J. Natlz. Sci.

Foundation Sri Lanka 2000 28(4): 301-325

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IN SRI LANKA : A REVIEW

0.A.ILEPERUMX
Department of Chemistry, U~ziversityof Peraclen.iya, Peradcniya.

(Received: 01 Septmher 2000 ;accepted: 2 3 March 2001 )

Key words: Environmental pollution,Sii Lanka

INTRODUCTION

Sri Lanlsa has undergone rapid indu~trialisat~ion since the early 1980's and the per
capita income has almost doubled from 1985 to 1995. With the liberalisation of the
economy, energy consumption has increased and the number of motor vehicles
has almost tripled in the last two decades. Hydroelectricity, provided 90% of the
country's electricity needs in 1985, and this share has now been reduced to around
60'5: due to increased energy demands for househo1.d~and new industry. Power
generation from thermal power plants stands a t around 40% today and there is a
proposal to commission a 900 MW coal fired power plant by the year 2004. At the
same time petroleum consuinption too has increased considerably owing to the
increase in the nuinber of vehicles. According to data available from the Ceylon
Petroleum Corporation of, the annual average growth of diesel and petrol
consumption was 10% and 3.5% respectively during the period, 1991-1995. Yet
i t is important to realise that a fair share of domestic energy is still niet by
burning biomass. The population of the country meanwhile has increased from 14
million in 1976 to the present 19.34 million and is expected to peals a t 24 million in
2020. In fact, Sri Lanka has one of the highest population densities in the world
exceeded. only by a few countries such as Singapore and Hong Kong. The gross
domestic product (GDP) has also increased steadily a t an average annual rate of
around 5%:and the result of this type of economic development is the increase in
environmental pollution in Sri Lanlra. In a recent assessment of the state of the
environment in Asia by the Asian Development Bank, the dismal progress over
the last ten years and increasing threats to human health in Asia's cities have
been highlighted .l

"A.sia.3 enz~ironnzen.tha.s heconte so polluted an.d degraded that it poses a th.rea.t not
just to the qz~alityof' life of'its people, hut also to its eco7zonzicprospect.s. Of tlze worldb
15 ntost polluted cities, 13 are in. Asia a s are the most populous cor1,n.tries.

Despite rapid a n d steady growth. of' inconre, a t least on,e in. th.ree Asians still has n.o
access t o safe drin.1zin.g water and at least one i n two has no axcess t o san,itatiou. The
costs o f t h i s r~eglectofe17.viron.1~ten.tare massive. Children zvlzo in.gest lead lose
precious I& poin.ts. T h e y a n d tlzeir parents also suffer from clzro17,ic respiratory
302 O.A.Ilepe7-1cm.a

conditions and other ailme~zts.Unsanitary living conditions a n d polluted water cause

a variety of other gruesome con,dition..s".

The purpose of this review is to bring into focus the varjous aspects of
environmental pollution relevant to Sri Lanka and to highlight the research
carried out in Sri Lanka on these aspects. Some selected topics related to the
chemistry of the environment have earlier been published in a monograph in 1986.2

Air pollution.

Air pollution is a serious environmental problem in Sri Lanka's major cities such as
Colombo and Kandy. Motor vehicles continue t o be the most significant contributor
to air poll~ltionwhere the fleet sizes have almost doubled in the decade 1990-2000.
Highly polluting diesel vehicles and two stroke three -wheelers along with motor
bicycles have increased nearly 3 fold during this period. Increasing traffic
congestion, overloaded buses and trucks contribute significantly to air pollution in
big cities such as Colombo and Kandy. Table 1 gives the major air pollutants in
urban areas.

Table 1 : Major air pollutants

Class of pollutant Examples

Oxides of carbon carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide

Oxides of nitrogen nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide
Oxides of sulphur sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide
Particulat,es dust, soot
Inorganic compounds lead
Photochemical smog ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates
I-Iydrocarbons benzo(cx)pyrene,benzene

Emissions of primary air pollutants, lead to t8heproduction of smogs

consisting of photochemical oxidants such as ozone and peroxyacyl nitrates as
secondary pollutants." These destroy sensitive tissues ( in people, animals and plants)
reduce lung function, and aggravate asthma. Compounds such as benzoralpyrerie
given out in petroleum combustion are known carcinogens. Oxides of nitrogen and
sulphur are responsible for many respiratory illnesses and asthma. Lead reduces
learning abilities in children and chronic lead poisoning may result in nervous
disorders. The ultimate result of air pollutio~iis the untimely deaths of especially
older people prone to heart diseases. The fine particles emitted, specially from
diesel vehicles having particulate size diameters of less than 10 pm (known as the
Envi~o~zmental
Pollution 303

PMlO fraction) are extremely hazardous to human health. Poor quality diesel,
old vehicles and overloading are the main reasons for such pollution from motor
vehicles. Pol.lution degrades building materials such as rubber, iron and concrete
and reduces the visual quality of scenic vistas.

A i r pollution nronitoring

Air quality monitoring in Colombo is done a t two fixed stations located a t the
Colombo Fort railway station and the Meteorology Department premises a t
Bauddhaloka Mawatha. Here the pollutants monitored every 10 minutes are
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, ozone, carbon monoxide and PM 10.
These d a t a reveal4 t h a t , in 1996, the sulphur dioxide levels exceeded the
recommended WHO standards on about 25% occasions while the ozone level exceeded
the recommended levels on about 75% occasions (figure 1).

Sulphur diaxide exceedance over a ysar

(a)
"" 1

Ozone exeeetfanse over a- yeer

month

Figure 1 : Excesses of monthly average concentrations of sulphur dioxide

and ozone concentrations above the maximum permissible levels at the
Colombo Fort Monitoring station during 1996. (Broken lines are the Sri
Lankan air quality standards: SO,, 0.08 ppm, O,, 0.lppm.)
304 O.A. Ileperz~rn,~

Thus, on the average, in 1996, residents of Colombo city were exposed to

about 1000 hours of high ozone compared to the World Health Organization
guideline of 1hour and this is significant since ozone is identified as a pollutant
exacerbating a s t h m a . T h e results from the fmed monitoring stations also showed
that the CO and NO, levels did not exceed the Sri Lankan ambient air quality
standards of these pollutants gazetted in 1994 (table 2).

T h e r e h a v e been other a t t e m p t s earlier to monitor ambient lead

concentrations, as well as blood lead levels in people exposed to lead. In a NARESA
supported study" pollutants such a s SO,,CO, t30tal suspended solids, fine
particulates and aromatic components in ambient air have been determined.

Table 2: Ambient air quality standards for Sri Lanka (Gazette

Extraordinary No. 85014 of December 1994).

Pollutant Averaging time(h) Unit Standard

1
8
24
1
1
8
Lead Anytime
24
Annual
Suspended 1
Particulate 3
Matter 8
24
Annual

The problem of fine particulates is quite acute in Sri Lanlca. In an independent

studyqhe sulphation rate and dust fall have been determined a t busy intersections
in Colombo city. The results show that Slave Island junction is the worst affected
with 0.45 rng S0,JlOOcmYday while dust fall exceeded 0.30 mg/100cm2/daya t most
Enuil-on.mcntalPollution 305

locations. Dust fall values were high owing to poor maintenance of roads,
construction activities and general lack of understanding amongst the public about
the harmful effects of fine particles.

The average of total suspended solids was 405 W m ' for a 8h period in the
NARESA study and showed exceedance of Sri Lanka standards (350Clg/m7)at all
sites studied with the highest recorded a t Maradana (488.8pgIm.9. In another study7
the concentrations of the fine particulate fractions PMlO and PM 2.5 for ambient
air in Colombo have been reported. These refer to particles having aerodynamic
diameters of less than 10 microns and 2.5 microns respectively. The results show
that the annual average values of PMlO and PM2.5 fractions were 75.12 pglm' and
26.32 pg/m2respectively. This study carried out in 1996 records an alarming trend
where fine particle concentrations exceeded the United States Environmental
Protection Agency's standards (USEPA) of 5Opg/mVor PM 10 and 15pg/mJ for
PM 2.5 fractions 95% of the time. This shows that there is a grave risk associated
with the fine particles in ambient air in Colombo. Analytical results of the PMlO
fraction from the Colombo Fort fixed monitoring station too showed a similar trend
with the values exceeding the USEPA standard about 95% of the time (figure 2) for
the period March 1998 to October 1999.

I 72 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 ? I S I D l t l
sample no,

Figure 2: Variation of the PM-10 fraction in the ambient air of Colombo

from March 1998-October 1999. (Broken line indicates the United States
Environmental Protection Agency's standard of 50 pg/m3 for PM-10).

The total polyaromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air averaged over several

locations in the Colombo city6 were around 730nglm with concentrations of
carcinogenic polyaromatics such as benzo (a)p.yrene (20 nglm? benzoantl~racene
(14.6 nglm?), benzofluoroanthene (14.6 ng/m3) and dibenzoanthrace~ie(126.6 ng/
m").

Ambient lead concentrations have been determined by Ponnambalam et al."

to be in tlze range 0.2-3.0 pg/mVor an 8 h period while the NAI3ESA stud; recorded
an average of 0.435 pglm.' for an 8 h period. Both these studies were carried out a t
busy intersections of Colombo city where traffic volumes were high. This apparent
decrease in lead concentration may be due to the reduction of lead in petrol from
0.40 gll to 0.23 gll between the two investigations. Although the Sri Lankan standard
for the ambient lead level a t 2 pg/m" is not exceeded, the Colombo Fort and Slave
Island areas had high lead concentrations in ambient air with values of 0.626 pgl
m:' and 0.587 pglm:'. These values correspond to daily lead exposures of 2.25 pg and.
2.11pg by inhabitants of these areas and this again is a serious health problem."
This calculation is based on the fact that an average adult inhales approximately
2.5 litres of air per minute (3.6m" day). The above lead determinations have usually
been carried out from the particles trapped by a 0.45 pm cellulose filter and may not,
represent the total lead in the atmosphere since those lead particles in the gas
phase will pass through such a filter. In a study!' aimed a t determining the total
lead in the atmosphere, air was passed through a series of jmpingers containing
dithizone and a colorimetric method was employed to determine lead. This study
reports exceptionally high lead concentrations of 200 pglm:; and 400 pglm';
respectively for residential areas and close to a main highway in Colombo. These
concentrations refer to lead collected over about a 3 11 period and i t is a matter of
major concern to public health. Elemental analysis of the PMlO particulates have
been carrjed out1"using X-ray fluorescence techniques and the lead levels of ambient
air calculated on this basis was 0.09pg11-11:~collected over a 24 11 period. In a related
study", multielement analysis o f airborne dust revealed that the maximum
concentrations ofAl, Zn and Pb in air were, 25.6 pglm", 251.0 pglrn", and 10.5 pg/./m:'
respectjvely.

There is hardly any jnformatjon reported on the air quality of cities other
than Colombo. The air quality in Kandy which is located in a valley is of special
concern since local concentration of pollutants in calm weather poses a serious health
hazard. In a preliminary study using passive gas samplers, it was found that the
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide levels in the Kandy citv over a 24 h period
regularly exceeded Sri Lanlca national standards(unpub1ished data). Regular
monitoring of pollutants in cities such as Kandy is an urgent necessity.

Indoor pollutio~l

Indoor air pollution is an equally important aspect of air pollutioi~which has received
practically no attention in ~ r Lanka.
i The air in enclosed spaces such as offices,
classrooms and even homes can be significantly more polluted than outdoor air. In
congested traffic, harmful pollutants such as benzene, carbon monoxide and.airborne
lead are much higher inside a closed environment of a motor vehicle than in the air
outside. Some common pollutants inside buildings include cigarette smolie, radon,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde (from carpets, fabrics and
furniture), household pesticides, cleaning solvents, ozone(from photocopiers) and
asbestos. Indoor air pollution where firewood is used for cooking is a matter of
serious concern. More than 80% of Sri Lankan households still use firewood for
cooking and a t least 70 -compounds have been identified in the wood smolre and
their concentrations determined.l"ome of these compounds are carcinogenic and
some cause respiratory illnesses such as acute bronchitis (table 3).

Table 3: Some toxic compounds in wood smoke

Compound Concentrationflrg of wood

Carbon monoxide 80-370 g

Benzene
Acetic acid
Lead
Anthracene
Phenan threne
Benzo(a)anthracene
Dibenzoanthracene
*
Benzofluoroanthracene

Flne particles also present in very high concentrations could lead to

resplrat,ory illnesses such as cough and bronchitis and also cancer. Data available
from a study1'in India reveal that the average Indian housewife who uses firewood
for coolcing is exposed t o 850-4400 pglmof inhalable fme particles. Indoor air pollution
from firewood use a c c o ~ nfor t 6-10?> of ill health in India with around 500,000
annual deaths of children under five years of age and adult women due to this type
of air pollution. The jncidence of lung cancer of rural wonian can be attributed to
wood smolie although no reliable epidemiological data are available. Indoor
cooking using wood jn congested areas should best be avoided and masses should
be educated to use well ventilated kitchens if firewood is used as fuel. Pollution due
to chalk dust in classrooms is a health hazard for both teachers and students. It has
been reported14that the chalk dust concentration rises to around 220 wlnl' within
308 O.A. Ilcperzt.ma

1h leading to inhalation of approximately 3.6 x 1 0 - 9 of chalk dust in a 1 hour

lecture where the average particle size was found to be 4 pm.

Asbestos

Asbestos is a group of minerals comprised of the silicate minerals amphiboles and

serpentines and have been indicated as causing bronchial carcinoma and
mesothelioma of the pleura among factory workers exposed to asbestos. There is
little or no information available on positive cases of asbestos causing cancer in Sri
Lanl<a.ls Blue asbest,os which is more lethal has been banned in most developed
countries.

Radioactivity

The potential sources of high radioactivity in Sri Lanka are monazite sands1"at,
Beruwela and granite used as flooring in buildings. The former has radioactive
thorium in its compositjon which gives harmful levels of exposure due to y-decay
to specially those who build houses using such contaminated sand. The presence of
trace amounts of radioactive minerals in granite is also a matter o.f concern.
Exposure to radioactive radon from granite in poorly ventilated buildings is possible
and since the decay products of radon are solids, they get deposited along the
membranes of the respiratory tract. These solid elements in turn are radioactive
and may cause adverse health effects in humans. In a related study17i t was
estimated that the activjty of radon in poorly ventilated indoor areas was 4 Bqm-"
while in outdoor air i t was .= 0.03 Bqm-". Background radioactivity levels have
been determinedl('nt Hendala where the beach sands contain radioactive minerals
such as monazite. The average value recorded a t Hendala was 5.47 mSv h-l when
compared to a background level of 0.46 mSv h-'.

Pcsticiclcs a.nd ot h.er vola.tile orga7i.i~~

Volatile organic compounds in air arise from a multitude of sources. In Sri Lanka,
there are isolated cases of organic solvents and other chemicals leaking into
workplaces in factories affecting factory workers and sometimes surrounding
communities. There is extensive contamination of workers i11 pesticide formulating
factories where proper occupational hygiene standards are not maintained1" and
many workers are reported to manifest unsatisfactory cholinesterase levels.
Pestpicidessprayed over vegetable plots may result in localised areas of high
pesticide content in the atmosphere. Odour pollution may also result from volatile
organic compounds in addition to ammonia and hydrogen sulphide generated
during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. One particular example
is the unpleasant odour emanating from the Beira lalie.
Environmental Pollution

Acid rain.

Rain water is considered acidic if its pH value is less than 5.6 and increased acidity
is the result of acidic precursors such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide
generated due to burning of fossil fuel. In countries where coal fired power plants
are extensively used, the sulphate content is much higher than t h e nitrate
component. In a study on acid rain in Sri LankaZ0atseveral locations throughout
the country, the occurrence of acid rain in several locations has been reported. Acid
rain is commonly found in the hill country where pollutants get deposited owing to
wind and also a t certain locations such as Anuradhapura and Maha-Illuppallama
during the months of November and December. This is likely due to the north east
monsoon carr.ying acid precursors from the coal power plants in India. In a related
study," rain and fog analysis a t Horton Plains indicated that the pH of rain water
varied from 5.37 to 7.47 with sulphate concentrations of 0-3.39 mgll and nitrate
concentrations ranging from 0-3.54 mgA. The fog analysis indicated much higher
acidities with pH values as low as 3.88 recorded during the dry season of April to
May. Such high acidities of fog may have adverse effects on sensitive ecosystems
such as the observed die back of certain sections of the montane forest at Horton
Plains. In a study"" carried out at Matara it was reported that the convectional
rains where there is little or no wind had relatively higher acidity compared to
monsoonal rains which are accompanied by wind.

Acid rain 1s responsible for the depletion of fish in lakes of Scandinavian

countries and the destruction of Pi~zustrees from the alpine forests of Germany.
Jncreased acidity leaches out excessive amounts of aluminium and this presumably
affects the stomata1 inechanlsm in leaves resulting in the loss of leaves from trees.
Increased acidity of fog may also explam the frost bite affecting young potato plants
and it is a common practice of the upcountry potato cultivators to wash off the
morning fog with plenty of water.

The contribution of' greenhouse gases towards global warming is well known.
Potential sources of greenhouse gases include paddy felds and lagoons, animal
farms, forest clearing and their burning, petroleum combustion and other
mdustrial activities. There is very little information available for the contribution
of greenhouse gases from Sri Lanka since local emission factors have still been not,
worked out. There have been some attempts2Ja t computing our contributions of
greenhouse gases based on emission factors developed elsewhere. The estimated
ainounts of greenhouse gases from the agricultural sector and forest clearing
activities is given i n table 4 while the emissions of greenhouse gases from the
energy sector are given in table 5.
310 O.A. Ilcperuma

Table 4: Estimated greenhouse gas emissions from natural and

agricultural activities.

Source emission rate kTIyr

Forest clearing 4960 15.7 0.35

Forest soils
Lagoons and marshes
Animals and waste
Land fills
Paddy fields
Fertjliser use
Total 4960

Table 5: Estimated emission of greenhouse gases from the energy sector

Emission rate BTIyr

Petroleum combustioll 1389 0.17

Biomass combustion 11,557 12.46
Total 12,596 12.63

Water poll71,tion

Pollution of waterways is a serious environmental problem faced by the world

today. Water is essential for all life forms and for industry. Millions of people in the
world die every year from water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and bowel
diseases and faecal contamination of drinking water is responsible for hepatitis
and amoebic dysentery. Two thousand million people are a t risk from water
borne diseases and 3.2 million children die world wide each year from such
diseases.

Water pollution in Sri Lanka results from domestic, industrial and

agricultural activities. Less than 25% of all households in Sri Lanlra have access to
pipeborne water and lack of health education further aggravates these problems.
Even pipeborne water provided by local authorities is not monitored for the presence
of trace organic compounds such as pesticides and heavy metals. The major water
pollutants affecting our water bodies are given in table 6.

Table 6: Major types of water pollutants with examples and their

environmental effects.

Class of Pollutant Example Significance

Trace elements Hg,Cd,Pb,Cr health

Radionuclides Pu toxicity
Inorg,mic pollutants nitrate, phosphate eutrophication
Trace organic polluta~lts polychlorinated biphenyls cancer
pesticides
petroleum wastes(oil1
Sewage human and animal waste diseases, water
quality
pathogens
Organic phosphates detergents eutrophication
Heat coolarlt water from fish population
power plants
Sediments silting of lalces reduced capacity
for power generation

Lalces in Sri L'mka, such as the Beira lake and the Kandy lalre are two of the
most poll~ztedwater bodies in Srj Lanka with regular outbreaks of algal blooms
arising from eutrophication. The increased organic content in water bodies depletes
oxygen and affects fish populations. 111 a studyz4on the water quality of the two
lalses a t Nuwara Eliya, Lake Gregory and the Barrack's Plain reservoir, it was found
that the dissolved oxygen content of these lalres is sometimes too small to sustain a
reasonable fish population. The main cause of pollutjon is the discharge of raw
sewage, hospital waste and vegetable waste direct into the feeder streams.

Pollutiol~of the Kelani river a n d oth.er zvater hodics

The Kelanl river is the most highly polluted river in Sri Lanlca which drains the
most populated province in the country with many industries discharging both
treated and untreated industrial effluents. The Central Environmental Authority
lists 23 major industries along the river with 20 discharging effluent directly into
the river or its tributaries. (table 7).

Domestic and industrial waste collected by municipalities and local councils

is dumped either direct int.0 the river or into garbage disposal sites close to the
river. Seepage from the Orugodawatte garbage dumping ground of the Colombo
Municipal Council feeds the Kelani river and this effluent is high in pathogenic
bacteria, organic content and heavy metals. There are several. textile factories
discharging organic dye waste into the Kelani river downstream of Hanwella arid
some of these dyes may be cumulative poisons. The Colombo Municipality extracts
Kelani river water and during chlorination, these organic compounds may be
chl.orinated producing carcinogenic chloroaromatic compounds. Long term
accumulation of such chloroaromatic compounds is lcnown to cause gastric cancers
and perl~apskidney diseases.

Table 7 : Untreated industrial effluent outfall into the Kelani river

Industry Emuent type

Pugoda textiles Textile dye effluent

Plywood corporation Glue mixtures
McCallum Brewery Brewery waste (carbohydrates)
Ceylon Cold Stores Bottlewash water, oil,
grease, detergents
Pure Beverages Ltd. Bottlewash water, oil, grease,
detergents
Petroleum ref nery Petroleum effluent
Fertilizer corporation Fertilizer effluent
Tyre corporation Waste water
Ceylon Transport Board Service station waste
Madampitiya sewage worlcs Domestic sewage
Leather tanning factory Chromium salts
Ambatale water treatment Organic waste
plant
Rubber factories acetic/formjc acids, amino acids

A number of reportsz5on the water qualjty of this rjver are available for
sites throughout the length of the river. In general pollution indicators such as
BOD, NH:: and NO; show a regular increase from the origin of the river to the point
of discharge into the sea. The heavy metal concentrations are high a t Thotalanga
where seepage water from the Orugodawatte garbage disposal site flows into the
river. The mean concentrations recordedz0were Pb(7.4 ppb) Cd(2.7 ppb), Cu(10.2
ppb), Sn(52.5 ppb) and Mn(650 ppb). Heavy metal concentrations (Cr,Pb,Zn and
Cd) in the Beira and the Lunawa lagoon have been investigatedz7and they were
found to be lower than the standards of the Central Environment Authority for
industrial waste water. However, many people use this lagoon for washing and
bathing and if the drinking water standards are taken Into account, the lead
concentrations are higher than the allowed values. High concentrations of lead most,
likely could arise from industries involved in recovering lead from old car batteries.
Environmental Pollzrtion

z
'f?
03
10
 Pollution of our lakes and lagoons is extensive in terms of organic load given
out by domestic and industrial refuse. Very often household refuse collected by
Mdnicipalities and Pradeshiya Sabhas is directly dumped into rivers. Coliform
bacterial counts often exceed the permitted values. Some examples of highly
polluted lakes include; Beira lake, Kandy lake, Bolgoda lake, lagoons a t Negombo
and Lunawa, Lake Gregory and Barrack's Plain reservoir a t Nuwara ElIya. Some
available water quality parameters for these water bodies are given in Table 8. It
must be stressed. that the data in this table come from several independent studies
and should be viewed with caution. These values give only a rough estimate of the
water quality status since there is a wide variation in the values obtained depending
on the season, time of collection of samples and the location of the sampling points.
Although the drinlring water quality standards are often exceeded in the coliform
counts and COD values, the standards for industrial waste wat,er are rarely exceeded
in these water bodIes. In the broadest sense, the dissolved oxygen content can be
used as an indicator of the extent of pollution in a water body (table 9).According to
this index the Meda-Ela of Kandy, Negombo lagoon and the Hamilton canal can be
considered as highly polluted, Kandy lake to be moderately polluted and the Kelani
and the Mahaweli rivers slightly polluted. The Barrack's Plain reservoir is actually
not a reservoir a t all a t the present time due to extensive human activities having
reduced it to a mere pool of water at its very end. The dissolved oxygen in this
water body is too low for any form of aquatic life to survive.

Table 9 : Relationship between water quality and the dissolved oxygen

(DO) content.

Water Quality Amount of Dissolved

oxygen (mg~l)
Excellent 8.0-9.0
Slightly polluted 6.7-8.0
Moderately polluted 4.5-6.0
Highly polluted <4.5

Heavy metal pollution exceeding safe limits have been reported"" from Kindy
lake where the average levels of Pb, Cd and V are 150, 80 and 15 ppb respectively.
These certainly exceed the CEA standards of 100 ppb for Pb and 10 ppb for Cd.
However the validity of these values has been q ~ e s t i o n e d . ~ ~ i m i l athe
r l yMeda-
Ela in Kandy is reportedly excessively contaminated with heavy metals (Table 8).

P o l l u t d o ~of~ other rivers

The accumulation of oxygen demanding wastes adversely affects aquatic life. The
Walawe river is polluted from Embilipitiya downstream owing to the discharge of
untreated black liquor wastes from the paper factory The discharge of textile dyes
t o the Maha-Oya at Thulhiriya is another example. The water in these cases is
unsuitable for bathing and even animals are a t risk from drinking such
contaminated water.

Algal toxins

The algal blooms reported in the Beira and Kandy lakes can be attributed to
excessive amounts of raw sewage discharged directly into these water bodies. This
provides organic matter, nitrates and phosphates which stimulate the growth of
blue-green algae such as Microcystis. These nutrients enter the water bodies also
due to industrial and agricultural activities. Several Mahaweli reservoirs also
experience algal blooms owing to excessive.fertilization of vegetable farms and tea
estates upstream. The addition of blue green algae increases the organic content of
a reservoir thereby depleting it of vital oxygen required for aquatic life and this
may result in lower fish populations of these reservoirs.

Some blue-green algae produce toxins which can have serious health
implications for humans, fish and other animals like cattle. Three main types of
toxins have been identified; hepatotoxins, (liver damage, gastrointestinal problems),
neurotoxins (muscle tremor, paralysis) endotoxins (skin rashes, eye irritation and
other allergic reactions). Microcystis produces microcystin LR having a relative
toxicity 1000 times greater than cyanide. Occasional occurrences of algal blooms
have been reported from the smaller tanks in the North Central province and it is
important to educate the local population about the health hazards of using such
contaminated water for drinking, bathing and for use by cattle.

Pesticides

Large quantities of pesticides are increasingly used in Sri Lanka to sustain

agriculture. Every year around 3000 tons of pesticides are sprayed over the
environment and most of these finally end up in our waterways. Monitoring of
pesticides in drinking water is absolutely essential t o determine such contamination
since these tend to accumulate in the fatty tissues of humans and can have long
term health effects. Several pesticides with concentrations in the parts per billion
(ppb) range were found" in Mahaweli river water a t Peradeniya. The technique
employed for this study involved the use of solid phase cartridge type concentrators
and gas chromatography. The origin of these pesticides is probably the intensively
cultivated vegetable areas of Nuwara Eliya.

Very few analytical results on the contamination of fruits and vegetables with
pesticides have been reported from Sri Lanka. In an earlier study, Ramasundaram
et al.""determined chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in fruits, vegetables, fruitjuices,
tobacco and tea using gas chromatographic techniques. Both DQT and BHC were
316 O.A.Ileperuma

detected but below the WHOIFAO recommended residue tolerance values. In

another studf30, it was found that greengram and cowpea from the Kurunegala
district were contaminated with malathion (0.005-6 ppm) and pirimiphos methyl
(0.002-4.85 ppm). Some food products exported to the USA had low levels of
chloropyrifos and endosulfan but within the accepted tolerance limits. In a related
study, it was found31that green chillies were contaminated with low levels of these
two pesticides but well below the tolerance limits stipulated by FAO.
. .

Nitrate

Pollution due to excessive amounts of nitrogenous species such as ammonium,

nitrite and nitrate is very common in areas of high population density and excessive
fertiliser usage. In a study3%n the nitrate concentrations from shallow water wells
in the Kandy district, it was found that the average nitrate content was around 2.5
ppm which is well below the WHO recommended value of 50 ppm. However, the
validity of this standard as applied to a tropical country such a s Sri Lanka is
debatable since people consume far greater quantities of water than in a temperate
country. In one well"" a t Galagedera, in the Kandy district, the concentration of
nitrate was around 23 ppm and similar high values of nitrate have been found from
well waters a t Maharagama where septic tanks are in close proximity to deep water
wells. Nitrate is variously associated with diseases like methaemoglobinemia,
gastric cancer, thinning of blood vessels, aggressive behavior and hypertension. None
of these have been conclusively established from scientific studies in Sri Lanka
although some suggestions have been made that the high nitrate in drinking
water in the ~ a f f n apeninsula is responsible for abnormally high incidence of
gastric cancer in this area.

Pollution. due to heavy metals

Pollution due to heavy metals can arise due to a number of reasons. Discharge of
industrial effluents, deposition of motor car exhaust fumes and geological features
of the soil are some of these factors. Arewgoda'Vound that well waters around
Kelaniya where a number of brass foundries are in operation are contaminated
with Pb (0.095 pprn), cadmium (0.065 ppm) and zinc (10.91 ppm).

Chromium is present in soil at concentrations ranging from.1-250ppm and in water

a t levels ranging from 1-10 mg~l.It is important to animal health and is considered
to b e a co-factor for the action of insulin. Chromium in coal is reported to be around
60 m g k g and between 27.5-60.0 m g k g is found in Portland cement and hence
cement dust could significantly contribute to chromium in such an environment.
Asbestos contains 1500 mgkg of chromium and inhaling asbestos dust is hence
harmful not only due to its carcinogenic activity but also due to other toxic effects of
E~~uironmental
Pollution 317

chromium. Welders are exposed to welding fumes containing 2-4% water soluble
CrCVI) and 0.2-296 water insoluble Cr(II1) and metallic fumes. Chromium has been
indicated as a cause of lung cancer and welders are particular prone to having lung
and urinary cancers owing to chromium.

Chromates are generated in chromium plating, anodizing and other metal

finishing operations in Sri Lanka where the disposal methods are generally of a
very primitive nature. Electroplating wastes may also inhibit biological sewage
treatment by killing beneficial bacteria. -Chromium compounds irritate the skin
and dermatitis amongst the workers a t the government leather factory has been
rep0rte8~ as for back as 1947. In Sri Lanka basic chromic sulphate 1s used in the
leather tannery a t Kelaniya where the effluent is discharged to the Kelani river.
This has caused numerous environmental problems in the past and the occasional
fish kills of the Kelani river have been largely attributed to chromium poisoning.
The presence of excessive chromiud" green leafy vegetables grown in the Kelaniya
area has caused considerable alarm where concentrations up to 200 ppm chromium
have been observed. However epidemiological studies on the long term health effects
of chromium toxicity have not been carried out in Sri Lanka.

Zinc

Zinc contamination occurs mainly in the manufacture of brass in open crucibles

where the sand used in moulds is generally dumped on open ground. The soil gets
heavily contaminated with zinc, copper, lead and cadmium which eventually get
washed by rain water. In Kelaniya, where there are a large number ofbrass foundries,
metal fume fever is a common health problem of workers. Vegetation too gets affected
and. no vegetable or flower plants grow on such heavily contaminated soils.

Recovery of gold & silver from jeweller's waste is an occupation of a number of

families in the Kelaniya area where mercury or lead is used to form alloys of these
precious metals. Absorption of mercury and lead in the vapour phase affects the
health of these families with symptoms such as tiredness, abdominal discomfort,
anaemia and behavioral changes in children. The mean urinary mercury level of
families engaged in gold recovery was 0.5141 ppm which is significantly higheP6
than in the control group where the mean level was 0.0734 ppm.

Lead

Concentration of lead in exhaust fumes of petrol vehicles is typically 2000-10,000

pglm". Tetraethyl lead added as an anti-knock agent to petrol reacts with other
additives such as dichloroethane and dibromoethane giving lead chloride and lead
bromide. These get deposited on roadside plants and on the soil. Household dust is
318 O.A.Ileperuma

the major source of contamination indoors while people on the street may inhale
freshly generated lead compounds before deposition and agglomeration. Street
children are particularly vulnerable and it has been shown that lead inhalation
gives rise to neuropsychological disorders and reduces learning abilities. In severe
cases even mental retardation is possible and most countries have programmes to
phase out the use of lead in petrol. Blood lead levels of family members involved in
recovering gold from shop sweepings often exceed 40 pgldL."" In a related study,
Dissanayake and Weerasooriya r e p ~ r t e d lead
" ~ levels as high as 14 mglg in human
hair of inhabitants living close to highways in Kandy and this can be attributed
directly to the high degree of air pollution from motor vehicles. In a study of the
blood lead levels of some categories of people who spend a considerable time on the
streets, Arewgoda"' found that traffic policemen had the highest lead levels (53 pgl
dL) followed by three- wheeler drivers (15 pgldL) and street vendors (12.6 pg1dL).
The control group in this case had a lead level of 8.8 pg/dL. Lead levels beyond 15
pg/dL are detrimental to human health while i t is hazardous to have levels beyond
40 pg/dL.

Aluminium

Aluminium toxicity due to leaching of minerals due to acid rain is largely blamed
as the cause for depletion of fish from Scandinavian lakes and also for the destruction
of alpine forests in Germany. Acid rain occurs in many parts of Sri Lanka3?and the
effects of leached aluminium on flora and fauna have not been properly assessed.
In an isolated instance, Pathiratna et reported that wells within a 2 km2 area
around Ranala had pH values of 3.57-4.88 well below the pH range suitable for
drinking water. The aluminium content in these wells was found to be as high as
1100 pglm.:; and acid drainage from the sulphuric acid plant at Ranala which operated
for a brief period is the probable cause for'this type of pollution.

Cadmium

Cadmium is almost always associated with zinc and the zinc to cadmium ratio
plays a vital role on the effect of zinc on living organisms. Excessive cadmium
adversely affects humans and the consumption of cadmium rich rice by humans
caused the extremely painful disease in Japan commonly referred to as the
Itai-Itai disease.

Cadmium is not considered as an essential element but accumulates mainly

in the kidneys of the human body, from the environment through food, water and
cigarette smoke. This has been considered as a factor contributing to hypertension,
specially among heavy cigarette smokers. Cadmium contamination of exported
Shitake mushrooms has been reported41 with values in excess of 0.05 mgllcg. The
growth medium for these mushrooms was rubber wood sawdust. The origin of
Environmental Pollution 319

cadmium in this case has been found to be the imported phosphate fertilisers
which contained around 5-15 mgkg of cadmium. Interestingly, the same authors
found that local Eppawela apatite phosphate contained no detectable cadmium.

Detoxification of polluted waters

Development of low cost methods for removing heavy metals in industrial effluents
has received the attention of scientists in Sri Lanka. Chemical precipitation has
been traditionally used for this process and decaying leaves have been used for
removal of metals such as Al, Ni, Pb and Cd from aqueous solution.42Activated
carbon too has been used to remove heavy metals as well as organic contaminant^.^^
Brick particle filters used for the removal of excessive fluoride in water also removed
heavy metal ions like Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb from their dilute solutions.
Priyantha et a144found more than 90% removal of metal ions from industrial effluent
samples using brick particles. Another material reported by the same authorsqsis
sawdust from Albizzia odoratissima(mara) which removed organic dyes as well as
heavy metals like Cu, Zn, Cd. The same authors have reported4"he use of glass
columns packed with burnt brick particles for the removal of lead from water. The
removal of phosphate by dolomite has been reported by Priyantha and c o - ~ o r k e r s ~ ~
where the removal of up to 60% of phosphate in polluted water samples was
observed. The adsorption of coloured industrial effluents such as textile dyes on
ball clay has been reported by Priyantha et where the adsorption of dyes such
as malachite green, methylene blue, crystal violet, congo red and commercial textile
dyes on ball clay has been established. While the methods described above refer to
concentration of pollutants in a suitable form to be discarded or buried, they do
not necessarily convert the pollutants into inactive forms or reuse the materials
in a useful way. Disposal of some toxic metals in concentrated forms in itself may
have its own inherent problems.

The use of semiconductors such a s titanium dioxide for the complete

photodegradation of organic pollutants is well established. Several investigations
using TiO, supported on glass plates or polythene films to degrade pesticides such
as chloropyrifos4!',methamidophos"" have been reported. Tennakone et al. in a series
of papers have reported the photodegradation of textile dyes", paraquaV2 and the
removal of l e a p and mercury54from waste water on TiO,. Some aquatic weeds
have the ability to accumulate heavy metal ions and there have been a number of
studies on the bioremediation of heavy metal pollutants using aquatic weeds. The
use ofHydrilla"",alvin.ia and Eichornidyor this purpose has been demonstrated.
Priyantha et al"? reported that Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce) is capable of
removing about 35%of the metal ions from dilute solutions containing the metals;
Mg,Ca,Mn,Fe,Co,Cu,Zn and Pb .
 O.A.Ileper-uma

CONCLUSION

There is significant environmental pollution in Sri Lanka with increasing economic

prosperity and increasing population. Air pollution in major cities such as Colombo
is a major health hazard specially with respect to ozone and fine particles.
Environmental action plans to control air pollution are an urgent necessity.
Our waterways a r e getting increasingly polluted by human sewage which has a
direct impact on human health. There is a need to monitor pesticides in drinking
water as they may have long term health effects such as cancer. There is also the
possibility offood contamination through pesticides sprayed on vegetables and fruits
close to the time of harvesting. Isolated instances of heavy metal pollution by lead,
chromium and mercury have been reported.

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