12V battery is used as a terminal block. The positive terminal of battery is connected to
the switch. When the switch is closed the current flows through the circuit. Switch is connected
to the positive terminal of the diode which acts as a secure connector. The diode opposes reverse
current, as if by mistake, terminals of battery get wrongly connected, it does not allow this
current to pass and protects other equipment’s from being damaged.

The negative of the diode is connected to the electrolytic capacitor of capacity 1000µF. It is
used to prevent surges or spike to enter in the circuit. Connecting wires act as storage

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elements like

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capacitors and inductors so when supply is switched ‗on‘, a spike of voltage occurs across the
circuit initially, so this capacitor helps to protect the other devices of circuit from being damaged
by this spike of voltage. In parallel to this electrolytic capacitor a ceramic capacitor of 0.1µF
which is used to filter high frequency noise. One end of this capacitor is connected to positive of
LM358, which provides a 12V regulated signal to drive CD4070 IC of motor module. The
negative of this IC is connected to the ground. In parallel to LM358 IC 7805 regulators are
connected which provides a regulated supply of 9V and 5V respectively. The 5V supply is used
to drive Arduino processing module.

4.7 LCD DISPLAY

a) LCD 16×2 PIN CONFIGURATION AND ITS WORKING

Nowadays, we always use the devices which are made up of LCDs such as CD players, DVD
players, digital watches, computers, etc. These are commonly used in the screen industries to
replace the utilization of CRTs. Cathode Ray Tubes use huge power when compared with LCDs,
and CRTs heavier as well as bigger. These devices are thinner as well power consumption is
extremely less. The LCD 16×2 working principle is, it blocks the light rather than dissipate. This
article discusses an overview of LCD 16X2, pin configuration and its working.

b) WHAT IS THE LCD 16×2?

The term LCD stands for liquid crystal display. It is one kind of electronic display module used
in an extensive range of applications like various circuits & devices like mobile phones,
calculators, computers, TV sets, etc. These displays are mainly preferred for multi-segment light-
emitting diodes and seven segments. The main benefits of using this module are inexpensive;
simply programmable, animations, and there are no limitations for displaying custom characters,
special and even animations, etc.

Figure 4.7. 16X2 LCD

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4.7.1 LCD 16×2 PIN DIAGRAM

The 16×2 LCD pinout is shown below.

 Pin1 (Ground/Source Pin): This is a GND pin of display, used to connect the
GND terminal of the microcontroller unit or power source.
 Pin2 (VCC/Source Pin): This is the voltage supply pin of the display, used to
connect the supply pin of the power source.
 Pin3 (V0/VEE/Control Pin): This pin regulates the difference of the display,
used to connect a changeable POT that can supply 0 to 5V.
 Pin4 (Register Select/Control Pin): This pin toggles among command or data
register, used to connect a microcontroller unit pin and obtains either 0 or
1(0
= data mode, and 1 = command mode).
 Pin5 (Read/Write/Control Pin): This pin toggles the display among the read
or writes operation, and it is connected to a microcontroller unit pin to get
either 0 or 1 (0 = Write Operation, and 1 = Read Operation).
 Pin 6 (Enable/Control Pin): This pin should be held high to execute
Read/Write process, and it is connected to the microcontroller unit &
constantly held high.
 Pins 7-14 (Data Pins): These pins are used to send data to the display. These
pins are connected in two-wire modes like 4-wire mode and 8-wire mode. In
4-wire mode, only four pins are connected to the microcontroller unit like 0
to 3, whereas in 8-wire mode, 8-pins are connected to microcontroller unit
like 0 to 7.
 Pin15 (+ve pin of the LED): This pin is connected to +5V
 Pin 16 (-ve pin of the LED) : This pin is connected to GND.

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Figure 4.7.1. LCD-16×2-pin-diagram

4.8 ARDUINO NANO

The Arduino Nano is a small Arduino board based on ATmega328P or ATmega628


Microcontroller. The connectivity is the same as the Arduino UNO board.

The Nano board is defined as a sustainable, small, consistent, and flexible microcontroller board.
It is small in size compared to the UNO board. The Arduino Nano is organized using the
Arduino (IDE), which can run on various platforms. Here, IDE stands for Integrated
Development Environment.

The devices required to start our projects using the Arduino Nano board are Arduino IDE and
mini USB. The Arduino IDE software must be installed on our respected laptop or desktop. The
mini USB transfers the code from the computer to the Arduino Nano board.

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Drawback: The DC power jack is absent in Nano. Thus, we cannot use a battery to apply any
external power supply.

THE ARDUINO NANO IS SHOWN BELOW:

Figure 4.8. Arduino nano

4.8.1 ARDUINO NANO PINOUT

Arduino nano pin configuration is shown below and each pin functionality is
discussed below.

Figure 4.8.1. Arduino-nano-pinout

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Power Pin (Vin, 3.3V, 5V, GND): These pins are power pins

 Vin is the input voltage of the board, and it is used when an external power source is used
from 7V to 12V.
 5V is the regulated power supply voltage of the nano board and it is used to give the
supply to the board as well as components.
 3.3V is the minimum voltage which is generated from the voltage regulator on the board.
 GND is the ground pin of the board
RST Pin( Reset): This pin is used to reset the microcontroller

Analog Pins (A0-A7): These pins are used to calculate the analog voltage of the board within the
range of 0V to 5V

I/O Pins (Digital Pins from D0 – D13): These pins are used as an i/p otherwise o/p pins. 0V & 5V

Serial Pins (Tx, Rx): These pins are used to transmit & receive TTL serial data.

External Interrupts (2, 3): These pins are used to activate an interrupt.

PWM (3, 5, 6, 9, 11): These pins are used to provide 8-bit of PWM output.

SPI (10, 11, 12, & 13): These pins are used for supporting SPI communication.

Inbuilt LED (13): This pin is used to activate the LED.

IIC (A4, A5): These pins are used for supporting TWI communication.

AREF: This pin is used to give reference voltage to the input voltage

Why is Arduino Nano used?

Using the constant voltage, the Arduino Nano is used to produce a clock of a precise frequency.

What is the difference between Arduino UNO and Nano board?

o The Arduino Nano has a compact size and mini USB cable than the Arduino UNO. We
can use Nano instead of UNO because both operate on the microcontroller ATmega328p.
o The Arduino UNO is also easily available than Nano. It is considered as the standard
board available in the market, which is easy for use for the starters or beginners.
o The Nano is available in PDIP (Plastic Dual - Inline Package), while Arduino UNO is
available in TQFP (Plastic Quad Flat Pack).
o The Arduino UNO includes 6 analog pin inputs, 14 digital pins, a USB connector, a
power jack, and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header. The Arduino Nano

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includes an

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I/O pin set of 14 digital pins and 8 analog pins. It also includes 6 Power pins and 2 Reset
pins.
4.8.2 PROGRAMMING OF ARDUINO NANO
#include<LiquidCrystal.h>

const int rs = 2, en = 3, d4 = 4, d5 = 5, d6 = 6, d7 = 7;

LiquidCrystal lcd(rs, en, d4, d5, d6, d7);

int battery_voltage = A0;

int wind_voltage = A1;

int Solar_pin = A2;

int buzzer = 13;

#define inverter_relay 9

#define BUTTON_PIN 8

byte lastButtonState = LOW;

byte relay_State = LOW;

byte buttonState;

float R1 = 100000.0;//V IN

float R2 = 10000;//V ARDUINO

bool myflag = false;

int count;

void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(battery_voltage, INPUT);

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pinMode(wind_voltage, INPUT);

pinMode(BUTTON_PIN , INPUT);

pinMode(inverter_relay, OUTPUT);

pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);

lcd.begin(16, 2);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("VERTICAL AXIS");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("WIND TURBINE");

delay(1200);

lcd.clear();

void loop() {

parameters();

inverter();

void parameters(){

if(buttonState ==1){

int w_value = analogRead(wind_voltage );

float wind_vout = (w_value * 5.44) / 1024.0;

float wind_vin = wind_vout / (R2 / (R1 + R2));

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///////////////////////////////////////

int b_value = analogRead(battery_voltage );

float bat_vout = (b_value * 5.44) / 1024.0;

float bat_vin = bat_vout / (R2 / (R1 + R2));

int S_value = analogRead(Solar_pin );

float S_vout = (S_value * 5.44) / 1024.0;

float S_vin = S_vout / (R2 / (R1 + R2));

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("B:");

lcd.print(bat_vin);

lcd.print("V ");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("W:");

lcd.print( wind_vin);

lcd.print("V ");

lcd.setCursor(9,0);

lcd.print("S:");

lcd.print(S_vin);

lcd.print("V");

if(bat_vin<9){

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lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("BATTERY LOW");

beep();

if(wind_vin>5 ||S_vin>=5 ){

lcd.setCursor(8,1);

lcd.print("CHARGING");

}else{ lcd.setCurso

r(8,1);

lcd.print("NO CHARG");

/*Serial.print(" wind_vin:");

Serial.println(wind_vin);

Serial.print(" bat_vin:");

Serial.println( bat_vin);

delay(500); */

}void inverter(){

buttonState = digitalRead(BUTTON_PIN);

if (buttonState != lastButtonState) {

lastButtonState = buttonState;

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if (buttonState == LOW) {

relay_State = (relay_State == HIGH) ? LOW: HIGH;

digitalWrite(inverter_relay, relay_State );

Serial.println(relay_State );

}if(relay_State == 1){

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("INVERTER:ON");

delay(1200);

}if(relay_State == 0){

lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print("INVERTER:OFF");

delay(1200);

void beep(){

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW );

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delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH );

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW );

delay(500);

4.8.3 MEMORY

The memory in Arduino Nano is shown in the below image:

Figure 4.8.2. Memory

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The preinstalled flash has a boot loader, which takes the memory of 2Kb.

Technical Specifications

The technical specifications of the Arduino Nano board are:

o The operating voltage of the Nano board varies from 5V to 12V.


o The total pins in Nano are 22 Input/Output pins.
o There are 14 digital pins and 8 analog pins.
o There are 6 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) pins among the 14 digital pins. The 6 PWM
pins in Arduino Nano are used to convert the digital signals into the analog signals. The
conversion takes place by varying the width of the pulse.
o The crystal oscillator present in Arduino Nano comes with a frequency of 16MHz.
o The Arduino Nano is used in various applications such as Robotics, Control System,
Instrumentation, Automations, and Embedded Systems.
o The projects created using Arduino Nano are QR Code Scanner, DIY Arduino
Pedometer, etc.
o We can also connect Arduino Nano to the Wifi.
o The functionality of Nano is similar to the Arduino UNO.
o The flexibility and eco-friendly nature of Nano make it a unique choice to create
electronic devices and projects with compact size.
4.8.4 APPLICATIONS OF ARDUINO NANO

These boards are used to build Arduino Nano projects by reading inputs of a sensor, a button, or
a finger and gives an output by turning motor or LED ON, or and some of the applications are
listed below.

 Samples of electronic systems & products


 Automation
 Several DIY projects
 Control Systems
 Embedded Systems
 Robotics
 Instrumentation

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4.9 INVERTER
A power inverter, inverter, or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes
direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on
the particular device employed. Inverters do the opposite of rectifiers which were originally large
electromechanical devices converting AC to DC.
The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the
design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is
provided by the DC source.
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or maybe a combination of mechanical effects (such
as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the
conversion process.
Power inverters are primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents and
voltages are present; circuits that perform the same function for electronic signals, which usually
have very low currents and voltages, are called oscillators. Circuits that perform the opposite
function, converting AC to DC, are called rectifiers.

i) INPUT VOLTAGE
A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a stable DC power source capable of
supplying enough current for the intended power demands of the system. The input voltage
depends on the design and purpose of the inverter. Examples include:

 12 V DC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a
rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery or automotive electrical outlet. 24, 36, and 48 V DC,
which are common standards for home energy systems.
 200 to 400 V DC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.
 300 to 450 V DC, when power is from electric vehicle battery packs in vehicle-to-grid
systems.
 Hundreds of thousands of volts, where the inverter is part of a high-voltage direct
current power transmission system.

ii) OUTPUT WAVEFORM


An inverter may produce a square wave, sine wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave, or
near- sine pulse-width modulated wave (PWM) depending on circuit design. Common types of
inverters produce square waves or quasi-square waves. One measure of the purity of a sine wave
is the total harmonic distortion (THD). Technical standards for commercial power distribution
grids require less than 3% THD in the wave shape at the customer's point of connection. IEEE
Standard 519 recommends less than 5% THD for systems connecting to a power grid.
There are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC
source, the first of which uses a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and
then converts to AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-
frequency transformer to create the output voltage.
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Figure 4.9.3. Square wave

This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is best suited to low-
sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. Square wave output can produce
"humming" noises when connected to audio equipment and is generally unsuitable for sensitive
electronics. A 50% duty cycle square wave is equivalent to a sine wave with 48% THD.[4]

Figure 4.9.4. Sine wave

A power inverter device that produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is referred to as
a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs of much less
distortion than the modified sine wave (three-step) inverter designs, the manufacturers often use
the phrase pure sine wave inverter. Almost all consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure
sine wave inverter" do not produce a smooth sine wave output at all just a less choppy output
than the square wave (two-step) and modified sine wave (three-step) inverters. However, this is
not critical for most electronics as they deal with the output quite well.
Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is desirable
because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine wave AC power source.
The standard electric utility provides a sine wave, typically with minor imperfections but
sometimes with significant distortion.
Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more complex and have
significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only three steps, or square wave (one
step) types of the same power handling. Switched-mode power supply (SMPS) devices, such as
personal computers or DVD players, function on modified sine wave power. AC motors directly
operated on non-sinusoidal power may produce extra heat, may have different speed-torque
characteristics, or may produce more audible noise than when running on sinusoidal power.

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4.10 MODIFIED SINE WAVE

Figure 4.10. Waveform produced by a cigarette lighter 12 volt DC to 120 V AC 60 Hz inverter


The modified sine wave is the sum of two square waves, one of which is delayed one-quarter of
the period with respect to the other. The result is a repeated voltage step sequence of zero, peak
positive, zero, peak negative, and again zero. The resultant voltage waveform better
approximates the shape of a sinusoidal voltage waveform than a single square wave. Most
inexpensive consumer power inverters produce a modified sine wave rather than a pure sine
wave.
If the waveform is chosen to have its peak voltage values for half of the cycle time, the peak
voltage to RMS voltage ratio is the same as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively
regulated, or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS value output up
to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variations. By changing the pulse width,
the harmonic spectrum can be changed. The lowest THD for a three-step modified sine wave is
30% when the pulses are at 130 degrees width of each electrical cycle. This is slightly lower than
for a square wave.
The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while maintaining a constant
frequency with a technique called pulse-width modulation (PWM). The generated gate pulses are
given to each switch in accordance with the developed pattern to obtain the desired output. The
harmonic spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the modulation
frequency. It can be shown that the minimum distortion of a three-level waveform is reached
when the pulses extend over 130 degrees of the waveform, but the resulting voltage will still
have about 30% THD, higher than commercial standards for grid-connected power sources. [7]
When operating induction motors, voltage harmonics are usually not of concern; however,
harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces additional heating and can produce
pulsating torques.
Numerous items of electric equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave power
inverter devices, especially loads that are resistive in nature such as traditional incandescent light
bulbs. Items with a switched-mode power supply operate almost entirely without problems, but if
the item has a mains transformer, this can overheat depending on how marginally it is rated.
However, the load may operate less efficiently owing to the harmonics associated with a
modified sine wave and produce a humming noise during operation. This also affects the

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efficiency of the system as a whole, since the manufacturer's nominal conversion efficiency
does not account for

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harmonics. Therefore, pure sine wave inverters may provide significantly higher efficiency than
modified sine wave inverters.
Most AC motors will run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about 20% owing to
the harmonic content. However, they may be quite noisy. A series LC filter tuned to the
fundamental frequency may help.
A common modified sine wave inverter topology found in consumer power inverters is as
follows: An onboard microcontroller rapidly switches on and off power MOSFETs at high
frequency like
~50 kHz. The MOSFETs directly pull from a low voltage DC source (such as a battery). This
signal then goes through step-up transformers (generally many smaller transformers are placed in
parallel to reduce the overall size of the inverter) to produce a higher voltage signal. The output
of the step-up transformers then gets filtered by capacitors to produce a high voltage DC supply.
Finally, this DC supply is pulsed with additional power MOSFETs by the microcontroller to
produce the final modified sine wave signal.
More complex inverters use more than two voltages to form a multiple-stepped approximation to
a sine wave. These can further reduce voltage and current harmonics and THD compared to an
inverter using only alternating positive and negative pulses; but such inverters require additional
switching components, increasing cost.

4.11 NEAR SINE WAVE PWM

Figure 4.11. Mosfet with PWM

An example of PWM voltage modulated as a series of pulses. Low pass filtering with
series inductors and shunt capacitors is required to suppress the switching frequency. Once
filtered, this results in a near sinusoidal waveform . The filtering components are smaller and
more convenient than those required to smooth a modified sine wave to an equivalent harmonic
purity.

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Some inverters use PWM to create a waveform that can be low pass filtered to re-create the sine
wave. These only require one DC supply, in the manner of the MSN designs, but the switching
takes place at a far faster rate, typically many kHz, so that the varying width of the pulses can be
smoothed to create the sine wave. If a microprocessor is used to generate the switching timing,
the harmonic content and efficiency can be closely controlled.

A) OUTPUT FREQUENCY
The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as standard power line
frequency, 50 or 60 hertz. The exception is in designs for motor driving, where a variable
frequency results in a variable speed control.
Also, if the output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for example stepped up)
then the frequency may be much higher for good transformer efficiency.

B) OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the same as the grid line
voltage, typically 120 or 240 VAC at the distribution level, even when there are changes in the
load that the inverter is driving. This allows the inverter to power numerous devices designed for
standard line power.Some inverters also allow selectable or continuously variable output
voltages.

C) OUTPUT POWER
A power inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in watts or kilowatts. This
describes the power that will be available to the device the inverter is driving and, indirectly, the
power that will be needed from the DC source. Smaller popular consumer and commercial
devices designed to mimic line power typically range from 150 to 3000 watts.
Not all inverter applications are solely or primarily concerned with power delivery; in some
cases the frequency and or waveform properties are used by the follow-on circuit or device.

4.12 ALTERNATOR
An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the
form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating
magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating armature
with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an
alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other
internal combustion engines.

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Figure 4.12. Alternator

Connect the device to a 12-volt battery to provide stability in the system. Connect the largest
terminal of the alternator to the positive terminal of the battery; the negative terminal of the
battery connects to the frame (housing) of the alternator. Two or three smaller terminals will
remain depending on the design. With the two-terminal design it usually means that a regulator is
built in, and you need to attach one terminal to battery positive and the other small terminal,
through some type of switch, to a positive voltage source. This turn-on circuit energizes the
regulator and will control the alternator output voltage to a maximum of approximately 14 to
14.7 volts.
With a three-terminal design it usually means you have to mount an external regulator and run
the corresponding wiring from the alternator to the regulator and the battery positive. Turn on
positive voltage, and then go to the regulator instead of the alternator Connect the large red
terminal on the alternator to the positive terminal of the battery. It is the one written “B”.
Connect the negative wire of the alternator to the negative side of the battery. Connect the two
earth cables together. As the gas engine runs, it will recharge the battery. Connect the red
positive terminal of the power inverter to the positive terminal of the battery. Finally, connect the
black negative terminal of the wire to the power inverter. The size of the power inverter is
dependent on how much equipment you plan on running off it. Using a very large power inverter
may require additional batteries. Small inverters typically have electrical outlets to plug
appliances into. Large inverters can be wired to a power panel.
i) HOW THE ALTERNATOR WORKS

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Figure 4.12.1. Inside an alternator

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The alternator consists of a stator - a stationary set of wire coil windings, inside which a rotor
revolves. The rotor is an electromagnet supplied with a small amount of electricity through
carbon or copper-carbon brushes (contacts) touching two revolving metal slip rings on its shaft.
The rotation of the electromagnet inside the stator coils generates much more electricity inside
these coils. The electricity is alternating current - its direction of flow changes back and forth
every time the rotor turns. It has to be rectified - turned into a one-way flow, or direct current.
A DC generator operates on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
According to Faraday’s law, whenever a conductor is placed in a fluctuating magnetic field (or
when a conductor is moved in a magnetic field) an EMF is induced in the conductor.
For example, consider the case, an armature rotating in clockwise direction and conductor at the
left moving in an upward direction. As the armature completes its half rotation the direction of
movement of the conductor will get reversed downward. The direction of the current will be
alternating. As the connections of armature conductors get reversed, a current reversal takes
place. Thus, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

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CHAPTER-5
RESULTS OF WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY

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CHAPTER-5
RESULTS OF WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY

5.1 THEORY
Wind turbines work by converting the kinetic energy in the wind first into rotational kinetic
energy in the turbine and then electrical energy that can be supplied, via the national grid. The
energy available for conversion mainly depends on
1. the wind speed
2. Swept area of the turbine.
3. Air density
i) MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The following table shows the definition of various variables used in this model:
E = Kinetic Energy ρ = Density (J) (kg/m3 )
m = Mass (kg) A = Swept Area (m2 )
v = Wind Speed Cp = Power (m/s) Coefficient P = Power (W)
r = Radius (m) Dm/d t= Mass flow rate x = distance (m) (kg/s)
DE/dt = Energy Flow t = time (s)
ii) Rate (J/s)
Under constant acceleration, the kinetic energy of an object having mass m and velocity v is
equal to the work done W in displacing that object from rest to a distance s under a force F , i.e.:
E=W = Fs
According to Newton’s Law, we have:
F = ma
Hence,
E = mass…… (1)
Using the third equation of motion:
v2 = u2 + 2
as we get:

Since the initial velocity of the object is zero, i.e. u=0 , we get:

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Substituting it in equation (1), we get that the kinetic energy of a mass in motions is:

The power in the wind is given by the rate of change of energy:

As mass flow rate is given by

we get:

Hence, from equation (3), the power can be defined as:

A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919 that no wind turbine can convert more than
16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy turning a rotor. To this
day, this is known as the Betz Limit or Betz' Law. The theoretical maximum power efficiency of
any design of wind turbine is 0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind can
be extracted by a wind turbine). This is called the “power coefficient” and is defined as:

Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit. The Cp value is unique to each
turbine type and is a function of wind speed that the turbine is operating in. Once we incorporate
various engineering requirements of a wind turbine - strength and durability in particular - the
real world limit is well below the Betz Limit with values of 0.35-0.45 common even in the best
designed wind turbines. By the time we take into account the other factors in a complete wind
turbine system
- e.g. the gearbox, bearings, generator and so on - only 10-30% of the power of the wind is ever
actually converted into usable electricity. Hence, the power coefficient needs to be factored in
equation (4) and the extractable power from the wind is given by:
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The swept area of the turbine can be calculated from the length of the turbine blades using the
equation for the area of a circle:

5.2 SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells.
PV cells are made of materials that produce excited electrons when exposed to light. The
electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to
power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels,
solar electric panels, or PV modules.
Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called arrays or systems. A photovoltaic
system consists of one or more solar panels, an inverter that converts DC electricity to alternating
current (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as controllers, meters,
and trackers. A photovoltaic system can be used to provide electricity for off-grid applications,
such as remote homes or cabins, or to feed electricity into the grid and earn credits or payments
from the utility company. This is called a grid-connected photovoltaic system.
Some advantages of solar panels are that they use a renewable and clean source of energy,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and lower electricity bills. Some disadvantages are that they
depend on the availability and intensity of sunlight, require cleaning, and have high initial costs.
Solar panels are widely used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes, as well as
for space and transportation applications.

5.2.1 THEORY

Figure 5.2.1. From solar cell to a PV cell


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Photovoltaic modules consist of a large number of solar cells and use light energy (photons) from
the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can be either the top layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are
also available. The cells are usually connected electrically in series, one to another to the desired
voltage, and then in parallel to increase current. The power (in watts) of the module is the voltage
(in volts) multiplied by the current (in amperes), and depends both on the amount of light
and on the electrical load connected to the module. The manufacturing specifications on solar
panels are obtained under standard conditions, which are usually not the true operating
conditions the solar panels are exposed to on the installation site.
A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface.
External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A USB power interface can also be used.
Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector shapes,
and troughs to better support the panel structure.

5.2.2 HOW A SOLAR CELL WORKS


A solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors, called p-type and n-type silicon. The p-type
silicon is produced by adding atoms—such as boron or gallium—that have one less electron in
their outer energy level than does silicon. Because boron has one less electron than is required to
form the bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms, an electron vacancy or “hole” is created.

The n-type silicon is made by including atoms that have one more electron in their outer level
than does silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus has five electrons in its outer energy level, not
four. It bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but one electron is not involved in bonding.
Instead, it is free to move inside the silicon structure.

A solar cell consists of a layer of p-type silicon placed next to a layer of n-type silicon (Fig. 1).
In the n-type layer, there is an excess of electrons, and in the p-type layer, there is an excess of
positively charged holes (which are vacancies due to the lack of valence electrons). Near the
junction of the two layers, the electrons on one side of the junction (n-type layer) move into the
holes on the other side of the junction (p-type layer). This creates an area around the junction,
called the depletion zone, in which the electrons fill the holes (Fig. 1, closeup).

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Figure 5.2.2. Schematic representation of a solar cell


showing the n-type and p-type layers, with a close-up view of the depletion zone around the
junction between the n-type and p-type layers.

5.3 ANTHONY FERNANDEZ

When all the holes are filled with electrons in the depletion zone, the p-type side of the depletion
zone (where holes were initially present) now contains negatively charged ions, and the n-type
side of the depletion zone (where electrons were present) now contains positively charged ions.
The presence of these oppositely charged ions creates an internal electric field that prevents
electrons in the n-type layer to fill holes in the p-type layer.

When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are ejected, which results in the
formation of “holes”—the vacancies left behind by the escaping electrons. If this happens in the
electric field, the field will move electrons to the n-type layer and holes to the p-type layer. If you
connect the n-type and p-type layers with a metallic wire, the electrons will travel from the n-
type layer to the p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone and then go through the external
wire back of the n- type layer, creating a flow of electricity.

5.4 HOW DO SOLAR PANELS WORK?

The amount of sunlight that reaches Earth’s surface within an hour and a half has enough energy
to satisfy the world’s energy consumption for an entire year. That is truly impressive and offers

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hope for a brighter, more sustainable future. But how does solar power work? Here is a step-by-
step breakdown of solar energy, how it works, and additional resources:

1. When it comes to solar panels, how they work relies on a tiny component called a
photovoltaic cell. These cells are typically constructed from silicon. When the sun shines
on a solar panel, the photons are absorbed by the silicon cells.
2. The photons of sunlight knock electrons out of the silicon atoms, which are now free to
move. They travel through the layers of the cell, creating an electrical current.
3. The electric current flows to the edge of the panel, funneling into a conductive wire. This
wire delivers the electricity to the inverter, which converts the direct current (DC) energy
into alternating current (AC) energy, which is what is used to power buildings.
4. This electricity then transfers to the building. If the solar panels are connected to the
utility meter, excess electricity is transferred to the utility grid. This causes the meter to
run backward, crediting the property for surplus generation.

So if a child ever asks you, “How does solar energy work?” a simple, short explanation is that
solar panels are filled with solar cells that harvest light from the sun. These cells contain
materials that have the ability to turn energy from sunlight into electricity, much like how
chloroplasts in plants gather sunlight and turn it into fuel.

For additional information on how solar energy works, check out these solar energy resources:

 How Does Solar Work? — U.S. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
 Solar Photovoltaic Technology Basics — U.S. Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy
 How Do Solar Panels Work? — LiveScience

i) HOW DO SOLAR PANELS WORK ON A HOUSE?

Solar panels are typically placed on the roof of a home facing in the direction that receives the
most sunlight. The solar panels collect photons from sunlight and use them to generate a direct
current. This flows to the inverter, which is generally on the side of your home. The inverter
converts the electricity to alternating current, which is what is used to power homes and
businesses. This current travels from the inverter to the electric panel (also on the side of the
home), which then delivers electricity throughout the house. If the solar power system is
connected to the electrical grid, any unused electricity passes through the home’s electric meter
and is given to the utility grid. The homeowner receives a credit for this excess electricity.

ii) HOW DO SOLAR PANELS WORK AT NIGHT?

How do solar panels work at night when there is no sunlight? The short answer is that they don’t:
Solar panels are not harvesting energy when the sun has set. However, many solar power systems
are equipped with battery storage that saves excess energy generated during the day, which can
be used at night, during overcast days, or even in long stretches of rainy weather. If there is no
battery storage, residential homes and businesses must tap into the public power grid to meet
their electricity needs.

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5.5 RESULTS

i) Prototype Model: This is the practical circuit of our project. The important components
have been highlighted here.

Figure 5.5 Prototype Model of the Project

ii) Inverter & Controll Unit Circuit: This circuit helps to invert the 12v dc to 230v ac to
operate the loads.

Figure 5.5.1 inverter circuit Figure 5.5.2 Controll Unit Circuit

iii) Charging Circuit: This is the charging circuit which offers one mode of battery
charging i.e. charges from vertical axis wind turbine and Solar Energy.

Figure 5.5.3 Wind Charging Circuit Figure 5.5.4 Solar Charging Circuit

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CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION

6.1 CONCLUSION

This research paper has discussed the performance of the dual power generation solar and
windmill generator. This dual renewable power generation system was designed and developed.
The proposed system comprises of four main ingredients which are solar PV module,
horizontally rotating WT, energy storage system, and a microcontroller to control the charging
power from the PV-WT system to ESS system. The presented system was able to generate an
average output power of 61.729W per day. Therefore, the system can generate an annual output
power of about 207.4 kWh. Furthermore, these results show that this system demonstrates a
superior performance compared with the solar modules and wind system when they work
individually. During the conducted experiments, the solar panels worked as the main source of
the generated energy while the wind system acted as a secondary source of energy during the
solar absent time. Moreover, the safety factor was calculated to be within the limits of two that
shows the proposed system can meet the industrial safety.However, the future of solar and wind
technology looks promising, thanks to the advancements in energy storage and smart grid
technologies. Solar and wind energy can be essential in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
combating climate change.

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6.2 FUTURE SCOPE

Renewable energy is the future, and solar and wind technologies are at the forefront of this
revolution. With advancements in technology, renewable energy has become more efficient,
affordable, and accessible than ever before.From improvements in photovoltaic cells to floating
solar farms to offshore wind turbines, let’s explore everything you need to know about the future
of solar and wind. So fasten your seat belts as we take you on a journey into solar and wind
technology!

Compared to traditional fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, solar and wind technology produce
significantly fewer greenhouse gas emissions, improving air quality and reducing overall carbon
footprint. In addition, these technologies require significantly less water usage than their fossil
fuel counterparts. Also, solar panels can now generate electricity even on cloudy days thanks to
improvements in photovoltaic cell efficiency. Similarly, wind turbines can produce energy with
lower wind speeds due to the development of more efficient turbine designs.

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