NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES AND

TECHNOLOGY

HU-101
Islamic Studies
(Detailed Course Contents)

Prepared by:
Mr. Ammar Ahmed
Lecturer, SEECS

Ms. Pakeeza Tabassum

Lecturer, CEME

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Study of Quran – Guidance for Mankind ...................................................................... 4
1.1 Introduction to Quran ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Significance of Quran’s Preservation: ................................................................................. 12
1.3 Main themes of Quran ......................................................................................................... 16
1.4 Building a relationship with the Qura’n .............................................................................. 17
1.5 Tawheed (A submission to Allah swt) ................................................................................ 22
1.6 Self-Purification .................................................................................................................. 28
1.7 Wisdom ............................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 2: Human Rights in Islam ................................................................................................ 47
2.1 Last Sermon of Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon Him) ........... 48
2.2 Rights to Life ....................................................................................................................... 51
2.2 Right to Property ................................................................................................................. 65
2.3 Right to Protect One’s Honor .............................................................................................. 73
2.4 Right to Justice .................................................................................................................... 78
Chapter 3: Moral & Ethical Foundations of Islam ........................................................................ 82
3.1 Tolerance ............................................................................................................................. 83
3.2 Forgiveness.......................................................................................................................... 93
3.3 Etiquettes of conversation ................................................................................................. 101
3.4 Truthfulness & Honesty .................................................................................................... 106
3.5 Sincerity............................................................................................................................. 109
3.6 Fulfillment of Promise....................................................................................................... 112
Chapter 4: Islamic Civilization – Prominent Features................................................................. 117
4.1 Islamic Culture .................................................................................................................. 118
4.2 Education and Science in Islam: ........................................................................................ 121
4.3: Islam and contemporary world ......................................................................................... 126
Chapter 5: Islam in our Times ..................................................................................................... 132
5.1 The Islamic world view ..................................................................................................... 132
5.2 The World Religions – A Historical context ..................................................................... 138
5.3 Islamic sciences ................................................................................................................. 141
Chapter 6: Islam and state – A Historical Perspective ................................................................ 150
6.1 Ideology of Religion and state:.......................................................................................... 151
6.2 Islam and the state during caliphate .................................................................................. 152
6.3 Islam and the state in subsequent periods.......................................................................... 156
Chapter 7: Geopolitical Dynamics of the world and Muslim Ummah ........................................ 164

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 7.1 Islamic Political sociology in the modern age ................................................................... 170
7.2 Ideological mobilization in the Muslim world .................................................................. 173
7.3 Rise and decline of Muslim Ummah ................................................................................. 179
Chapter 8: Muslim and Universal Citizens.................................................................................. 187
8.1 Nature and structure of the Muslim world as Globalized Islam ........................................ 187
8.2 Universal of Human Rights ............................................................................................... 200

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Chapter 1: Study of Quran – Guidance for Mankind

1.1 Introduction to Quran

The Quran is the Muslim scripture, that is to say the scripture of the followers of Islam.
Islam is the religion established among the Arabs (people largely confined to the Arabian
Peninsula) by the Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) in the early seventh century. The message
was revealed in Arabic, the language of the people it was initially addressed to, even
though the message was ultimately for the whole of humanity. Thus, the Quran is the
final message that supersedes and reiterates the basic religion God ordained for the Jews
and the Christians, as well as the Muslims.

The word "Quran," a verbal noun, is equivalent in meaning to "qira'ah," as both come
from the verb "qara'a" which means "to read.” Literally it means, that Quran is the last
sacred book revealed by Allah swt on His beloved Prophet Muhammad (peace and
blessings of Allah be upon him), through Gabriel a.s in the time span of approx. 23 years
which starts from the Sura Al-Fatiha and ends at Sura Al-Naas, consisting of 114
chapters, 30 paras, 7 manzil/ahzab, 540 ruku, 6236 verses.

In the beginning, there were no movements (zabar, zair, paish) and dots of letters in
Quran. It was said that the first person who introduced the movements and dots on letters
was Abu Al-Aswad al-Duwali in the rein of Ali r.a. For the zabar a dot above the letter,
for the zair a dot under the letter, for paish a dot in front of the letter and for tanween two
dots were introduced in the same fashion. In later times, these dots as movements become
a confusion with the original dots of the letters. But later on, with the instructions of
Hajjaj bin Yousaf to Yayha ibn-e-Ya’mar and Hasan Al-Basari, they introduced a
standard form of movements as presently we have in Quran. Moreover, different signs
have been introduced for indication purpose where to stop and where not.
The original names of Quran are five, which are mentioned in Quran, i.e.:

‫ التنزيل‬،‫ الكتاب‬،‫ الذكر‬،‫ الفرقان‬،‫القرأن‬

But some scholars like Abu al-Muali mentioned 55 names of it in his book al-Burahan fi
Mushkilat-ul-Quran. Moreover, this book is the wordings of Allah not the creation of His.
This is a very fundamental aqeedah related to Quran and according to it, Allah swt did
not create the Quran like He swt created the universe by saying Kun-fayakun (‫)كن فيكون‬,

but He swt Himself recited it, that is why Quran is the wordings of Allah (‫)كالم هللا‬. This
false aqeedah started in the rein of Mamoon al-Rasheed, but later on it was ended with
the contributions of Islamic scholars.

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Status and its importance
 This book is the most sacred book whose preservation’s responsibility took by
Allah Himself.
 This book is one of the outstanding miracles by Allah swt to His Prophet (pbuh).
 A person gets rewarded on every single word of Quran that he recites.

 Another specialty of Quran is that Allah swt has made this Quran easy to
understand and easy to memorize, as no other sacred book has its reminders.

 No other book has the feature to recite like Quran, Quran is the only book that has
this specialty that no one gets bore while listening it even after thousand times.

 The way the Quran explains the historical events and other particulars, no Arab
poet could reach its significance.
 Through Quran we get the “Qurb of Allah”.

Rights of Quran
 A Muslim cannot be a true Muslim unless he believes firmly on whatever
describes in it, as mentioned in Quran:

‫اب الَّ ِذي نا َّز ال اعلاى ار ُسولِ ِه‬ ِ ‫َّلل ورسولِ ِه وال‬
ِ ‫ْكتا‬ ِ ِ
‫آمنُوا آمنُوا ِِب َّ ا ا ُ ا‬
‫ين ا‬
ِ َّ
‫اَي أايُّ اها الذ ا‬

“O you Muslims, believe on your Lord and His Prophet, and believe on this book
which is revealed to the Prophet”. (Sura Nisa, v. 136)

 Recitation of Holy Quran regularly with understanding, as Prophet (PBUH) said:

“Read the Quran as it will come on the Day of Judgment as intercession to its
followers.
 Listen to the Quran keenly and quietly and abstain from gossips as Allah swt
mentioned in Quran in:
ِ ْ‫استا ِمعوا لاهُ وأان‬
‫صتُوا ل ااعلَّ ُك ْم تُ ْر اَحُو ان‬ ‫اوإِذاا قُ ِر ا‬
‫ا‬ ُ ْ ‫ئ الْ ُق ْرآ ُن فا‬

“Whenever Quran is being recited, listen to it keenly, and stay quiet, so that may
Allah showers His blessings upon you.” (Al-A’raf v. 24)
 Application of rules and regulation in life what described in Quran.
 Getting purity before reading Quran.
 Spread the knowledge of Quran to the people after seeking it.

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Revelation:
Revelation or ‫ وحي‬comes from the root word ‫ إحياء‬which means “to indicate something
immediately”. It is a secrete way to send messages to the Prophets by Allah swt, for the
guidance of mankind. The total time span of revealing Quran is 22 years, 2 months and
22 days.

Do we need revelation? This question comprises in many minds. Yes of course we need
revelation, because we cannot know and understand the things which are beyond of our
five senses. A human brain is only capable of understand and apprehend things based on
five senses i.e. touching, seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting. The human brain can only sense
with these five senses. So in order to know about the things which are beyond the human
mind capabilities we need revelation, i.e. to know about our Creator, about the Heaven
and Hell and all those things which are not seen. Moreover, even what the brain can think
cannot conclude appropriately every time e.g. if a person kills someone, he did not only
kill that person but also effected the life of victim’s family. At one instance human brain
thinks that he should be killed. On the other hand it says what benefit we would get by
killing this person as that murdered person will not come back even after killing the
murderer? Moreover, likes and dislikes of every Human being are different to each other.
As a result confliction arises as everyone thinks in opposite dimension. In this case we
need revelation that explains us a standard way of life, a standard law that equally
beneficial for everyone.
This Quran starts revealing in the month of Ramadan as mentioned:

‫ضا ان الَّ ِذي أُنْ ِز ال فِ ِيه الْ ُق ْرآن‬

‫اش ْه ُر ارام ا‬
Ramadan is the month in which the Quran has been revealed. (Al-Baqarah, v.185)

The Quran has been preserved by Allah swt in the “Loh-e-Mahfooz” since very long
time. After that it has been revealed in two stages:

Firstly; a complete revelation from the “Loh-e-Mahfooz” to “bait-al-Ma’moor” or bait-ul-

‘izzah” a place situated at the first sky to earth, where the “ka’ba of angels is located.
This first stage one time complete revelation is explained in the Quran with the word ‫أنزلنا‬

or ‫ إنزال‬as mentioned in Quran:

...‫ني إِ ََّّن أانْ ازلْنااهُ ِِف ل ْاي لا ٍة ُمبا ااراك ٍة‬

ِ ِ‫اب ال ُْمب‬ ِ ‫حم وال‬
ِ ‫ْكتا‬ ‫ا‬
Ha Meem, by the enlightening scripture. We have revealed it on a blessed night. (Sura
Al-Dukhan, v.2, 3)

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Secondly; in a discreet form from “bait-ul-ma’moor” to the heart of the Prophet (Pbuh) in
approx. 23 years according to the time and situation required. This second type of
revelation is explained in the Quran with the word ‫ نزل‬or ‫ تنزيل‬as mentioned in Quran:

‫ث اونا َّزلْنااهُ تا ْن ِز ايال‬ ُ ِ ‫آَّن فا ارقْنااهُ لِتا ْق ارأاهُ اعلاى الن‬

ٍ ‫َّاس اعلاى م ْك‬ ‫اوقُ ْر ا‬
“The Quran which We unfolded gradually, that you may recite to the people over time.
And We revealed it in stages”. (Al-Isra, v. 106)

Sometimes Gabriel a.s came with a complete sura, sometimes with some verses and
sometime a part of a single verse, e.g. the shortest revelation is (‫َّرِر‬ ِ ‫ )غاْي ُر أ‬is a part of
‫ُوِل الض ا‬
a verse of sura al-Nisa, v.95, as mentioned in Quran:
َِّ ‫يل‬
...‫اَّلل ِِب ْام اواِلِِ ْم اوأانْ ُف ِس ِه ْم‬ ِ ‫ُوِل الضَّرِر والْمج‬
ِ ِ‫اه ُدو ان ِِف اسب‬ ِ ‫ني غاْي ُر أ‬ِِ ِ ِ
‫ا ا ُا‬ ‫اَل يا ْستا ِوي الْ اقاع ُدو ان م ان ال ُْم ْؤمن ا‬
“Not equal are those of the believers who sit (at home), except those who are disabled (by
injury or are blind or lame etc) and those who strive hard and fight in the cause of Allah
with their wealth and their lives.”

First verses to be revealed are of Sura Alaq (v.1-5). Some said Sura al-Fatiha was the first
one to be revealed and some scholars were in the opinion that Sura Mudassir was the first
one to be revealed. There is not a point of contradiction, as Sura Fatiha was the first
complete Sura to be revealed. Moreover, Sura Mudassir was the first one to be revealed
as a continuous revelation after the disconnection of revelation for a year. And Sura Alaq
v.1-5 was the overall first verses to be reveled in Quran.

Last verses to be revealed are of Sura Bakara, as there are two different opinions about it
i.e. v. 281 and v. 278, as mentioned in Quran:

ِ ‫اَّللا اوذا ُروا اما باِقي ِم ان‬

...‫الرِب‬ َّ ‫آمنُوا اتَّ ُقوا‬
‫ين ا‬
ِ َّ
‫اَي أايُّ اها الذ ا‬
‫ا‬
“O! You who believe; be afraid of Allah and give up what remains (due to you) from
Riba (Usury) from now onwards”… (Al-Baqarah, v.278)

...‫ت او ُه ْم اَل يُظْلا ُمو ان‬

ْ ‫سبا‬ َِّ ‫واتَّ ُقوا ي وما تُرجعو ان فِ ِيه إِ اَل‬
ٍ ‫اَّلل ُُثَّ تُ او ََّّف ُك ُّل نا ْف‬
‫س اما اك ا‬ ُ ‫اْ ا ْ ا‬ ‫ا‬
“And be afraid of the Day when you shall be brought back to Allah. Then every person
shall be paid what he earned, and they shall not be dealt with unjustly”. (Al-Baqarah,
v.281)

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Meccan & Medinan Suras/Verses:
Meccan verses are those verses which were revealed before the migration to Medina,
regardless of either they revealed in Mecca or outside of Mecca. These are 86 in numbers
and there time span is 12 years, 5 months and 13 days.

Medinan verses are those which were revealed after the migration took place. These are
28 in numbers and there time span is 9 years, 9 month and 9 days.
The only reason behind distributing them into Meccan and Medinian verses/sura is to
understand the actual meaning related to verses by knowing the background and
situations in which verses were revealed to avoid misinterpretation.
Beside this, scholars have mentioned some distinctive signs for it, which are as under:
َّ in it is Meccan Sura.
1. Every Sura which contains the word (‫)كال‬

2. Every Sura that contains “verse of Sajda” in it is a Meccan Sura.

3. Every Sura that discusses the incidents of Adam a.s and Satin except Sura Bakara
is Meccan Sura.
4. Every Sura that discusses the matters of Jihad in it is Medinan Sura.
5. Meccan Sura’s are usually shorter in length, while as Medinan Sura’s are longer.

6. In Meccan Sura’s problems of doctrine like Oneness of God and others has been
described while in Medinan Sura’s, the social and political issues, criminal laws
and obligations has been described.

7. In Meccan Sura’s the addresses are the non-believers while in Medinan Sura’s the
normal addresses are the people of sacred books and hypocrites.

Different modes of revelation:

 Direct Revelation:
This type of revelation Allah swt directly reveals on to the heart of Prophets
without any means. Either in the form of awakening or in the form of sleeping
like in dreams. This type of revelation is the toughest form of revelations as
Ayesha r.a said that: “when this type of revelation came to the Prophet Pbuh, He
start sweating even in the severe cold days”. Moreover, the weight of the Prophet
Pbuh used to get increased, as what Hazrat Zaid bin Sabit r.a explained that:
“Once the Prophet (Pbuh) was lying his head on my thigh and at the moment
revelation came, suddenly the weight of the Prophet increased so much that I
couldn’t bear the pain and start thinking of that my leg will break”. And on one
occasion of Hajat ul wada, Prophet Pbuh was riding His camel, when the

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 revelation came, the camel sat down due to the weight of the revelation. For that
Allah swt says in the Quran about revelation:
َّ ‫ص ِد اعا ِم ْن اخ ْشيا ِة‬
...‫اَّلل‬ ِ
‫لا ْو أانْ ازلْناا اه اذا الْ ُق ْرآ ان اعلاى اجبا ٍل ل اارأايْ تاهُ اخاش اعا ُمتا ا‬
If We had caused the Quran revealed on mountains, You verily had seen it
humbled (Sura al-Hashar, v. 12)
Sometimes Prophet (Pbuh) heard bell sounds at the time of this revelation and
sometimes of bee buzzing. Some scholars explained the reason of sending the
revelation in bell sounds is to protect from being heard by Satins or Jinn. This
arrangement was actually to encode and encrypt the message like Morse code so
as to be received and understandable to the concerned person.

 Revelation through conversation:

This type of revelation, Allah swt again directly reveals something to His
Prophets without any mean through conversation. But this happens once or twice
in the life of Prophet Pbuh, as once in the night of Miraj, He Pbuh directly had
conversation with Allah swt and sometimes in the dreams. In this type the Prophet
heard a sound very different to the sounds of the human beings. Like in the case
of Musa a.s when He talked directly with Allah swt on the mountain of Tur and
the sound was coming from all dimensions.
Moreover, in dreams what Prophet (pbuh) saw at night, becomes true in the
morning. As Ayesha r.a narrated that: in the beginning the revelation started on
the Prophet, in the form of dreams, whatever the Prophet (Pbuh) sees a dream at
night becomes true in the morning”.

 Revelation through angels:

This type of revelation is the most lenient form of revelation as narrated by Abu
Awana r.a, that Prophet (pbuh) said: “this type of revelation is the most lenient
form of revelation to me”. In this type, Gabriel a.s came down with the revelation
in two forms:
1. In original form: In this type the angel comes in the form of his original shape.
This happened only three times in the whole life of the Prophet (Pbuh). Once
when the Prophet (Pbuh) himself desired to see him. Secondly, He saw him on the
night of mi’raj. Thirdly He saw him in the beginning time period of his prophecy
at the valley of “Ajyad” in Mecca.

2. In human form: In this form the angel comes in the form of human being, most
of the times in the form of one of the companions of Prophet named “Dihya
Kalbi”. He had also come in other human forms like in Hadith-e-Jibrail.

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Types of Revelation: There are two basic types of revelation:

1. ‫ الوحي املتلو‬Recited revelation, i.e. Quran.

2. ‫ الوحي غري املتلو‬Non-Recited revelation, i.e. Hadith of Prophet Pbuh

Hadith: The term Hadith derives from the Arabic root word “ḥdth” meaning “to discuss”
or “to report. Literally it means: “Everything that refers to the Prophet (Peace and
blessing of Allah be upon Him) in regard of His verdicts, actions, taqreer (agreement to
the actions of His companions), ethical character, appearance of His character, dreams, or
in fact every single moment of His life concludes in the study of Hadith.”

Hadith is also a part of revelation in a way that whatever Prophet explains is by Allah swt
as mentioned in Quran:
ِ
‫اواما يا ْنط ُق اع ِن ا ِْلااوى إِ ْن ُه او إََِّل او ْح ٌي يُ ا‬
...‫وحى‬
“Nor does He speak of (his own) desire. It is no less than inspiration sent down to him”.
(Sura al-Najm, v.3, 4)

Types of Hadith:
1. Verdict of Prophet (PBUH): In this type of Hadith Prophet (PBUH) used to
explain something verbally like explaining different aspects of religion to His
companions like addressing on Friday prayer or to command someone to do
something, etc. E.g., Prophet PBUH said:
َِّ ‫ سبحا ان‬،ِ‫اَّلل وِِبم ِده‬
ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ‫ان اعلاى الل‬ ِ ‫ اخ ِفي افتا‬،‫الر َْحا ِن‬ ِ ِ
ِ ‫ان حبِيب تا‬
َّ ‫ان إِ اَل‬
‫اَّلل‬ ‫ُْ ا‬ ْ ‫ ُس ْب احا ان َّ ا ا‬:‫ ثاقيلاتاان ِِف امل ايزان‬،‫سان‬
‫ا‬ ‫اكل امتا ا ا‬
‫الع ِظ ِيم‬
‫ا‬
“There are two words which are very dare to Allah swt, which are very light in
reading and will be very heavy on the scales, wordings are: Subhanallahi
wabihamdihi, subhanallahil ‘azim”. (Sahih Bukhari)
2. Actions performed by Prophet (PBUH): In this type Prophet (PBUH) used to
perform some actions in order to teach His companions’ different aspects of
religion, e.g. he performed prayer (salah) in front of His companions and they
used to copy it. Like prophet (PBUH) said:
)‫ (رواه البخاري‬....‫صلوا كما رأيتموين أصلي‬
“Perform the Prayer like I pray”.
)‫ (رواه مسلم‬....‫لتأخذوا عين مناسككم‬
“Learn from me the obligations of Haj.”
3. Taqreer (agreement of Prophet): In this type of Hadith, all the actions what
companions of Prophet (PBUH) did, either in front of Prophet or in the absence of

10
 Him, which Prophet (PBUH) never did it. When informed if He Pbuh agreed or
kept silent, concluded in Hadith. E.g. After the battle of Ahzab, Prophet (PBUH)
send a group of His companions under the command of Abdullah bin Amr r.a to
some tribe and advised them to perform asar prayer after when you reach your
destination. While this troop was on their way, Asar time came. Half of the
companions of the troop were in the view that we should perform asar prayer now
because the intension of Prophet was only that to go faster and if the asar prayer
time comes while on the way we can perform it. The rest half of the companions
were in the view that we cannot perform as this is the order of the Prophet
(PBUH). So half of the troop performed Asar prayer and rest of the troop
members performed after they had reached their destination as qaza. When these
members came back to Prophet (PBUH) and explained the views of the
companions, the Prophet (PBUH) agreed by saying, that both of you are right.

4. Ethical character: This type of Hadith deals in with ethical character of the
Prophet (PBUH), which explains how he reacted to unethical thing and how was
Prophet’s dealing with other people, etc. E.g. as narrated by Ayesha r.a:
‫ وَل صخاِب ِبألسواق وَل جيزئ ِبلسيةة السيةة‬،‫مل يكن رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم فاحشا وَل متفحشا‬
)‫ (رواه الرتمذي‬...‫ولكن يعفوا ويصفح‬
“That the Prophet (PBUH) was not egregious and didn’t like it, he didn’t shout in
the markets, and didn’t respond of bad with bad but forgives the mistakes of
others.”

5. Physical appearance: This type includes the appearance of Prophet (PBUH) and
His habits. E.g., Narrated by Ansa r.a that:
‫ وَل‬،‫ وَل ِبألبيض األمهق وَل ِبدآلمم‬،‫كان رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم ليس ِبلطويل البائن وَل ِبلقصري‬
)‫ (رواه البخاري‬... ‫ِبجلعد القط وَل ِبلسب‬
“The Prophet (PBUH) was not tall heighted or small, His skin color was not so
much white or black, His hair was not straight or too curly…”

6. Dreams of Prophets: Dreams of the Prophets are also a part of revelation, so it

includes in the study of Hadith. As narrated by Ayesha r.a:
‫ فكان َل يرى رؤَي إَل‬،‫"أول ما بدئ به رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم من الوحي الرؤَي الصاحلة ِف النوم‬
)‫" (رواه البخاري‬...‫جاءت مثل فلق الصبح‬
“In the beginning the Prophet PBUH start receiving the revelation in the form of a
dream, whatever he saw in it becomes true like a clear day.”

11
1.2 Significance of Quran’s Preservation:

The Preservation of Quran consists of three eras:

1. Preservation of Quran in the rein of Prophet pbuh:

2. Preservation of Quran in the rein of Abu Bakr r.a
3. Preservation of Quran in the rein of Usman r.a

1. Preservation in the rein of Prophet pbuh:

The Quran has been revealed completely in the life of the Prophet (pbuh) and has been
preserved fully. The steps that have been taken to preserver Quran in this rein are as
under:

Whenever the revelation came, Prophet (Pbuh) memorized it at once. In the beginning,
He Pbuh used to worry allots at the time of revelation, and recall it again and again in
hurry in order to memorize it. Upon this Allah swt gave consolation to His Prophet not to
get worry, as mentioned in Quran:
...‫ إن علينا مجعه وقرآنه‬،‫َل حترك لسانك لتعجل به‬
“Do not wag your tongue with it to hurry on with it, upon Us is its collection. (Sura al-
Qiyamah, v.16-17)
Furthermore, every year in the month of Ramadan, Prophet (Pbuh) used to revise it with
Jibrail a.s, and last year Prophet (Pbuh) did it twice. So the first step taken in the
preservation of Quran was the memorization of Prophet (Pbuh) himself.

Prophet (Pbuh) had appointed many companions who knew how to read and write which
were 40 in numbers called as revelation writers, on the duty of writing the revelation, as
what Zaid bin Sabit r.a explains: “I used to write the revelation for the Prophet (Pbuh)
and whenever it came, He (Pbuh) start sweating, when this condition gets over I came to
him with the parchment of shoulder blade of an animal or something else in order to write
the revelation. After that He (Pbuh) told me to read, if it needs any correction He (Pbuh)
made correction. Afterwards I announce it to the people”. So in His rein all of the Quran
has been preserved completely in the form of different parchment i.e. fine leather,
shoulder blades, palm leaves and palm stumps, wooden board and stone slabs, but not in
the form of a book. Moreover, people used to take copies of these parchments and read
them in their prayers.

 Number of verses in every surah and their sequence order were arranged by the
Prophet Pbuh.
 Himyari script was used to write the Quran without dots and diacritical marks.
 Personal copies has also been made by the companions like Abu Bakr, Usman,
Ali, Abdullah bin Mas’ood, Ubai bin kaab, Zaid bin thabit and many others (r.a),
after the endorsement by the Prophet pbuh. Moreover, it was memorized by

12
 thousands of them as it is compulsory for prayers and also they heard it from
Prophet Pbuh.

2. Preservation in the rein of Abu Bakar r.a:

As discussed earlier that whole of the Quran was preserved on different utilities,
moreover it was also noted and memorized by many of the companions of Prophet.
But later on in the rein of Abu Bakar r.a, some incidents happened which forced him
to write down the Quran in a book form. So first thing that Abu Bakar r.a did after the
death of Prophet (Pbuh) is to gather all the parchments of Quran in one place.
In the last years of Prophet Pbuh, a person named Musailama which later on called as
“Musailama kazzab”, declared his false prophet hood, but due to Prophet’s illness and
His death, he could not be turned down. Later on in the begin of the rein of Abu
Bakar r.a, a war was fought between Companions of Prophet and Musailama’s army
titled as “battle of Yamamah”. As a result, hundreds of Companions of Prophet who
had memorized the Quran completely, got martyred. Upon this, Umar r.a gave advice
to Abu Bakar r.a to gather the Quran in the form of a book. Abu Bakar r.a then
handed over the responsibility to Zaid bin Sabit r.a to gather the Quran.

Zaid bin Sabit r.a started collecting it with the help of Umar r.a on the condition of
providing written proof and two witnesses on every single verse. So when any person
came with the verse of Quran, he first authenticates it with his memory. Moreover he
took authentications of two witnesses that these verses had been written in front of the
Prophet Pbuh for further verification purpose. After that he made a copy of Quran in
the form of book.

 This copy was called as “um” (‫)أُم‬, some of the characteristics of this manuscript
are:
1. In this copy the verses of Sura were aligned as what Prophet (pbuh) described
but not the Suras, as all of them were written in a separate copy.
2. In this copy all the seven dialects were present.
3. This copy was written in the script of “khatt-e-hairi”.
4. The only purpose of writing this copy is to make an authentic copy so that
everyone can refer to it, without any doubts.
5. This copy was preserved in the custody of Abu Bakar r.a. After His death, it
was preserved in the custody of Umar r.a, later on it was transferred in the
custody of Ummul Mo’mineen Hafsa r.a.

3. Preservation of Quran in the rein of Usman r.a:

In the time of Usman r.a, the Islamic state spread beyond the Arab boundaries to the
Roman and Persia empires and to the African and Asian continents. And many new

13
reverted Muslims entered into the fold of Islam. And every community they affiliate
with, learn there rules of how to read Quran, e.g., the people of Iraq used to read the
Quran on the qirat of “Abdullah bin Mas’ood”, the people of Syria used to read on the
qirat of “Ubai bin Ka’b”, etc. But these new reverted Muslims start conflicting with
other on the basis of difference of Qirat as they were not fully familiar with the
concept of reading Quran in seven dialects. This kind of confliction described by
Huzaifa r.a when he was on the battle of Armenia and Azerbaijan, when he came
back to Medina, he said to Usman r.a: “Before this nation went into the clashes about
Quran like Jews and Christians, do something as I saw people declaring others as
“kafir” on the basis of difference in the reading of Quran”. Usman r.a asked: what is
the reason behind it? Huzaifa r.a replied: I heard the people of Syria reading the
Quran on the dialect of “Ubai bin Ka’b” which people of people of Iraq never heard
of it before and vice versa. As a result they start calling each other as kafir.

In order to stem out the confliction, Usman r.a gathered the people of Medina and
delivered a sermon and said that I heard the news about confliction on difference in
reading of Quran even in Medina, and those who are very far away how would they
react to each other. For that we need to compile a standard Mushaf, so that everyone
will follow it.

Moreover, Usman r.a asked a copy of Mushaf compiled by Abu Bakr r.a from Hafsa
r.a and made a team of four members including: Zaid bin Sabit r.a from Ansar and
other three form Quresh, Abdullah bin Zubair r.a, Saeed bin al-’Aas, Abdul Rahman
bin Harris r.a, to compile a standard Mushaf. Usman r.a did this for the reasons that if
they conflict in the dialect with each other, will write it in the dialect of Quresh as
Quran was revealed originally in that dialect.
The characteristics of this Mushaf as follows:

1) All Quran has been written into the “Kufi script”.

2) All Suras were properly managed and organized in this Mushaf.
3) This Mushaf was written in a universal way transcript that didn’t contains dots of
letters and their respected signs for the reason to gather all the mutawatir qirat in
it so it can be read in other dialect as well e.g. the word ‫ نُ ْن ِش ُزاها‬can also be read as

‫ش ُراها‬
ُ ‫ نا ْن‬as there were no dots and signs was specified and deleted all the other not-
mutawatir qirat.
4) Till now only one authentic copy has been originated, in this session they made
several copies of it. According to Abu Sajistani, seven master copies has been
made and send it to different states like Mecca, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Basra,
Kufa, Medina, etc.

14
5) At last Usman r.a passed an ordinance that all of the manuscripts which Sahaba
r.a copied for themselves which had different dialect rather than what Usman r.a
suggested should be burned.

Seven dialects of Quran:

Allah swt has allowed the nation of Prophet Muhammad Pbuh to read the Quran in
different ways as majority of the people were illiterate, so if any of them not able to
read it in one way, he could read it in another way, just for ease purpose. As
explained in the Hadith that: “Once Prophet Pbuh was sitting near the pond of Banu-
Ghaffar that Jibrail a.s came to Him and said that Allah has ordered your nation to
read the Quran on one dialect. Prophet (Pbuh) said: that I asked forgiveness of Allah,
my nation is weak, not able to read in one dialect. Jibrail a.s came again and said
Allah has ordered you nation to read the Quran in two dialects. He (Pbuh) said that I
asked forgiveness of Allah, my nation is weak, not able to read in two dialects. Then
Jibrail a.s came again the third time and said that Allah has ordered your nation to
read the Quran in three dialects. Prophet Pbuh said that I asked forgiveness of Allah,
my nation is weak, not able to read in three dialects. Jibrail a.s came again the fourth
time and said: Allah has ordered your nation to read the Quran in seven dialects. In
whatever the dialects they read, their reading would be valid. (Minahil-ul-‘Irfan)

Moreover, Prophet (Pbuh) said: “this Quran has revealed on the seven dialects, thus
read it with whatever you find easy”. (Sahih Bukhari)
In the beginning, the people were not aware of Quran’s modality as it was new to
them, for that reason it was allowed to read whatever they find easiness. But what are
these seven wordings? There is a lot of different opinion of scholars up to 35 in
number. The most predominant opinion is that it means to read the Quran on seven
different dialects of Arab tribes of that time, i.e. different words having synonymic
meaning. E.g. the word ‫ تعال‬also be read as ‫ أدن‬،‫ أقبل‬،‫هلم‬. All of the words have the
same meaning i.e. to come. The tribes whose dialects were allowed to read in, were:
Qureish, Huzail, Thaqif, Hawazin, Qanana, Tamim and Yaman.
Moreover, other kinds of differences of dialect are:

1. Difference of Noun: This type of difference includes the difference of singular

and plural, muscular and feminine, etc. E.g. in one reading ‫ متت كلمت ربك‬and in
other qirat it can be read as ‫متت كلمات ربك‬.
2. Difference of verb: This type includes the difference of using verb as past, future
and ordering tense. E.g. In one reading it is read as ‫ ربنا ِبعد بني أسفارَّن‬it can be read as
‫ربنا بعد بني أسفارَّن‬.
3. Difference of A’raab: This includes the difference in the movements of letter, e.g.
‫يضار كاتب‬
َّ ‫ َل‬it can be read as ‫يضار كاتب‬
ُّ ‫َل‬.

15
 4. Difference of word counting: This includes the difference of words that in one
qirat it is read as ‫ جتري من حتتها األهنار‬and in other qirat it is read as ‫جتري حتتها األهنار‬
5. Difference in sequence of words: This includes the arrangement of words, e.g.
‫ وجاءت سكرة املوت ِبحلق‬in other qirat it is read as ‫وجاءت سكرة احلق ِبملوت‬
6. Difference of nature of wordings: This includes difference of words having same
meaning, e.g. ‫ فا تا با يَّ نُوا‬but in other qirat it is read as ‫فا تا ثا بَّ تُوا‬
7. Difference of pronunciation: This includes different tajweed rules of how to
pronounce a word, e.g. in one qirat it is read as ‫ موسى‬with standing fatha, and in
other qirat it is read as ‫سى‬
‫ مو ا‬with simple fatha.
1.3 Main themes of Quran

Since the advent of Islam and the revelation of the Qur'an in the early years of the
seventh century AD, the Muslim Holy Book has been the subject of many extensive
analytical studies. The focus of the great majority of these studies has been the
theological and legislative aspects of the Holy Book, for the Qur'an provides Muslims
with detailed guidance on their everyday problems. Together with the sayings, actions,
and recommendations of Muhammad Pbuh, the Qur'an has been the ultimate source of
legal authority for Muslims over the past fourteen centuries.

Muslim scholars have also painstakingly examined, analyzed and interpreted the various
verses of the Holy Book, detailing the requirements the Qur'an imposes on Muslims in
order for them to achieve spiritual purity. Thus, in addition to its legislative and
theological value, the Qur'an has also served as a source of spiritual guidance for the
followers of Islam. However, we cannot claim that the Central Theme of the Holy Qur’an
is only legislation and spirituality; as human life is more complex and multi-dimensional.
Since Islam is a complete way of human life and Qur’an being its source of guidance, to
ascribe the Qur’an to be just the book of legislation and spirituality only will be
misleading, because the Qur'an has dealt with a vast range of subjects.

Among the recurring themes of the Qur'an is about the universe itself and its Creator.
Another theme treated by the Qur'an is the purpose of the universe and its creation.
Among the other general issues dealt by the Qur'an is the question about human being: Is
man a despicable creature, or a personality with nobility and dignity etc.? The other
subject dealt with in the Qur'an is the issue of human society: Is the society considered to
be primary and the individual as secondary, or whether it subordinates the society to the
individual? Are societies, according to the Qur'an, subject to laws governing their life and
death, their rise and decline, or are these conditions applicable to individuals alone?
The Qur'an deals with numerous other issues. One of them is the point of view of the
Qur'an about itself. The other issue is related to the Prophet (Pbuh) and its manner of
introducing and addressing him. Another issue is its definition of a believer (mu'min) and

16
his characteristics and so on. Furthermore, each of these general issues possesses various
branches and divisions. For example, when discussing mankind and its situation, it is
natural to speak about morality or when speaking about society, the problem of human
relationships also unavoidably enters the discussion. The same is true of such notions as
"enjoining good and forbidding evil," and the problem of social classes.

Now the question is: What is then the Qur’an’s general theme? If pondered upon the
multifaceted contents inside the Qur’an, one can safely reach to the conclusion that the
central theme and aim pursued by the Qur’an is the ‘training of the human being’ as a
being conscious of his duties. The main aim of the Qur’an is therefore to reinforce and
accelerate the spiritual ascension, together with all the qualities of human being, toward a
state of true loftiness and the dignity of which the human being is worthy. In another
words, we can say that the main purpose of Qur’an is to expound truths that are relevant
to the ‘life of the human being’ and the exaltation of his being and conducive to his
attaining a life of true happiness.
In general, the whole Quran has been disseminated in three major topics:

1. One third of the Quran is related to the matters of faith and belief with special
focus on Tawheed.
2. One third is related to commandments, ethics and etiquettes.
3. One third is related to the stories of the ancient people, parables and legal
injunctions.
According to the Shah Waliullah, verses of Quran could be divided into three major
categories:
1. Aa’la Allah i.e. the blessings and bounties of Allah
2. Ayyam Allah i.e. historical events of the past.
3. Ahkam Allah i.e. injunctions and the commandments of Allah.

1.4 Building a relationship with the Qura’n

Prolonged companionship with the Qur’an must become one of your most cherished
desires and occupations. Allah says about this Quran as:
ِ ‫آَيتِِه اولِيا تا اذَّكر أُولُو ْاألالْبا‬
‫اب‬ ِ ‫اب أانْ ازلْنااهُ إِلايْ ا‬
‫ك ُمبا اار ٌك ليادَّبَّ ُروا ا‬
ِ
ٌ ‫كتا‬
‫ا‬
“(This is) a Book (the Qur’aan) which We have sent down to you, full of blessings, that
they may ponder over its Verses, and that men of understanding may remember” (Sura
Saad, v: 29)

The Qur’an is the word of Allah that was revealed to His Prophet Muhammad Pbuh. Its
recitation is an act of worship and it brings light and gives certainty, it is the strong rope,
it is the path of the righteous. It tells us of those who came before us, Prophets and

17
righteous people, and how those who disobeyed them tasted the punishment of Allah and
were humiliated. It contains verses which speak of the miracles of Allah and His power in
this great universe. In it there is healing for men’s hearts, light and illumination for the
blind. In it is guidance for mankind, away from misguidance and to the truth. It contains
innumerable benefits, so everyone who seeks happiness in this world and in the Hereafter
must refer to it for judgments and follow its commands.

Imam Ibn Hazm said: Because the proof and the miracles indicate that the Quran is the
covenant of Allah with us, we must believe in it and act in accordance with it. It has come
down to us through generations of Muslims narrating it to those who came after them,
which leaves no room for doubt that the Quran is the one which is written in the Mushafs
which we find everywhere. We have to follow its teachings, for it is our reference-point
in the world and in here after.

Pre-Requisites of relationship with Quran:

There are certain basic states and attitudes of heart and mind are a necessary prerequisite
to any fruitful relationship with the Qur'an. Develop them as much as you can. Make
them part of your consciousness; keep them ever-alive and active. Integrate them in your
actions. Let them penetrate the depth of your being. Without the help of these inner
resources you will not receive your full measure of the Qur'an's blessings. They will be
your indispensable companions, too, throughout your journey.

These inner resources are neither difficult nor impossible to find. Through constant
awareness and reflection, through appropriate words and deeds, you can acquire and
develop them. The more you do so, the closer you will be able to come to the Qur'an; the
closer you come to the Qur'an, and greater will be your harvest.

1. Faith, The Word of Allah: First Come to the Qur'an with a strong and deep faith
that it is the word of Allah, your Creator and Lord. This book is no ordinary book;
it opens with the emphatic statement:
‫ني‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ذالِ ا‬
ِ ِ ‫ْكتاب اَل ري‬
‫ب فيه ُه ادى لل ُْمتَّق ا‬
‫ك ال ا ُ ا ْ ا‬
“This is the Book [of God], there is no doubt in it”. (Al-Baqarah v: 2)

Your purpose in reading and studying it is no ordinary purpose; you seek from it
the guidance that will transform your whole being, bring you and keep you on the
Straight Path: ‫يم‬ ِ ِ ‫ْاه ِد اَّن‬
‫ط ال ُْم ْستاق ا‬
‫الص ارا ا‬

“Guide us on the Straight Path” (al-Fatihah v: 5) is the cry of your heart to which
the Qur'an is the response.

2. Purity of intention and Purpose: Secondly Read the Qur'an with no purpose
other than to receive guidance from your Lord, to come nearer to Him, and to
seek His good pleasure. What you get from the Quran depends on what you come

18
 to it for. Your niyyah (intention and purpose) is crucial. Certainly the Qur'an has
come to guide you, but you may also go astray by reading it should you approach
it for impure purposes and wrong motives.
ِِ ِ ِ ‫ض ُّل بِ ِه اكثِريا وي ْه ِدي بِ ِه اكثِريا وما ي‬
ِ‫ي‬
‫ض ُّل بِه إََِّل الْ افاسق ا‬
‫ني‬ ُ ‫ا اا‬ ‫ا اا‬ ُ

“Thereby He causes many to go astray, and thereby He guides many; but thereby
He causes none to go astray save the iniquitous” (al-Baqarah v: 26).

3. Bringing Gratitude and Praise: Make yourself constantly alert with intense
praise and gratitude to your Lord for having blessed you with the greatest gift -
the Qur'an - and for having guided you to its reading and study. Once you realize
what a priceless treasure you hold in your hands, it is but natural for your heart to
beat with joy and murmur, and for your tongue to join in:
َّ ‫ي ل ْاواَل أا ْن اه اد ااَّن‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ َّ ِ ِ
ُ‫اَّلل‬ ‫ا ْحلا ْم ُد ََّّلل الذي اه اد ااَّن ِلا اذا اواما ُكنَّا لنا ْهتاد ا‬

“Thankful praise be to Allah, who has guided us to this; [otherwise] never could
we have found guidance had not Allah not guided us”. (al-A'raf v: 43)

4. Acceptance and Trust: Accept and trust, without the least doubt or hesitation,
every knowledge and guidance that the Qur'an conveys to you. You have the
freedom to question whether the Qur'an is the word of Allah or not, and to reject
its claim if you are not satisfied. But once you have accepted it as His word, you
have no basis whatever to doubt even a single word of it. For to do so would
negate what you have accepted. There must be total surrender and abandonment
to the Quranic teachings. Your own beliefs, opinions, judgments, notions, whims
should not be allowed to override any part of it.
There are a few guidelines and rules in this reward that you must bear in mind.

How Often to Read: Every day you must read some of the Qur’an. In fact do not
consider a day complete unless you have spent some time with the Qur’an. It is better to
read regularly, even if it be only a small portion, than to read long parts, but only
occasionally. As mentioned by Prophet Pbuh, said: “Allah likes things which are done
regularly, even if little”. (Al-Bukhari & Muslim). He Pbuh also warned especially that
you must attend to the Qur’an regularly; otherwise you may easily lose your gains. As He
said: “The parable of the companion of the Qur’an is like a tethered camel; a man holds
on to it so long as he attends to it, and it escapes if he lets it loose. (Al-Bukhari &
Muslim)

How Much to Read: There can be no fixed answer. It will vary from person to person,
and from situation to situation. The guideline must be what Allah, after taking into
ِ ‫سر ِمن الْ ُقر‬
account all human factors, has said: ‫آن‬ْ ‫فااق اْرءُوا اما تا يا َّ ا ا‬

19
“Read whatever you can with ease”. (Al-Muzzammil v: 20)

The practice of the Companions and those who followed them varied considerably. Some
used to finish the whole Qur’an in two months, some in one month, some in ten days,
some in one week, some even in one day. You should, however, bear in mind the
following hadith as the governing criteria: “One who reads the Qur’an in less than three
days does not understand it.” (Abu Dawud & At-Tirmidhi)

Once, when Ibn `Umar upon being asked by the Prophet to read the Qur’an in one month
insisted on doing so in less time, he told him: “Read it in seven days and do not increase
on this.” (Al-Bukhari)

That the Qur’an is divided into 7 hizb (groups) and 30 juz’ (parts) gives some indication
of what is considered desirable.

In this respect Imam Al-Nawawi’s advice is very sensible: One who can discover deeper
meanings by contemplation should read less, similarly one who has to devote time in
pursuits like education, affairs of government, or important tasks entrusted by Islam may
read less. (Kitab Al-Adhkar)

The quantity of reading will very much depend on the purpose of reading. If you just
want to spend time with the Qur’an, or get a quick overview, you may read much faster
and, therefore, more. If you want to ponder and reflect, you may read much slower and,
therefore, less. This is what Al-Ghazali means when he quotes someone as saying ‘I
complete the reading of the Qur’an sometimes on every Friday, sometimes every month,
sometimes every year. And (in one type of reading) I have been trying to complete it for
the last thirty years but have not yet done so’. (Ihya’ Ulum ud din).

When to Read: No time of the day or night is unsuitable for reading the Qur’an, nor is
ِ ‫ك بكْرةا وأ‬
there any physical posture in which you may not do so. Allah says: ‫اص ايال‬ ِ ْ ‫واذْ ُك ِر‬
‫اس ام ارب ا ُ ا ا‬ ‫ا‬

“Remember the name of your Lord at morning and in the evening and part of the night.
(Al-Insan v: 25)
‫اَّللا قِيا ااما اوقُ ُع ا‬
‫وما او اعلاى ُجنُوِبِِ ْم‬ َّ ‫ين يا ْذ ُك ُرو ان‬ ِ َّ
‫الذ ا‬
“Those who remember Allah always standing, sitting and lying down on their sides”.
(Aal `Imran 3:191)
Reading the Qur’an is certainly the best way to remember Him. The Companions and
those who followed them, says An-Nawawi, used to read it during all hours of the day
and night, whether they stayed in one place or were travelling.

Yet there are some specific times which are more desirable as they are recommended by
the Qur’an and the Prophet (peace be on him); those moments are more rewarding and
fruitful. So too there are certain recommended postures.

20
The Qur’an & Night Prayers: The most excellent time to read is at night, and the most
desirable posture is to stand in Prayer. In one of the earliest surahs, Al-Muzzammil, as in
numerous other places, the Qur’an tells us that:
‫آَّن اء اللَّ ْي ِل او ُه ْم يا ْس ُج ُدو ان‬ َِّ ‫ت‬
ِ ‫اب أ َُّمةٌ قاائِمةٌ ي ْت لُو ان آَي‬ ِ ‫لايسوا سواء ِمن أا ْه ِل ال‬
ِ ‫ْكتا‬
‫اَّلل ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا ا‬ ْ ‫ْ ُ اا ا‬
“They are not all alike. Of the People of the Scripture there is a staunch community who
recite the revelations of Allah in the night season, falling prostrate (before Him)”. (Al
‘Imran 3:113)
‫وما‬
‫ك ام اق ااما َماْ ُم ا‬
‫ك اربُّ ا‬
‫سى أا ْن يابْ اعثا ا‬ ‫اوِم ان اللَّيْ ِل فا تا اه َّج ْد بِ ِه اَّنفِلاةا ل ا‬
‫اك اع ا‬
“And some part of the night awake for it, a largess for you. It may be that your Lord will
raise you to a praised estate”. (Al-Israa’ v: 79)
It also explains why reading the Qur’an during night-Prayers enables your heart to remain
with your reading and strengthens your will in surrendering yourself to Allah’s guidance
and fulfilling the mission He has entrusted to you. To do so, however, requires that you
should (a) memorize some portions of the Qur’an and (b) remain awake for some time
during the night.

All of you may not therefore be able to do so all the time for various reasons; the Qur’an
recognizes such limitations. It, therefore, permits you to read ‘whatever you can do with
ease’ which means ‘whatever portion’, at ‘whatever time’, and in ‘whatever position’.

The great need and immense benefits of reading the Qur’an in Prayer during the night
however remain. Hence you should assign at least some time, however little, even a few
minutes with some regular frequency, however long, say weekly or even monthly, for this
purpose. To keep as near as possible to the ideal way, it may be desirable if you read the
Qur’an after or before Fajr and `Isha’ Prayers, or at dawn, or before going to bed.
Reading the Qur’an at dawn is especially commended in the Qur’an, it says:
‫س ِق اللَّ ْي ِل اوقُ ْرآ ان الْ اف ْج ِر إِ َّن قُ ْرآ ان الْ اف ْج ِر اكا ان ام ْش ُه ا‬
‫وما‬ ِ ِ ‫الش ْم‬ ِ ُ‫الص اال اة لِ ُدل‬
َّ ‫وك‬ َّ ‫أاقِ ِم‬
‫س إ اَل غا ا‬
“Establish worship at the going down of the sun until the dark of night, and (the recital
of) the Qur’an at dawn. Lo! (The recital of) the Qur’an at dawn is ever witnessed.” (Al-
Israa’ v: 78)
To read the Qur’an while sitting on a chair, resting against a pillow, lying in bed or on a
couch is not desirable, but is not prohibited. But never do so without excuse, nor make it
a habit.

21
1.5 Tawheed (A submission to Allah swt)

Literally tawheed means “unification” (making something unique) or “asserting oneness

to someone”. Tawheed word comes from the Arabic verb َ‫( َو َّحد‬wahhada) which itself
means to unite, unify, or consolidate. However, when the term tawheed is used in
reference to Allah (i.e. tawheedullaah), it means realizing and affirming Allah’s unity in
all of man’s actions which directly or indirectly relate to Him.

Tawheed are of three types:

1. Tawheed ar-Ruboobeeyah: lit. “Maintaining the oneness in Lordship,” i.e.,
affirming that Allah is one, without partners in his sovereignty.
2. Tawheed al-Asmaa’ was-Sifaat: lit. “Maintaining the unity of Allah’s Names
and Attributes,” i.e., affirming that they are incomparable and unique.
3. Tawheed al-‘Ibaadah: lit. “Maintaining the worship”, i.e. affirming that Allah is
alone in his right to be worshipped.
The division of tawheed into its components was not done by the Prophet (pbuh) or by
His companions, as there was no necessity to analyze such a basic principle of faith in
this fashion. However, the foundations of the components are all implied in the verses of
the Qur'an and in the explanatory statements of the Prophet (pbuh) and his companions,
as will become evident when each category is dealt with in more detail later.
The necessity for this analytical approach to the principle of tawheed arose after Islam
spread into Egypt, Byzantium, Persia and India and absorbed the cultures of these
regions. It is only natural to expect that when the people of these lands entered the fold of
Islam, they would carry with them some of the remnants of their former beliefs. When
some of these new convert, began to express in writings and discussions their various
philosophical concepts of God confusion arose, in which the pure and simple Unitarian
belief of Islam became threatened. There were also others who had outwardly accepted
Islam but secretly worked to destroy the religion from within, due to their inability to
oppose it militarily. This group began to actively propagate distorted ideas about Allah
among the masses in order to tear down the first pillar of faith and with it Islam itself.

The early caliphs and their governors were closer to Islamic principles and the
consciousness of the masses was high due to the presence of the Prophet’s companions
and their students. Hence, the demand for the elimination of open heretics received
immediate response from the rulers. In contrast, the later Umayyad rulers were more
corrupt and as such cared little about such religious issues. The masses were also less
Islamic conscious and thus were more susceptible to deviant ideas. As greater numbers of
people entered Islam under the Umayyad's, and the learning of an increasing number of
conquered nations was absorbed, the execution of apostates was no longer used to stem
the rising tide of heresy.

22
The task of opposing it fell on the shoulders of the Muslim scholars of the period who
rose to meet the challenge intellectually. They systematically opposed the various alien
philosophies and creeds by categorizing them and countering them with principles
deduced from the Qur'an and the Sunnah. It was out of this defense that the science of
tawheed emerged, with its precisely defined categories and components. Therefore, as the
categories of tawheed are studied separately and in more depth.

Categories of Tawheed:

1. Tawheed ar-Ruboobeeyah
This category is based on the fundamental concept that Allah alone caused all things to
exist when there was nothing; He sustains and maintains creation without any need from
it or for it; And He is the sole Lord of the universe and its inhabitants without any real
challenge to His sovereignty. In Arabic the word used to describe this creator-sustainer
quality is ruboobeeyah which is derived from the root Rabb (Lord). According to this
category, since God is the only real power in existence, it is He who gave all things the
power to move and to change. Nothing happens in creation except what He allows to
happen.
In recognition of this reality, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) used to often repeat the
exclamatory phrase “‫ ”َل حول وَل قوة إَل ِبهلل‬i.e. “there is no movement or power except by
Allah’s will”. The Prophet (pbuh) further elaborated on this concept by saying, “Be
aware that if the whole of mankind gathered around to help you, they would only be able
to help only for what Allah had already written. Likewise, if the whole of mankind
gathered around to harm you, they would only be able to harm you which Allah had
already written.”
Thus, what man conceives as good fortune and misfortune are merely events predestined
by Allah as part of the tests of this life.

2. Tawheed al-Asmaa’ was-Sifaat

This category of tawheed has five main aspects:

1. For the unity of Allah’s names and attributes to be maintained in the first aspect,
Allah must be referred to according, how He and His Prophet (pbuh) have
described Him, without explaining away His names and attributes by giving them
new meanings other than their obvious meaning. For example, in the Qur'an Allah
swt says that He gets angry with the disbelievers and the hypocrites due to the evil
opinion they say about Allah. As mentioned:
‫اَّللُ اعلاْي ِه ْم اول ااعنا ُه ْم‬
َّ ‫ب‬ ِ َِّ ‫ات الظَّانِني ِِب‬ ِ ِ
ِ ‫ات والْم ْش ِركِني والْم ْش ِراك‬ ِِ ِ
‫الس ْوء اوغاض ا‬
َّ ‫َّلل ظا َّن‬ ‫ا‬ ُ ‫ني اوال ُْمنااف اق ا ُ ا ا‬ ‫ب ال ُْمناافق ا‬
‫اويُ اعذ ا‬
.‫ريا‬ ِ ْ ‫اع َّد اِلُم جهنَّم وساء‬
‫ت امص ا‬‫اوأ ا ْ ا ا ا ا ا ا‬

23
 “That He may punish the hypocrite’s men and women, pagan’s men and women,
who have an evil opinion of Allah. A circle of evil is around them; Allah is angry
with them, curses them and has prepared for them an evil end.” (Al-fath, 6)
Thus, anger is one of God’s attributes. It is incorrect to say, that His “anger” must
really mean His “punishment”, since anger is a sign of weakness in man that does
not befit Allah. What Allah has stated should be accepted, with the qualification
that His anger is not like human anger, based on Allah’s statement. As Allah
mentioned in Qur’an itself:
ِ ِ ِ ‫لاي‬
ٌ‫س اكمثْله اش ْيء‬
‫ْ ا‬
“There is nothing like him” (Sura Shoora, v.11)
2. The second aspect of Tawheed al-Asmaa’ was-Sifaat involves referring to Allah as
He has referred to Himself without giving Him any new names or attributes. For
example, Allah may not be given the name al-Ghaadib (the angry one), in spite of
the fact that He has said that He gets angry, because neither Allah nor His
messenger has used this name. This may seem to be a very fine point, but it must
be maintained in order to prevent the false description of God. That is, finite man is
in no position to define the infinite Lord of creation.
3. In this third aspect of Tawheed al-Asmaa’ was-Sifaat Allah is referred to without
giving Him the attributes of His creation. For example, it is claimed in the Bible
and Torah that Allah spent the first six days creating the universe then slept on the
seventh. For this reason, Jews and Christians take either Saturday or Sunday as a
day of rest during which work is looked at as a sin. Such a claim assigns to God,
the attributes of His creation. It is man who tires after heavy work and needs sleep
to recuperate. The attributes of hearing and seeing are among human attributes, but
when they are attributed to The Divine Being they are without comparison in their
perfection. However, when these attributes are associated with men they
necessitate ear and eye apparatuses which cannot be attributed to God.
4. The fourth aspect of tawheed as-Asmaa’ was-Sifaat requires that man not be given
the attributes of Allah. For example, Like Christians and Jews did as they made
Jesus and Uzair (a.s) the son of God.
5. Maintaining the unity of Allah’s names also means that Allah’s names in the
definite form cannot be given to His creation unless preceded by the prefix ‘Abd
meaning “slave of” or “servant of”.

3. Tawheed al-‘Ebaadah (Maintaining the Unity of Worship)

Worship (‘ebaadah) in the Islamic view, includes more than just fasting, paying zakaah,
Hajj and animal sacrifices. It includes emotions like love, trust, and fear, all of which
have degrees which should only be directed to God. Since the term ‘Ibaadah means total
obedience, so the man should worship Allah alone in his actions and saying. Moreover,

24
 Allah swt is considered the ultimate lawgiver, the implementation of secular legal
systems not based on divine law (Sharee‘ah) is an act of disbelief in the divine law. Such
a belief constitutes a form of worshipping other than Allah (shirk).
‫ك ُه ُم الْ اكافِ ُرو ان‬
‫اَّللُ فاأُولاةِ ا‬
َّ ‫اوام ْن املْ اْحي ُك ْم ِِباا أانْ از ال‬
“Those who do not rule by what Allah has revealed are disbelievers (kafiroon).” Al-
Maidah: 44
On one occasion, the Prophet’s companion, ‘Adee ibn Haatim, who was a convert from
Christianity, heard the Prophet (pbuh) recite the Qur’anic verse,
َِّ ‫ون‬
... ‫اَّلل‬ ِ ‫ا ََّّتا ُذوا أاحبارُهم ورْهباناهم أارِبِب ِمن ُم‬
ْ ‫ْ ا ا ْ ا ُ ا ُ ْ ْا ا‬
“They have taken their rabbis and monks as lords besides Allah,” (Sura Al–Tauba, 12)
So he said: ‘Surely we did not worship them.” The Prophet (pbuh) turned to him and
said: Did they not make forbidden (haram) what Allah had made allowable (halal) and
you made it haram, and did they not make halal what Allah made haram and you made it
halal? He replied, ‘We certainly did.’ The Prophet (pbuh) said, ‘That was how you
worshipped them.” (Sunan Al-Tirmizi) So, obeying religious orthodox people blindly
beside Allah’s commandments in against, also is an act of shirk.

Impact of Tawheed on the life of a believer:

1. A believer in this Kalimah can never be narrow in outlook. He believes in a God, Who is
the Creator of the heavens and the earth, the Master of the East and the West and
Sustainer of the entire universe. After this belief he does not regard anything in the world
as a stranger to himself. He looks on everything in the universe as belonging to the same
Lord he himself belongs to. His sympathy, love and service are not confined to any
particular sphere or group. His vision is enlarged, his intellectual horizon widens, and his
outlook becomes as liberal and as boundless as is the Kingdom of God. How can this
width of vision and breadth of mind be achieved by an atheist, a polytheist or one who
believes in a deity supposed to possess limited and defective powers like a man?
2. This belief produces in man the highest degree of self-respect and self-esteem. The
believer knows that Allah alone is the Possessor of all power, and that none besides Him
can benefit or harm a person, or provide for his needs, or give and take away life or wield
authority or influence. This conviction makes him indifferent to, and independent and
fearless of, all powers other than those of God. He never bows his head in homage to any
of God's creatures, nor does he stretch out his hand before anyone else. He is not
overawed by anybody's greatness. This attitude of mind cannot be produced by any other
belief. For it is necessary that those who associate other beings with God, or who deny
God, should bow in homage to some creatures, regard them able to benefit or harm them,
fear them and place their hopes in them.
3. Along with self-respect this belief also generates in man a sense of modesty and
humbleness. It makes him unostentatious and unpretending. A believer never becomes

25
 proud, haughty or arrogant. The boisterous pride of power, wealth and worth can have no
room in his heart, because he knows that whatever he possesses has been given to him by
God, and that God can take away just as He can give. In contrast to this, an unbeliever,
when he achieves some worldly merit, becomes proud and conceited because he believes
that his merit is due to his own worth. In the same way pride and self-conceit are a
necessary outcome and concomitant of shirk (association of others with God in His
divinity), because a mushrik believes that he has a particular relation with the deities
which does not exist between them and other people.
4. This belief makes man virtuous and upright. He has the conviction that there is no other
means of success and salvation for him except purity of soul and righteousness of
behavior. He has perfect faith in God Who is above all needed, is related to none and is
absolutely just. This belief creates in him the consciousness that, unless he lives rightly
and acts justly, he cannot succeed. No influence or underhand activity can save him from
ruin. As against this, the kafirs and the mushriks always live on false hopes. Some of
them believe that God's son has atoned for their sins; some think that they are God's
favorites and will not be punished; others believe that their saints will intercede with God
on their behalf; while others make offerings to their deities and believe that by so bribing
the deities they acquire a license to do whatever they like. Such false beliefs keep them
enmeshed in sin and evil deeds; depending on their deities, they do not bother about their
souls and living pure and good lives. As to atheists, they do not believe that there is any
Being having power over them, to Whom they should be responsible for their good or
bad actions; therefore they consider themselves independent to act in whatever way they
like. Their own fancies become their gods and they live like slaves of their wishes and
desires.
5. The believer never becomes despondent. He has a firm faith in God, Who is Master of all
the treasures of the earth and the heavens, Whose grace and bounty have no limit and
Whose powers are infinite. This faith imparts to his heart extraordinary consolation, fills
it with satisfaction and keeps it filled with hope. Although he may meet with rejection
from all sides in this world, faith in and dependence on God never leave him, and on their
strength he goes on struggling. Such profound confidence can result from no other belief
than belief in one God. Mushriks, kafirs and atheists have small hearts; they depend on
limited powers; therefore in times of trouble they are soon overwhelmed by despair and
frequently they commit suicide.
6. This belief produces in man a very strong degree of determination, patient perseverance
and trust in God. When he makes up his mind and devotes his resources to fulfilling the
Divine Commands in order to secure God's pleasure, he is sure that he has the support
and backing of the Lord of the universe. This certainty makes him firm and strong like a
mountain and no amount of difficulties, impediments and opposition can make him give
up his resolution. Shirk, kufr and atheism have no such effect.

26
7. This declaration inspires bravery in man. There are two things which make a man
cowardly: (i) fear of death and love of safety, and (ii) the idea that there is someone else
besides God who can take away life and that man, by adopting certain devices, can ward
off death. Belief in La ilaha illallah purges the mind of both these ideas. The first idea
goes out of his mind because he knows that his life and his property and everything else
really belong to God, and he becomes ready to sacrifice his all for His pleasure. He gets
rid of the second idea because he knows that no weapon, no man or animal has the power
of taking away his life; God alone has the power to do so. A time has been ordained for
him, and all the forces of the world combined cannot take away anyone's life before that
time. It is for this reason that no one is braver than the one who has faith in God. Nothing
can daunt him: not even the strongest tempest of adversity and the mightiest of armies.
Where can the mushriks, the kafirs and the atheists get such great determination, force
and power from? They hold life the dearest thing in the world; they believe that death is
brought about by the enemy and can be warded off by running away from him!
8. The belief in La ilaha illallah creates an attitude of peace and contentment, purges the
mind of jealousy, envy and greed and keeps away the temptations of resorting to base and
unfair means for achieving success. The believer understands that wealth is in God's
hands, and He apportions it out as He likes; that honor, power, reputation and authority -
everything - is subjected to His will, and He bestows them as He will; and that man's duty
is only to endeavor and to struggle fairly. He knows that success and failure depend on
God's grace; if He wills to give, no power in the world can prevent Him from so doing;
and if He does not will it, no power can force Him to. On the other hand, the mushriks,
the kafirs and the atheists consider success and failure as dependent on their own efforts
and the help or opposition of earthly powers. Therefore, they always remain slaves to
cupidity and envy. They never hesitate to turn to bribery, flattery, conspiracy and other
kinds of base and unfair means to achieve their ends. Jealousy and envy of others success
eat them away, and they will stop at nothing to bring about the downfall of a successful
rival.
9. The most important effect of La ilaha illallah is that it makes man obey and observe
God's Law. One who has belief in it is sure that God knows everything hidden or open
and is nearer to him than his own jugular vein. If he commits a sin in a secluded corner
and in the darkness of night, He knows it; He even knows our thoughts and intentions,
bad or good. We can hide from everyone, but we cannot hide anything from God; we can
evade everyone, but it is impossible to evade God's grip. The firmer a man's belief in this
respect, the more observant will he be of God's commands; he will shun what God has
forbidden and he will carry out His behests even in solitude and in darkness, because he
knows that God's 'police' never leaves him alone, and he dreads the Court whose warrant
he can never avoid. It is for this reason that the first and the most important conditions for
being a Muslim is to have faith in La ilaha illallah. 'Muslim', as you have already been

27
told, means one 'obedient to God' and obedience to God is impossible unless one firmly
believes in La ilaha illallah.

1.6 Self-Purification

Lexically, the Arabic word `tazkiyah' means purification and development - of anything -
to the level of perfection. As a Quranic term, it expresses a way of ridding ourselves of
flawed tendencies and leanings as well as providing one with the means to attain piety
and to help our souls develop to become as perfect as humanly possible. In other words,
the ultimate goal of tazkiyah is for man to purify himself and prepare for his return back
to his ‘original home’ and “final abode,” Paradise. Allah Almighty tells us in the Quran:

.‫اها‬
‫اب ام ْن ام َّس ا‬ ‫ قا ْد أافْ لا اح ام ْن ازَّك ا‬،‫وراها اوتا ْق او ااها‬
‫ اوقا ْد اخ ا‬،‫اها‬ ٍ ‫اونا ْف‬
‫ فاأا ِْلاام اها فُ ُج ا‬،‫س اواما اس َّو ااها‬

“By the soul and the proportion and order given to it; and its enlightenment as to its
wrong and its right; truly he succeeds who purifies it and he fails who corrupts it.” (Sura
al-Shams, v.7-10)

These verses present a straightforward outline of Islam's notion of tazkiyah. Allah

Almighty has so created the soul that it has both inclinations—good and evil—and man
has been endowed with the power to distinguish between the two. Therefore, the path of
success for man, in this life and the one to come, involves choosing the side of good and
striving to make it prevail—not just in the world and his surroundings, but first and as a
pre-requisite for societal and environmental reform, within himself.

In this sense, the need for tazkiyah is part of our innate nature—it is hardwired into our
consciousness. Hence, man has always known and attempted to fulfill this innate need by
seeking out all ways of contemplation, meditation, and worship. Yet, only the ways
provided to him by the Creator, through the various revelations, have worked for him,
and these revealed ways of self-reflection and change are the only ways of self-
purification that can work for him.
A significant portion of building the Muslim personality comes from the fundamental
Islamic source, al Tazkiyah or the purification of the heart and soul. Through tazkiyah
comes spiritual health and morality. The traits of the loving of Allah and His Prophets,
adorning and practicing the ninety-nine attributes of Allah, applying the virtues of
compassion and mercy, holding one’s brother or sister’s well-being higher than one’s
self, generosity, piousness, trustworthiness and more are consequent virtues of tazkiyah.

It is a common idea amongst all religious and spiritual traditions that human beings
should have some kind of self-control. Although we enjoy free will, we need to exercise
our free will in a responsible way. In the same way that we expect others to respect our
dignity and interests, we should respect dignity and interests of others. We should also

28
safeguard our own dignity and long term interests. Thus, we cannot simply go after our
whims and desires and do whatever we want. We need to have self-control and self-
discipline which leads to self-purification. If we purify our hearts we will no longer need
to resist our temptations and control ourselves against lower desires and lusts, since a
purified person desires nothing except what is good and moral for him and others. In
what follows, we will study the necessity of self-control and self-purification.

The Essence of Tazkiyah

We need, first, to understanding the nature of what the Quran terms tazkiya before we are
able to initiate its programs and practice tazkiyah successfully. It is not uncommon, for
example, to find Muslims today who say tazkiyah is only for those who want to become
Sufis, or those few who desire to increase their faith to the level of ihsan or perfection.
Such people are ignorant of the fact that tazkiyah is an individual obligation upon every
human being, every Muslim.

Others teach one cannot achieve tazkiyah simply by being obedient to Allah and doing
what is required of all Muslims, but only by having a guide (murshid) who can tailor for
one a special program of tazkiyah rituals suitable for who one is. Indeed, some go so far
as to say that our assuring our success in the Hereafter is totally dependent on following
such guide, all other paths to success, they content, are blocked without him. This is
dangerously false, as it appears to remove the burden of individual belief, performance,
thought, repentance, correction, and knowledge acquisition from each person, which
actually defines man. He is mukallif, one morally burdened to stand individually before
Allah Almighty to account of his faith and life for final judgment. What, then, do we
mean by tazkiyah?

Ever since the trial of our father, Adam, may Allah exalt his mention, and his descent
from Paradise, all of his children have had, still and will continue to have, to fight Satan,
their most formidable enemy, till the Last Day on this Earth. Allah Almighty Says:

‫ين اك اف ُروا اواك َّذبُوا ِِب اَيتِناا أُولاةِ ا‬ ِ َّ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ

‫ك‬ ‫ اوالذ ا‬.‫ف اعلا ْي ِه ْم اواَل ُه ْم اْحي ازنُو ان‬ ‫قُلْناا ا ْهبطُوا منْ اها امج ايعا فاِإ َّما اَيْتيا نَّ ُك ْم م ِين ُه ادى فا ام ْن تاب اع ُه اد ا‬
ٌ ‫اي فا اال اخ ْو‬
.‫اب النَّا ِر ُه ْم فِ ايها اخالِ ُدو ان‬
ُ ‫اص اح‬ْ ‫أ‬
“We said, `Go down from it (Paradise) and when guidance comes to you from Me,
whoever follows My guidance there will be no fear concerning them nor will they grieve.
And those who disbelieve and deny Our signs - those will be companions of the Fire;
they will abide therein eternally" [Al-bakarah, v: 38-39].

Our ongoing battle with the forces of darkness began then. Satan, who is irrevocably
condemned to Hellfire, is determined to take with him to it as many of the Children of
Adam as he possibly can. But Allah Almighty has promised those who follow His
guidance that they will be successful over Satan. There are literally hundreds of verses in

29
the Qur'an and similarly copious Hadith reports in the Sunnah of the Prophet Pbuh, that
clearly explain this defining hostility and state of belligerence between man and Satan,
detailing the story of human creation, elucidating the purpose of human life, and
underscoring the inveterate danger to our everlasting wellbeing posed by Satan. The
Quran tells us that the ultimate end of those who do not give heed to these warnings is
damnation in the Hereafter.

ِ ٌ ‫صرا‬ ِ ِ ٌ ِ‫الش ْيطاا ان إِنَّهُ لا ُكم اع ُد ٌّو مب‬ ‫أااملْ أا ْع اه ْد إِل ْاي ُك ْم اَي باِين ا‬
.‫يم‬
ٌ ‫ط ُم ْستاق‬ ‫ اوأان ا ْعبُ ُد ِوين اه اذا ا‬.‫ني‬ ُ ْ َّ ‫آم ام أا ْن اَل تا ْعبُ ُدوا‬

"Did I not enjoin upon you, O Children of Adam, that you not, follow Satan, for he is,
indeed, a clear enemy of you. And that you worship only Me." [Sura Yaseen, v: 60-61].

It also mentions that Allah Almighty will send Messengers from time to time so that man
will not be alone, without tactic nor intelligence, in this perilous fight.
ِ ‫فام ِن اتَّ بع ُه اداي فا اال ي‬
‫ض ُّل اواَل يا ْش اقى‬ ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا اا‬
“And whosoever follows My guidance will neither go astray (in this life) nor suffer (in
the Hereafter)” [Sura Taha, v: 123].

Man, in the viewpoint of Islam, is not born sinful. Rather, we start our lives fresh as good
and wholesome spiritual material (people) who have the potential of achieving the best in
this life. Man, Islam teaches, is eventually subjected to the whispers of Satan and to the
effects of his own environment (family, culture, etc.) Yet man is in need of Divine
teaching to maintain his goodness and orient him toward his felicitous purpose. This
instruction is sent down to him by Allah Almighty through revelation via the various
prophets. The struggle man must undertake in order to internalize these teachings and live
in harmony with them is tazkiyah.

Furthermore, tazkiyah may be construed as a concept that underscores the basic principle
of religion (or any ideology for that matter); namely, ensuring that man puts in enough
effort, struggle and sacrifice to inculcate certain characters and induce certain behavioral
changes in order to enable him to attain specific goals as set for him by religion (or the
ideology). Tazkiyah, therefore, is a systemic and systematic approach of bringing about a
predetermined level of change in people, which requires knowledge, training, and mental
as well as emotional preparation. Without such training, no serious effects or changes can
be brought about or effectively maintained. Some scholars refer to tazkiyah using plain
terms like soul (or self) purification - tazkiatun nafs in Arabic - and this is probably the
most common term for it. Another term is tarbiyah—literally, upbringing. Both of these
terms describe a process by which one's self is trans-formed from weak to strong or from
had to good, and the like.

30
Regardless of how we choose to define it, the essence of tazkiyah entails a process that is
continuous, involved and demanding—one that requires education and the development
of not only a strong, but an effective and efficient will; yet, no matter how arduous of a
process —and it is—it is one that nonetheless has an incomparably triumphant and sweet
end.

Need of Self-Purification:
A question arises in many minds, that despite of all things why we need it that without it
we cannot live a normal life? As we know that this world is full of problems and
calamities and a place of preparation for the believers, as mentioned in Quran:

‫ين ياتَّ ُقو ان أافا اال تا ْع ِقلُو ان‬ ِِ ِ ِ

‫َّار ْادآلخ ارةُ اخ ْي ٌر للَّذ ا‬ ٌ ‫اواما ا ْحلايااةُ الدُّنْ ياا إََِّل لاع‬
ُ ‫ب اواِلٌْو اولالد‬
“And the life of this world is nothing but play and amusement. But far better is the house
in the Hereafter for those who are Al-Muttaqeen (the pious).” (Sura Al-A’aam, v. 32)

Allah has created this worldly life in order to testify his creation by calamities and
catastrophes, to distinguish between who are pious and who are not. As mentioned in
Quran:
َِِّ ‫صيبةٌ قاالُوا إِ ََّّن‬
‫َّلل اوإِ ََّّن‬ ِ ِ َّ ‫الصابِ ِر‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ص ِم ان ْاأل ْام او ِال او ْاألانْ ُف‬ ِ ‫اْلاو‬ ِ ٍ ‫ولان ب لُونَّ ُكم بِ ا‬
‫ين إِ اذا أ ا‬
‫اصابا ْت ُه ْم ُم ا‬ ‫ين الذ ا‬‫س اوالث اَّم ارات اوباش ِر َّ ا‬ ٍ ‫وع اونا ْق‬ ِ ُ‫ف اوا ْجل‬ ْ ْ ‫ش ْيء م ان‬ ْ ‫ا اْ ا‬
.‫ك ُه ُم ال ُْم ْهتا ُدو ان‬ ‫ات ِم ْن ارِبِِ ْم اوار َْحاةٌ اوأُولاةِ ا‬
ٌ ‫صلا او‬ ‫ك اعلايْ ِه ْم ا‬
ِ ‫إِلايْ ِه ر‬
‫اجعُو ان أُولاةِ ا‬‫ا‬

“And We will most certainly try you with somewhat of fear and hunger and loss of
property and lives and fruits and give good news to the patient. Who, when a misfortune
befalls then, say: Surely we are Allah’s and to Him we shall surely return. Those are they
on whom are blessings and mercy from their Lord and those are the followers of the right
course.” (Al-Bakarah, v. 155-157)

Bigger the calamity, bigger the rank will be, like in a school, higher the standard you are
in, more difficult the exam will be. And sometimes if anyone fails then he would
reappear in the exam to pass it. So Allah swt sends upon us sometimes the calamity
twice, so that we pass it. And never wish for death to run away from these worldly
problems. However in any case, these calamities are the blessings from Allah swt for His
believer.

Moreover, in the nature of a man, there is a desire and urge for comfort, happiness and
ease. As Quran explains this nature:
‫ش ِدي ٌد‬
‫اْلا ِْري لا ا‬
ْ ‫ب‬ ِ ُ‫اوإِنَّهُ ِحل‬
“Verily man likes ease and comfort”. (Sura al-‘adiyat, v.8)
And if we look around us, everything is the direct product of man’s instant desire for
goodness. Imagine the time when man has to walk from one place to another and indeed

31
walking is difficult, tedious, tiring, so animals were used for this purpose as mentioned in
Quran:
ِ ٌ ‫س إِ َّن ربَّ ُكم لارء‬ ِ ِ ِ ِِ َّ ٍ ِ ِ ِ ْ ‫او ْاألانْ اع اام اخلا اق اها لا ُك ْم فِ ايها ِم‬
‫يم‬
ٌ ‫وف َّرح‬ُ ‫فءٌ اوامنااف ُع اوم ْن اها اَتْ ُكلُو ان اواحتْم ُل أاثْ اقالا ُك ْم إِ ا ىَل بالاد ملْ تا ُكونُوا اِبلغيه إََِّل بش ِق ْاألان ُف ِ ا ْ ا‬
ِ
‫ال اوا ْحلا ِمريا لتا ْراكبُ ا‬
‫وها اوِزيناةا اوَياْلُ ُق اما اَل تا ْعلا ُمو ان‬ ‫اْلايْ ال اوالْبِغا ا‬
ْ ‫او‬

“And the grazing livestock He has created for you; in them is warmth and [numerous]
benefits, and from them you eat. And for you in them is [the enjoyment of] beauty when
you bring them in [for the evening] and when you send them out [to pasture]. And they
carry your loads to a land you could not have reached except with difficulty to
yourselves. Indeed, your Lord is Kind and Merciful. And [He created] the horses, mules
and donkeys for you to ride and [as] adornment. And He creates that which you do not
know.” (Sura Nahl, v.4-8)

It’s very difficult to maintain the animals to clean and feed them, so we made cars and
automobiles, planes and ships. Moreover, in the beginning it’s very difficult to bring
water from faraway places, for our convenience we invent motors and pumps to drag
water in to our houses. And we did not rely on this; we built geysers to get our desired
water as warm and cold at the moment when we open tap. When we talk about climate,
we can change it according to our desire, as in hot summer days we can change room
temperature as of winters and in winters as summer by inventing air conditions. These all
inventions clearly elucidate man’s intense desire for ease and luxury. After all this luxury
and ease there is one thing which man lost is happiness.
We have the example of UK with 63 million populations according to a research in 2015,
they recorded 57 million anti-depression prescription of drugs. No war, no famine, peace
prosperity buildings and everything what a person desires in his life, but still they are
depressed. We use drugs and other artificial things in order to get peace of mind and
heart. Our children are not safe as they are inheriting this depression disease, and
according to a research, 4 to 5 year children suffering from chronicle depression. So all
this is due to lack of self-purification in humans.

Self-Purification in Quran and Sunnah:

The practice of purifying the human self and turn it into a better one, through a constant
process of purification and reform, has been significantly emphasized by the Qur’an
which called it as “Purification”. In that context, the Ever-Glorious Qur’an has referred to
its importance and necessity in several verses. For example, Allah the Almighty says:

ٍ ‫ض اوما طاحاها اونا ْف‬

‫س اوما اس َّواها‬ ِ ‫الس‬
ِ ‫ماء اوما باناها او ْاأل ْار‬ َّ ‫ضحاها اوالْ اق ام ِر إِذا تاالها اوالنَّها ِر إِذا اجالَّها اواللَّْي ِل إِذا ياغْشاها او‬ ِ ‫الش ْم‬
َّ ‫او‬
ُ ‫س او‬
‫خاب ام ْن ام َّساها‬‫ورها اوتا ْقواها قا ْد أافْ لا اح ام ْن ازَّكاها اوقا ْد ا‬
‫فاأا ِْلاامها فُ ُج ا‬

32
“I swear by the sun and its brilliance and the moon when it follows the sun and the day
when it makes manifest the sun (and her beauty) and the night when it covers the sun and
the heaven and Him who made it and the earth and Him who extended it and the soul and
Him who made it perfect, then He inspired it to understand what is right and wrong for it.
He will indeed be successful who purifies it and he will indeed fail whoever pollutes and
corrupts it”. (Sura al-Shams, v: 1-10)

So, after swearing eleven times, after so much emphasis, God declares that the person
who purifies his soul will be successful and whoever pollutes and corrupts his soul will
fail. On the Day of Judgment there will be two groups of people: those who are
prosperous and happy because they purified their soul and those who are in an
unfortunate position because they were careless and negligent of their soul.

Purification of the soul is a prerequisite for closeness to God. Indeed, the whole point of
morality and spirituality is to purify one’s soul. It is only then that the soul starts shining,
receiving and reflecting utmost radiation and light from God. If we want to meet God,
Who is the Most Pure, then we need to achieve purity. It is impossible to be polluted and
then try to go towards God. If we want to go somewhere where the people are smart,
well-dressed and beautiful, then we too need to make ourselves clean and tidy, we should
put on good clothes and thus make ourselves somehow compatible with them. Otherwise
they will say that we will spoil their gathering and damage their reputation.

One of the main tasks of all the Prophets and a major aim behind all their endeavors in
teaching the divine message was to help people to purify their souls. Referring to the
mission of the Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh), the Glorious Qur’an says:
ٍ ‫ض‬
ٍ ‫الل ُمب‬
‫ني‬ ‫ْمةا اوإِ ْن كانُوا ِم ْن قا ْب ُل لافي ا‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِِ ِ ِ
‫ث ِِف ْاألُميِ ا‬
‫ني ار ُسوَلا منْ ُه ْم ياتْ لُوا اعلا ْي ِه ْم آَيته اويُ ازكي ِه ْم اويُ اعل ُم ُه ُم الْك ا‬
‫تاب اوا ْحلك ا‬ ‫ُه او الَّذي با اع ا‬

He is the one who has sent amongst illiterate people an apostle from among themselves
who recites to them His verses and purifies them and teaches them the Book and the
wisdom. (62:2)

‫ْمةا اوإِ ْن كانُوا ِم ْن قا ْب ُل لافي‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِِ ِ ِ ‫نني إِ ْذ با اع ا‬

‫ث في ِه ْم ار ُسوَلا م ْن أانْ ُفس ِه ْم يا ْت لُوا اعلاْي ِه ْم آَيته اويُ ازكي ِه ْم اويُ اعل ُم ُه ُم الْك ا‬
‫تاب اوا ْحلك ا‬
ِ َّ ‫لا اق ْد ام َّن‬
‫اَّللُ اعلاى ال ُْم ْؤم ا‬
‫ني‬ ٍ ‫ض‬
ٍ ‫الل ُمب‬ ‫ا‬

“Certainly God conferred a great favour upon the believers when He raised among them a
Messenger from among themselves, reciting to them His verses and purifying them, and
teaching them the Book and the wisdom, although before that they were surely in
manifest error”. (3:164)

Thus we see that one of the tasks of the Holy Prophet (Pbuh), in addition to reciting the
Qur’an and teaching the Qur’an and wisdom, was to help us to purify our souls. Indeed,
the appointment of Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) for such tasks was an answer to the

33
prayer of Abraham (a.s.) and Ismail (a.s.) after they raised the foundations of the House
(ka’bah):

‫اك‬‫اك اوِم ْن ذُ ِريَّتِنا أ َُّمةا ُم ْسلِ امةا ل ا‬ ِ ْ ‫اج اعلْنا ُم ْسلِ ام‬
‫ني ل ا‬ ْ ‫ليم اربَّنا او‬
ُ ‫ميع ال اْع‬
ُ ‫الس‬
َّ ‫ت‬ ‫اعيل اربَّنا تا اقبَّ ْل ِمنَّا إِنَّ ا‬
‫ك أانْ ا‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ
ُ ‫اهيم الْ اقواع اد م ان الْبا ْيت اوإ ْْس‬
ِ ِ
ُ ‫اوإ ْذ يا ْرفا ُع إبْر‬
‫ْمةا اويُ ازكِي ِه ْم‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ث في ِهم رسوَلا ِمنْ هم ي تْ لُوا اعلاي ِهم آَيتِ ا‬ ‫ب اعلا ْينا إِنَّ ا‬ ِ
‫تاب اوا ْحلك ا‬ ‫ك اويُ اعل ُم ُه ُم الْك ا‬ ْ ْ ‫ُْ ا‬ ُ ‫حيم اربَّنا اوابْ اع ْ ْ ا‬ ُ ‫الر‬ َّ ‫اب‬
ُ ‫َّو‬
َّ ‫ت الت‬
‫ك أانْ ا‬ ْ ُ‫اوأا ِرَّن امناس اكنا اوت‬
‫كيم‬
ُ ‫زيز ا ْحلا‬
ُ ‫ت ال اْع‬ ‫إِنَّ ا‬
‫ك أانْ ا‬

Our Lord! Accept from us; surely You are the Hearing, the Knowing….Our Lord! And
raise up in them a Messenger from among them who shall recite to them Your verses and
teach them the Book and the wisdom, and purify them; surely You are the Mighty, the
Wise. (2:127-129)

Just imagine how wise Abraham a.s was! How lovely his supplication was! In three
places in the Qur’an, God says that He has sent the Holy Prophet (Pbuh) to do the same
thing that Abraham (a.s.) and Ishmael (a.s.) had wanted: to recite for the people the
verses of the divine Book, to teach them the divine Book and wisdom and to purify their
souls. Of course, it must be God Himself who inspired them to pray in this way. God is
so merciful that He first invites us to call Him, then He inspires us what to ask and then
he answers our call and prayer.

There are a number of sources of impurity. A major or the major source of impurity is the
attachment to the materialistic life and worldly affairs to the extent that the Hassan r.a
said:

‫اي اخطاٍإ أا اش ُّد ُج ْرم ا ِم ْن اه اذا‬ َّ ُ‫ضه‬

ُّ ‫اَّللُ اوأ‬ ‫ب اما أابْ غا ا‬
َّ ‫اح‬
‫فأا‬‫ْس ُك ِل اخ ِطيةا ٍة أ ااَل تا ارى اك ْي ا‬
ُ ‫ب الدُّنْياا ارأ‬
ُّ ‫ُح‬

The attachment to this world is the source for every wrong. Beware how the one who is
attached to this world has loved what God dislikes. What wrong can be a greater crime
than this? (Bihar al-Anwar)

Ways to achieve self-Purification

The materialistic world (dunya) is the least important and valuable thing in the sight of
God. To be attached to it and make it one’s ultimate end in one’s life is a grave mistake
and impurity. Therefore, one of the major treatments of this problem and a crucial means
of purification of the soul is to ask people to give alms. In some twenty verses of the
Qur’an, giving alms (al-zakat) is mentioned right after establishing prayer. For example,
Allah (swt) says in the Qur’an:

‫مين الْ اقيِ ام ِة‬ ‫الزكاةا اوذلِ ا‬

َّ ‫الصالةا اويُ ْؤتُوا‬ ِ ِ َّ ‫وما أ ُِمروا إَِلَّ لِي عب ُدوا‬
ُ ‫ك‬ َّ ‫قيموا‬
ُ ُ‫فاء اوي‬
‫ين ُحنا ا‬
‫صني لاهُ الد ا‬
‫اَّللا ُمُْل ا‬ ُْ ‫ا‬ ُ ‫ا‬
And they were not commanded except to worship God, dedicating their faith to Him as
men of pure faith, and to maintain the prayer, and pay the zakat. That is the upright
religion. (Sura Al-Bayyinah, v: 5)

34
Zakat is derived from the same root as tazkiyah (purification) i.e. za-ka-wa which means
growth and purity. It has been suggested that the reason for calling alms “zakat” lies in
the fact that paying zakat purifies one’s money and possessions. It is also true that paying
alms causes growth (namā) and blessing (barakah) in one’s money and sustenance. It
seems more reasonable to suggest that the main reason for calling alms “zakat” is that it
helps in purifying the soul by getting rid of the love for this world. This is why God says
to the Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh):
ِ ِ ِِ ِ
‫ليم‬
ٌ ‫يع اع‬ َّ ‫ك اس اك ٌن اِلُ ْم او‬
ٌ ‫اَّللُ اْس‬ ‫ص ِل اعلا ْي ِه ْم إِ َّن ا‬
‫صالتا ا‬ ‫ص ادقاةا تُطا ِه ُرُه ْم اوتُ ازكي ِه ْم ِبا او ا‬
‫ُخ ْذ م ْن أ ْامواِل ْم ا‬

Take charity from their possessions to cleanse them and purify them thereby, and bless
them. Indeed your blessing is a comfort to them, and God is all-hearing, all-knowing.
(Sura al-Tauba, v: 103)
In this verse, instead of the term zakat, sadaqah (charity) is used. However, the same
point is there: Giving money for the sake of God helps in purification of the giver.
Elsewhere the Qur’an says:
ِ ِ ِ ٍ ِ ِ ِ ٍ ‫الَّذي ي ْؤيت مالاهُ ي ت ازَّكى وما ِأل‬
‫ف يا ْرضى‬
‫اس ْو ا‬ ‫احد ع ْن ادهُ م ْن ن ْع امة ُجتْزى إَِلَّ ابْت ا‬
‫غاء او ْجه اربِه ْاألا ْعلى اول ا‬ ‫اا ا ا‬ ُ

“He who gives his wealth to purify himself and does not expect any reward from anyone,
but seeks only the pleasure of his Lord, the Most Exalted, and, surely soon he will be
well-pleased. (Sura al-Lail, v: 18-21)

Thus when someone spends some money for the sake of God on things such as giving to
the needy people or building places for common good such as Mosques, seminaries,
schools and hospitals both giver and receiver benefit. However, the main beneficiary is
the giver who is giving some money which is the least valuable thing in the sight of God
and instead achieves purity and pleasure of God.
For its importance Prophet Pbuh also stresses upon this and taught his ummah the self-
purification by explaining them how to live life away from materialism, as He said: “Live
in this world like you are a passenger who passes away after sometime.”

In this Prophet Pbuh gave the example of a passenger, due to the fact that he only keeps
useful things with him, the things he can easily manage and travel with. Moreover, with
this example He Pbuh also teaches us not to let this materialistic world comes in your
heart by making property out of bounds as passenger always live in a temporary place
which he lefts after sometimes.
The Remembrance of Allah: One of the most important constituents of tazkiyah is thikr
of Allah (remembrance of Allah). Thikrul Allah or thikr is a term used to reflect a
collection of ways in which a Muslim remembers and attains closeness to Allah in his
heart and himself. The word, remember, alone does not reflect the meaning of thikr.

35
Thus, thikr is more than the recollection of something in memory. Thikr is a training
institution that helps people develops enlightened hearts, wholly occupied with Allah and
His attributes. Allah has told us:

‫وب‬ ِ َِّ ‫اَّلل أ ااَل بِ ِذ ْك ِر‬

َِّ ‫ الَّ ِذين آمنوا وتاطْمةِ ُّن قُلُوب هم بِ ِذ ْك ِر‬.‫شاء وي ْه ِدي إِلاي ِه من أا اَّنب‬ ِ َّ ‫قُل إِ َّن‬
ُ ُ‫اَّلل تاط اْمة ُّن الْ ُقل‬ ْ ُُ ‫ا اُ ا ا‬ ‫ْ اْ ا‬ ‫اَّللا يُض ُّل ام ْن يا ا ُ ا ا‬ ْ
“Say (O Muhammad) Truly, Allah leaves to stray whom He will (as a result of their
choice of going astray) but He guides to Himself those who turn to Him in repentance,
those who believe, and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of Allah, for
without doubt in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find rest.” (Sura al-Ra’d v: 27-28)

Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH) is reported to have said: “The faith of a servant
(worshipper) will not be right, complete and straight unless his heart, straightened i.e.,
wholly engaged in loving Allah, lovingly to be obedient to Allah and hateful of
disobeying Him. Moreover, Shaddad ibn Aws reported that in the salah (prayer) the
Prophet (PBUH) used to ask Allah for a heart in awe of Him, free from the distress and
agitation of sin, saying: I ask You, (O Allah) for a good heart. (Musnad Ahmad)

The ninety-nine noble attributes of Allah are heavenly spiritual enrichment. Each noble
attribute is an institution that speaks about Allah. A true believer loves Allah more than
anything else. Therefore, these noble attributes will allow a person to be trustworthy,
honorable, wise, beneficent, successful, humble and in awe of Allah. As a result of this
knowledge and close attendance to Allah, righteous acts become natural in a person, and
evil acts become infrequent. These results naturally come from the reflections and deep
knowledge of Allah and His attributes. A Muslim can accomplish change in his heart
through the mechanism of thikr. Allah offers a variety of means to achieve piety,
tranquility, humility, and reverence. One way to begin making thikr is to start out by
attaching your heart to Allah and by linking it to His guidance. The Prophet (PBUH) said:
“Truly in the body, there is a morsel of flesh, and if it is guided (to the way of Allah), the
whole body will be guided and follow accordingly, and if this organ is left to go astray,
the whole body will follow and go astray; indeed this (organ) is the heart. (Sahih Muslim)
When the heart is cleansed of all vices and enlightened by the guidance of Allah, the rest
of the body and all its senses will follow accordingly. Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH)
pointed out the importance of the role of faith in the heart, when he said: Verily, faith in
your hearts wears out, just as clothes do. So ask Allah to renew faith in your hearts.

This means to do zikr of Allah swt by reciting his names and attributes and to ponder in
the names of Allah like Allah is al-Razzaq, he will provide me with rizq. Prophet Pbuh
advised to his beloved daughter Fatima r.a when she came to Prophet Pbuh asked for the
slave. He said: Don’t I tell you a thing better than that? Read 33 times subhanallah, 33
times alhamdolillah and 33 times Allah-u-Akbar.

36
Ibn-e-Qayyum said that: our hearts are like of that fish which when comes out of water
would die, same as our hearts without zikr they die. The reason is that zikr gives you the
strength and ability to face difficult things.

Remembrance of Death: Death is the ultimate reality of life that no human can escape
from it, as mentioned in the Quran:
ِ ‫س اذائِاقةُ الْمو‬
‫ت ُُثَّ إِل ْاي ناا تُ ْر اج ُعو ان‬ ٍ ‫ُك ُّل نا ْف‬
ْ‫ا‬
“Every soul will taste death. Then to Us you will be returned.” (Sura Ankaboot, v. 57)
No one knows when the death would come to a person. As mentioned by Allah Almighty
in Quran:
.‫اَّللُ اخبِريٌ ِِباا تا ْع املُو ان‬
َّ ‫اجلُ اها او‬ ‫سا إِذاا اج ا‬
‫اء أ ا‬ َّ ‫ان يُ اؤ ِخ ار‬
‫اَّللُ نا ْف ا‬ ْ ‫اول‬
“And Allah grants respite to none when his appointed time (death) comes. And Allah is
All-Aware of what you do.” (Sura Munafiqoon, v. 11)
So by perception of Death, man’s desires for wealth restricted to basic needs as
everything will be left behind. There are no specific signs by which a person may know
that when and how his death approaches. Due to this a person should serve his life for the
preparation of akhira which could not be achieved unless with a pure heart beyond the
materialistic things. This is also the mercy of Allah towards His slaves, that if a person
knew when he was going to die, and he knows that repentance expiates the sins that come
before it, perhaps he might indulge in sins and commit evil deeds and promise himself
that one hour before his death he will repent and give up his sin. But such a person does
not deserve to be a slave of Allah; rather he is a slave to his whims and desires.

Reading Quran: It means establishing a deep relation with Quran by reading and
understanding it as Quran has the solution of everything weather the worldly problems or
the issues related to the akhirah. Spend most of the time in understanding and implicating
it in lives will help a person to purify his soul.
Accountability of Actions: Sins are totally in contradiction to purification, it pollutes
and corrupts the hearts and its harm effects not only affects the person but leads to other
people also. So a person should avoid from sins as what sins make the heart of a person
black as what mentioned in the hadith, the Prophet Pbuh said: when a person commits a
sin a black dot has putted on the heart and if he repents it will be removed. If a person
continues committing sins a stage will come when his heart becomes black then no good
will come in his heart. (Sunan Tirmazi) Moreover Umar r.a used to say that: “Have
accountability of your actions before you have been accountable on the Day of
Judgment”.

Creation of a human: By discerning of human creation would overcome the arrogance

as it creates a notion in the heart that you are the most superior and better than others in
every aspect which results in corruption of heart and ends up in violation of human rights
which creates injustice and anarchy in a society. So by perception of your own creation

37
that you were nothing but Allah created you from a filthy thing and all human are equally
born the same as you were, will overcome the arrogance. As mentioned in Quran: “It is
He who created you from dust, then from a seed, then from an embryo, then he brings
you out as an infant, then he let you reach your maturity, then you become elderly,
although some of you die sooner so that you may reach predetermined age, so that you
may understand.” (Al-Ghafir, 67)

Comparing catastrophes: This is a wonderful methodology to overcome the stress. As

when you see someone in pain and sufferings more than you are, you would feel relief
and relax and will thanks to Allah that he is far more in better condition than others. As
what Prophet Pbuh said: “If someone struck with any calamity then compare it with me,
as the most severe and terrible calamities would come on the Prophets.”

1.7 Wisdom
Wisdom (‘aql in Arabic) is a hidden power of thinking and logic. It discovers unknown
realities from the known ones. Wisdom makes logical rules using plausible reasoning by
induction and deduction. Wisdom then reaches useful conclusions and results based on
these logical rules. There are several synonyms used for wisdom in practice including but
not limited to reason, intellect, insight, acumen, clear thinking, enlightenment, foresight,
good judgment, and understanding. Most prevalent antonyms of wisdom are ignorance
and stupidity.

The word hikmah is used repeatedly in the Quran as a characteristic of the righteous, and
as a quality of those who truly understand. Referring to the favors bestowed upon Dawud
(a.s), Allah says:
‫ْمةا او اعلَّ امهُ ِِمَّا يا ا‬
ُ‫شاء‬
ِ ‫اَّلل الْمل ا‬
‫ْك اوا ْحلك ا‬ ُ َُّ ُ‫اوآ ااَته‬
“And Allah gave him kingship and wisdom and taught him whatever He willed.” (Al-
Baqarah, v: 251).
Referring to the favors bestowed upon the descendants of Ibrahim (AS), Allah says:

‫يما‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ال إِب ر ِاه‬

‫اه ْم ُملْ اكا اعظ ا‬
ُ ‫ْمةا اوآاتا ْي نا‬
‫اب اوا ْحلك ا‬
‫يم الْكتا ا‬
‫فا اق ْد آاتا ْي ناا آ ا ْ ا ا‬
“We gave the family of Ibrahim the book and wisdom, and We gave them a great
kingdom.” (Al-Nisa, v: 54).
Asking ‘Isa (AS) to remember the favors bestowed upon him and his mother, Allah says:
ِ ِ ِ ‫وإِ ْذ اعلَّمت ا‬
‫ْمةا اوالت َّْوارا اة اوا ِْْلجن ا‬
‫يل‬ ‫اب اوا ْحلك ا‬
‫ك الْكتا ا‬ُْ ‫ا‬

“And when I taught you the book and wisdom, and the Torah and the Injil.” (al-Ma’idah,
5:110).

38
Wisdom in these verses is referred to as an integral component of the message and
guidance provided by divine revelation. To possess hikmah is to have one of the greatest
blessings of Allah, for Allah says,
ِ ‫ُويت اخ ْي را اكثِريا اواما يا َّذَّكر إََِّل أُولُو ْاألالْبا‬ ِ ‫شاء ومن ي ْؤ ا‬ ِ
‫اب‬ ُ ‫ْمةا فا اق ْد أ ِ ا ا ا‬
‫ت ا ْحلك ا‬ ‫يُ ْؤِيت ا ْحلك ا‬
ُ ْ ‫ْمةا ام ْن يا ا ُ ا ا‬

“He grants wisdom to whom He wills; and whoever is granted wisdom has indeed been
granted abundant good. But only insightful people bear this in mind.” (Al-Baqarah, v:
269).
When we convey the message of Islam, it should be done with hikmah, for Allah says:

‫سنا ِة‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ك ِِب ْحلِك‬

‫يل اربِ ا‬
ِ ِ‫ا ْمعُ إِ اَل اسب‬
‫ْمة اوال اْم ْوعظاة ا ْحلا ا‬
‫ا‬
“Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good advice.”(Al-Nahl, 16:125).

In this ayah, wisdom implies that one should use discretion in the work of conveying the
message of Islam and should not do this blindly like foolish people. Wisdom demands
that one should keep in view the intelligence, capability and circumstances of the
addressees and convey the message in accordance with the requirements of the occasion.
Moreover, one should refrain from applying one and the same method to each and every
person or group but should first diagnose the real disease of the addressee and then cure it
by appealing to his head and heart. Allah swt says:
ِ‫ين ا‬ َِِّ ‫ان ا ْش ُكر‬
َّ ‫َّلل اوام ْن يا ْش ُك ْر فاِإ ََّّناا يا ْش ُك ُر لِنا ْف ِس ِه اوام ْن اك اف ار فاِإ َّن‬ ِ ‫ولا اق ْد آاتايْ ناا لُ ْقما ان ا ْحلِكْمةا أ‬
‫َحي ٌد‬ ٌّ ِ ‫اَّللا غا‬ ْ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬

“And certainly, We gave Luqman wisdom, saying, be thankful to Allah: he who is

thankful, is thankful only for the good of his own soul. But if anyone is unthankful, then
surely Allah is self-sufficient and praiseworthy.” (Sura Luqman, v: 12).
The relationship between wisdom and thankfulness is something that should be pondered
upon very deeply. Shukr is the faculty of being thankful to someone who has done some
good. With the ongoing evolution of human reasoning, it is now well known and
understood that the forces of nature like the sun, the moon, the oceans, the winds, the
rains, the mountains, the fire, and so on to which people used to show reverence as a
gesture of thankfulness are nothing but humble servants in a grand cosmic order that has
been made subservient to man. They have no will or determination of their own. They
submit to the natural laws created by Allah (SWT). People practicing primitive religions
are well known for their worship of nature.

Reason and logic dictate that Allah alone is worthy of our worship and our praise, glory
and thankfulness of Him. Thus, it is the faculty of understanding that makes one reach
from thankfulness to tawheed. Thus, to thank Allah is to have reached the threshold of
wisdom. Abdullah ibn Mas’ud (RA) said during his sermons:

39
 َِّ ُ‫الز ِام التَّ ْقوى ورأْس ا ْحلِكْم ِة اُماافاة‬
‫اَّلل اع َّز او اج َّل‬ َّ ‫اخيْ ُر‬
‫ا‬ ُ ‫ا اا‬
“The best provision is mindfulness (taqwa) of Allah, and the peak of wisdom is the fear
of Allah the Exalted.”
Hikmah or wisdom when it concerns man is to strive to use his faculties of intelligence
and power of reasoning, and recognize Al-Hakeem (Allah’s attribute) and submit to Him.
Everything one does in alignment with Al-Hakeem’s guidance will be based on hikmah;
and anything one does which is not aligned to His guidance will be devoid of hikmah.

The law and guidance of Al-Hakeem are set to reform the creation and not to cause
hardship in life. In other words, His laws are best for us. If we don’t understand His laws,
we should not blame the laws, but our own understanding. We should keep reflecting on
the perfection of Al-Hakeem’s work, and keep reminding ourselves of His wisdom
reflected in His creation.
The truth is that wisdom prevents man from committing wrong actions, and guides him to
take the right way. It gives him a broad perspective on everything in life. It deepens his
understanding, and increases his awareness of the surrounding circumstances so that he
may reach the right words and actions. As Prophet (Pbuh) said: “A wise person is one
who keeps a watch over his bodily desires and passions, and checks himself from that
which is harmful and strives for that which will benefit him after death; and a foolish
person is one who subordinates himself to his cravings and desires and expects from
Allah (SWT) the fulfillment of his futile desires.”
The issue of the authority of wisdom in Islam is certain. Since the earliest times until the
present, none amongst the Islamic scholars has ever negated the authority of wisdom;
they have counted it as one of the four sources of Islamic fiqh. Quran emphasize on using
clear reasoning in various ways that confirms the authority of wisdom. Hundreds of
verses can be cited in which the Qur’an indicates that such and such a matter have been
mentioned for wisdom to reflect on. In one instance, the Qur’an refers to this issue in a
striking statement:
‫ين اَل يا ْع ِقلُو ان‬ ِ َّ ‫الص ُّم الْبك‬ َِّ ‫اب ِع ْن اد‬
‫ْم الذ ا‬ُ ُ ُّ ‫اَّلل‬ ‫إِ َّن اش َّر الد ا‬
ِ ‫َّو‬
Surely the worst of beasts in God’s sight are those that are deaf and dumb and do not
reason. (Al-Anfal, v: 22)
Of course, it is obvious that the Qur’an does not mean the physically deaf and dumb, but
those who do not want to listen to truth, or those who when they hear, do not wish to
admit it with their tongues. In the view of the Qur’an, the ears which are unable to listen
to truth and which are only used for listening to absurd and nonsensical things are deaf.
The tongue which is merely used to utter nonsense is dumb. The people, who do not
reason, are those who do not make use of their wisdom and their faculty of thought. Such
are not fit to be called human beings. The Qur’an includes them among the beasts. In
another verse, the Qur’an explains that even though humans are free to choose between

40
disbelief and belief, however this freedom of choice is only granted by Allah. Further, it
warns us of severe consequences of not using wisdom:

‫ين اَل يا ْع ِقلُو ان‬ ِ َّ َِّ ‫س أا ْن تُ ْؤِمن إََِّل ِبِِ ْذ ِن‬

ِ ‫اَّلل اواْجي اع ُل‬ ٍ ‫اواما اكا ان لِنا ْف‬
‫س اعلاى الذ ا‬
‫الر ْج ا‬ ‫ا‬
And it is not for a soul to believe except by permission of Allah, and He will place
defilement upon those who will not use reason. (Sura Younas, v: 100)

In other words, Quran does not consider those people as wise who do not believe on
Allah, His plan and His prophets. Not using wisdom and reason degrades humanity and
entraps humans into all kinds of harms. Further, the true believers are full of wisdom and
free of any ignorance and harms. In these two verses, the Qur’an, in the terms of logic,
invites us to use our rational faculties. There are many other verses in the Qur’an which,
on the basis of logical inference, can be said to accept the authority of wisdom. In other
words, the Qur’an makes statements which cannot be accepted without accepting the
authority of wisdom. For instance, an opponent is challenged to present rational argument
in favor of his position:
‫ني‬ ِ ِ ‫قُل هاتُوا ب رهانا ُكم إِ ْن ُك ْن تم‬
‫صامق ا‬
‫ُْ ا‬ ْ ‫ْ ا ُْ ا‬
Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful. (Al-Bakarah, v: 111)
This can only be inferred to mean the Qur’an’s endorsement on the authority of wisdom.
In another place it uses syllogistic reasoning to prove the existence of the Allah as the
sole Creator:
ِ ‫ش اع َّما ي‬ َِّ ‫اَّلل لاافس اد اَت فاسبحا ان‬
ِ ‫اَّلل ار‬ ِ ِ ِ
‫ص ُفو ان‬ ‫ا‬ ِ ‫ب ال اْع ْر‬ ‫ُْ ا‬ ‫ل ْاو اكا ان في ِه اما آِلاةٌ إََّل َُّ ا‬
Were there gods in them [earth and heaven] other than God, they would surely
disintegrate … (21:22)
Thus the Qur’an aims at emphasizing the role of wisdom and disproves the view of some
of the religions that faith is alien to or is incompatible with reason and wisdom. And that
to embrace faith one has to suspend his rational faculty and concentrate upon heart alone,
so that it may absorb the Divine light and become illuminated by it. This view is totally
disproved by the Qur’an.

Law of Causality
The other argument that supports the view that the Qur’an approves of the ultimate
authority of wisdom, is that it defines various problems in terms of cause-and-effect
relationship. The cause-and-effect relationship, or the law of causation, is the foundation
of rational thinking. This law is honored by the Qur’an and is also employed by it. The
Qur’an speaks on behalf of God, the Almighty, the Creator of the system of cause and
effect. Despite the fact that His Word transcends the limitations of causality, the Qur’an
is not oblivious of pointing out to the system of causality operating in the universe; it
views all phenomena and events as being subservient to this system. The following verse
supports this view:

41
 ‫اَّللا اَل يُغاِريُ اما بِ اق ْوٍم اح ََّّت يُغاِريُوا اما ِِبانْ ُف ِس ِه ْم‬
َّ ‫إِ َّن‬
Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change their own condition…
(Al-Ra’d, v: 11)
The Qur’an intends to say that, although all destinies depend on the Will of God, He
never imposes upon human beings such fate as is outside and alien to their determination,
will and action. The destinies of societies also change according to their intrinsic system
of functioning. God does not extravagantly alter the destiny of a nation without any
specific reason, unless they themselves bring about a major change in their system of
social and moral values and their manner of performing their individual duties.

The Qur’an urges Muslims to study the conditions and circumstances of societies of the
past and to take lesson from their history. It is evident that if the destinies of races and
nations were random, or dependent upon accidents, or were prescribed from Allah, the
advice to study and draw a lesson would not have any sense. By laying emphasis on it,
the Qur’an intends to remind us that a uniform system of laws governs the destinies of all
the nations of the world. It also reminds us that if the conditions of a society in which we
live, are similar to the conditions prevalent in a society of the past, the same fate awaits
us too. Elsewhere, the Qur’an says:

‫وب‬ ٍ ‫فا اكأايِن ِمن قاري ٍة أا ْهلاكْنااها و ِهي ظاالِمةٌ فا ِهي اخا ِويةٌ اعلاى ُعرو ِشها وبِْة ٍر معطَّلا ٍة وقاص ٍر م ِش‬
ِ ‫يد أافالا ْم يا ِسريُوا ِِف ْاأل ْار‬
ٌ ُ‫ض فا تا ُكو ان اِلُ ْم قُل‬ ‫ُ ا ا ُا ا ْ ا‬ ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ا ا ا‬ ‫ْ ْ ْا‬
ُّ ‫وب الَِِّت ِِف ا‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ
‫لص ُدوِر‬ ُ ُ‫ار اولاك ْن تا ْع امى الْ ُقل‬
ُ‫ص‬ ‫يا ْعقلُو ان ِباا أ ْاو آذاا ٌن يا ْس امعُو ان ِباا فاِإنَّ اها اَل تا ْع امى ْاألابْ ا‬

“How many populations have We destroyed, which were given to wrong-doing? They
tumbled down on their roofs. And how many wells are lying idle and neglected, and
castles lofty and well-built? Do they not travel through the land, so that their hearts (and
minds) may thus learn wisdom and their ears may thus learn to hear? Truly it is not their
eyes that are blind, but their hearts which are in their breasts…? (Sura al-Hajj, v: 45-46)

From this statement, we can infer that the affirmation of the law of causality and the
approval of the cause-and-effect relationship, imply the acceptance of authority of
wisdom.

Rational Basis of Divine Commands

Another argument which proves that the Qur’an believes in the ultimate authority of
wisdom is that the Qur’an always explains the rationale behind its commands, laws and
precepts. The scholars of the principles of the Faith maintain that the harms and benefits
caused by human deeds are among the reasons behind laws and commands. For example,
while at one place the Qur’an ordains the performance of prayers, in another place it
explains the philosophy of prayer:

‫ش ِاء اوال ُْم ْن اك ِر‬ َّ ‫إِ َّن‬

‫الص اال اة تا ْن اهى اع ِن الْ اف ْح ا‬

42
Indeed, prayer prohibits immorality and wrongdoing… (Sura al-‘ankaboot, v: 45)

It mentions the spiritual effects of prayer, and states how the prayer can enlighten man. It
explains that it is on account of this exaltation that man can dissociate himself from
indecencies. Elsewhere, after laying down rules for observing the fast, the Qur’an
explains the rationale for its command:

‫ين ِم ْن قا ْبلِ ُك ْم ل ااعلَّ ُك ْم تا تَّ ُقو ان‬ ِ َّ

‫ب اعلاى الذ ا‬
ِ
‫ام اك اما ُكت ا‬
ِ
ُ ‫ب اعلا ْي ُك ُم الصيا‬
ِ
‫آمنُوا ُكت ا‬
‫ين ا‬
ِ َّ
‫اَي أايُّ اها الذ ا‬
O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those
before you that you may become righteous. (2:183)

Similarly, with respect to other commandments like those regarding zakat (alms) and
jihad, the Qur’an clarifies their necessity for individual, as well as for society. In this
way, the Qur’an, despite its transcendental nature of Divine commandments, clarifies
fully their worldly and moral relevance, and asks men to ponder upon their rationale until
their meaning becomes explicit, so that it may not be imagined that these laws are based
on a series of occult notions beyond the power of human comprehension.

Deviations of Wisdom
The human mind can, in many cases, fall into error. This fact is acknowledged by all of
us. However, this danger is not limited to the intellect alone, but can equally befall the
senses, and feelings as well. Just for the sense of vision, scores of visual errors and
optical illusions have been pointed out in various research texts. In the case of wisdom,
too, there are times when people frame an argument and rationale and draw an inference
on its basis, but later on they realize that the basis of their conclusion was erroneous.
Here the question arises, whether the faculty of wisdom should be suspended on account
of its occasional failures, or whether we should employ other means for discovering the
errors of the intellect and seek to avoid such errors. In answering this question, the
Sophists said that reason should not be relied upon, and that, basically, argumentation and
reasoning is an absurd practice.

Other philosophers have given a fitting reply to the Sophists, and said that though the
senses can also err like reason, but no one has ever recommended their suspension. Since
it was not possible to discard wisdom, the philosophers resolved to find ways of making
wisdom secure from error. During their efforts in this regard, they discovered that all
arguments consist of two parts, namely, matter and form. Like a building which has
various ingredients in its construction, like, lime, cement, steel, etc. (matter), to acquire a
specific structure (form). In order to attain the permanence and perfection of its
construction, it is essential to procure proper material as well as to draw a perfect and
faultless plan. For the correctness and accuracy of an argument too, it is essential that its
content and form be both free of error and defect. For judging the validity of the form of
any argument, the Aristotelian or formal logic came into existence. The function of

43
formal logic is to determine the accuracy or inaccuracy of the form of an argument, and
help the mind to avoid errors in the process of reasoning. However, solely formal logic is
inadequate for the correctness of an argument as it cannot alone guarantee the validity of
an argument. It can give assurance about one aspect alone. To obtain the perfection of the
material aspect, the use of material logic is also essential, that is, we need certain criteria
for controlling the quality of the rational material. Thinkers like Bacon and Descartes
strove hard to evolve some kind of material logic similar to the formal logic of Aristotle,
which was devised for formal reasoning. They did obtain certain criteria in this regard,
though they are not as universal as those of Aristotelian logic, but are, to a limited extent,
helpful in preventing the mind from committing errors in reasoning. Some may be
surprised to know that the Qur’an has presented such principles for the prevention of any
lapses in the process of reasoning, which surpass in merit and precedence the efforts of
philosophers like Descartes and others.

The Qur’anic Viewpoint:

Among various sources of error mentioned by the Qur’an, one is that of taking conjecture
and hypothesis for certainty and conviction. If a person were to adhere to the principle of
putting conviction only in certainties and of not confusing between conjectures and
certainties, he would not fall into error. The Qur’an lays great emphasis on this problem,
and has clearly stated in one place that one of the biggest errors of the human mind is
pursuit of conjectures and hypotheses. In another verse, which is addressed to the Prophet
(Pbuh), the Qur’an says:
َِّ ‫يل‬ ِ ‫ضي‬ ِ
ُ ‫اَّلل إِ ْن ياتَّبِ ُعو ان إََِّل الظَّ َّن اوإِ ْن ُه ْم إََِّل َياُْر‬
‫صو ان‬ ِ ِ‫وك اع ْن اسب‬
‫ضلُّ ا‬ ُ ِ ‫اوإِ ْن تُط ْع أا ْكثا ار ام ْن ِِف ْاأل ْار‬

And if you obey most of those in the earth, they will lead you astray from Allah’s way;
they follow but conjecture and they do but guess. (Sura al-An’am v: 116)

This verse clearly indicates that majority of people do not follow correct logic and sound
thinking and go away from the right path because instead they follow their emotions,
desires, personal interests and false conjectures. In another verse, the Qur’an says:

‫ْم‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ف ما لايس ل ا‬
ٌ ‫اك به عل‬ ‫اواَل تا ْق ُ ا ْ ا‬
And do not pursue that of which you have no knowledge… (Sura Isra, v: 36)

This is the word of caution to mankind extended by the Qur’an, for the first time in the
history of human ideas, warning mankind against this kind of error.
The second source of error in the reasoning process, which is particularly relevant in
social issues, is imitation. Most people are such that they accept whatever beliefs that are
current in their society. They adopt certain beliefs merely for the reason that they were
followed by their preceding generation. The Qur’an bids people to carefully scrutinize all

44
ideas and judge them by the criteria of wisdom neither to follow blindly the conventional
beliefs and traditions of their ancestors, nor to reject them totally without any rational
justification. Quran reminds us that there are many false doctrines that were introduced in
the past, but were accepted by the people, and there are also certain truths that were
presented in the distant past, but people resisted them on account of their ignorance. In
accepting any ideas or principles, men are advised to make use of their intellects and
rational faculties, and not to indulge in blind imitation. Very often, the Qur’an puts
imitation of ancestors in direct opposition to wisdom and intellect:

‫آِب ُؤ ُه ْم اَل يا ْع ِقلُو ان اش ْي ةاا اواَل يا ْهتا ُدو ان‬

‫آِب اء اَّن أ ااول ْاو اكا ان ا‬
ِ ِ َّ ‫يل اِلُ ُم اتَّبِ ُعوا اما أانْ از ال‬
‫اَّللُ قاالُوا با ْل ناتَّب ُع اما أالْ اف ْي ناا اعلايْه ا‬
ِ ِ
‫اوإ اذا ق ا‬
And when it is said to them: ‘Follow what God has sent down’, they say, ‘No; but we will
follow such things as we found our fathers doing.’ What? Even if their fathers had no
understanding of anything and if they were not guided? (Al-Bakara, v: 170)
The Qur’an constantly reiterates that the antiquity of an idea is neither the evidence of its
falsity, nor it is a testimony of its truthfulness. Antiquity affects material objects; but the
eternal truths of existence never become old and outmoded. Truths like:

‫اَّللا اَل يُغاِريُ اما بِ اق ْوٍم اح ََّّت يُغاِريُوا اما ِِبانْ ُف ِس ِه ْم‬
َّ ‫إِ َّن‬

God changes not what is in a people, until they change what is in themselves … (Al-
Ra’d, v: 11)

Are true for ever and ever. The Qur’an asks us to face issues with the weapon of wisdom
and intellect. One should neither forsake a belief for fear of becoming the target of
others’ ridicule and mockery, nor should he accept a belief just because it is upheld by
some important and well- known persons. We should ourselves study and investigate the
roots of all matters and draw our own conclusions.
A Third effective source of error pointed out by the Qur’an is Selfish motives which stain
virtue and merit and cause a cascade of curtains that block clear thinking and vision.

‫اء ُه ْم ِم ْن ارِبِِ ُم ا ِْلُادى‬

‫س اولا اق ْد اج ا‬ َّ َِّ ِ ِ
ُ ‫إ ْن ياتَّب ُعو ان إَل الظ َّن اواما تا ْه اوى ْاألانْ ُف‬
“They follow but a guess and that which (they) themselves desire. And now the guidance
from their Lord hath come unto them”. (Al-Najm, 23)
Unless one maintains objectivity and neutrality in every matter, he is unlikely to think
correctly. Wisdom can function properly only in an atmosphere that is free of selfish
desires and motives. A well-known anecdote of great Islamic scholar, al-Allamah al-Hilli,
can illustrate this point.
A problem of jurisprudence was put before al-Allamah al-Hilli: If an animal falls inside a
well, and the carcass cannot be removed; what should be done with the well?

45
Incidentally, during the same days, an animal happened to fall into the well in his own
house, and it became inevitable for him to deduce an injunction to solve his own
problem, too. There were two possible ways to solve the issue: Firstly, the well should be
totally closed, not to be used again; secondly, a fixed quantity of water should be emptied
from the well and the rest of well’s water would be clean and usable. The Allamah
realized that he could not give a completely impartial verdict about the problem without
interference from his own personal interest. Accordingly, he ordered his own well be
closed. Then, with an easy mind, free of the pressure of selfish motives, he turned to
deducing the details of verdict in the second case.

The Qur’an contains a large number of warnings regarding the evil of submission to
personal desires. The following is just some instances of it:

‫اَّللُ أ ْاو اَل ِبِِ اما فا اال‬

َّ ‫ريا فا‬ ِ ِ َِِّ ‫َي أايُّها الَّ ِذين آمنوا ُكونُوا قا َّو ِامني ِِبل ِْقس ِ ُشه اداء‬
ِ ‫َّلل اول ْاو اعلاى أانْ ُف ِس ُك ْم أا ِو ال اْوالِ اديْ ِن او ْاألاقْربِ ا‬
‫ني إ ْن يا ُك ْن غانياا أ ْاو فاق ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا ا‬ ْ ‫ا‬ ُ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
‫ريا‬ِ ِ ُ ‫تا تَّبِ ُعوا ا ِْلااوى أا ْن تا ْع ِدلُوا اوإِ ْن تال ُْووا أ ْاو تُ ْع ِر‬
َّ ‫ضوا فاِإ َّن‬
‫اَّللا اكا ان ِباا تا ْع املُو ان اخب ا‬
O ye who believe! Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even as against
yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it be (against) rich or poor: for
Allah can best protect both. Follow not the lusts (of your hearts), lest you not be just, and
if you distort (justice) or decline to do justice, verily Allah is well-acquainted with all that
ye do. (Al-Nisa, 135)
َِّ ‫يل‬ِ ِ‫ضلُّو ان اع ْن اسب‬ َِّ ‫يل‬
ِ ‫اَّلل إِ َّن الَّ ِذين ي‬ ِ ِ‫ك اع ْن اسب‬ ِ ‫َّاس ِِب ْحل ِق واَل تا تَّبِ ِع ا ِْلاوى فا ي‬
‫ضلَّ ا‬ ِ ‫اك اخلِي افةا ِِف ْاألا ْر‬
‫وم إِ ََّّن اج اعلْنا ا‬
‫اَّلل اِلُ ْم‬ ‫اا‬ ُ ‫ا‬ ‫ني الن ِ ا ا‬ ‫اح ُك ْم با ْا‬
ْ ‫ض فا‬ ُ ‫اَي ام ُاو‬
ِ ‫اب اش ِدي ٌد ِِباا ناسوا يا ْوام ا ْحلِس‬
‫اب‬ ٌ ‫اع اذ‬
‫ا‬ ُ
O David, indeed We have made you a successor upon the earth, so judge between the
people in truth and do not follow [your own] desire, as it will lead you astray from the
way of Allah." Indeed, those who go astray from the way of Allah will have a severe
punishment for having forgotten the Day of Account. (Al-Saad, 26)

46
Chapter 2: Human Rights in Islam

The Human Rights have become a most significant issue of the modern history in Muslim
and the Western perspectives. It can generally be defined as “those rights that are
inherent in human nature and without which human beings cannot live a decent life”.
There is a basic deference in Islamic and Western concept of human rights. According to
Islamic claim Almighty Allah has granted the human rights to human being due to his
honor and dignity. The western human rights are acquired after a long and endurable
human struggle and demands. Another important difference is that in Islam the sources of
human rights is divine revelation (Wahi) but in West the source of human rights is human
mind and experience.

The concept of human rights is as mature as human history itself but the first bold and
practical step was made by Islam in 7th Century AD (10th AH). Now a day, it has
become a most significant issue of the modern history especially in the Islamic and the
Western perspectives. Human rights have become most discussable issues in the
contemporary socio-political context. Islam gives importance to human rights due to
human honor and dignity. In Islamic perspective, all kind of rights and freedoms are
granted by Almighty Allah and the revelation is a sole base of them. Many verses of the
Holy Quran and Hadiths (sayings) of the Holy Prophet Mohammad (Pbuh) describe these
rights. According to Islamic scholars the fundamental human rights are given by Islam
from fourteen hundred years ago in 10 AH/632 AD with the deliverance of the Last
sermon of the Holy Prophet (Pbuh).

In Western perspective, the renaissance movement is a strong base of all kinds of modern
freedoms and rights. We do not find any kind of rights and freedoms before renaissance.
Although some Western historians and scholars consider the Magna-Carta as a basic
document of human liberty, rights and freedoms in the Western thought in 1215. But
some western scholar does not own it as a basic document of human rights in the West.
According to a reputed Western scholar Henry Mash: The Magna Carta was no more
rather than a charter of landlords and Funerals. According to, the encyclopedia of social
sciences: the expression “human rights” as a term of arts is of recent origin. Even in his
French- inspired from rights of man, it goes back only to the last decade of eighteen
century. According to the encyclopedia of Britannica: It was during from period of
renaissance until the 17th century that the beliefs and practices of society so changed that
the idea of human rights could take hold as a general social need and reality.

In Islamic context, the concept of human rights is as old as Islam itself. There is found
constantly the term Haqooq-al-Ebad in the Quran, Hadith, Fiqh and Islamic History from
its beginning. A renowned Islamic jurist Dr. Hassan Kerrah said about right in Islam:
“Rights are the legal bond under which the authorized person, for monopolizing his
exclusive command on something or a specific requirement of another person.”

47
Another important thing in Islamic point of view is that these rights are given to human
being for his dignity and respect. As Almighty Allah states in the Holy Quran:
ِ ‫اهم اعلاى اكثِ ٍري ِِمَّن اخلا ْقناا تا ْف‬ ِ ‫اهم ِمن الطَّيِب‬
‫ضيال‬ ْ َّ ‫ات اوفا‬
ْ ُ ‫ضلْنا‬ ‫اه ْم ِِف الْبا ِر اوالْبا ْح ِر اوارازقْنا ُ ْ ا ا‬ ‫اولا اق ْد اك َّرْمناا باِين ا‬
ُ ‫آم ام او اَحالْنا‬

We have honored the sons of Adam; provided them with transport on land and sea; given
them for sustenance things good and pure; and conferred on them special favors, above a
great part of our creation. (Sura Bani Israil, v. 70)
As Almighty Allah says in the Holy Quran:
‫س ِن تا ْق ِو ٍي‬ ْ ‫سا ان ِِف أ‬
‫اح ا‬ ‫لا اق ْد اخلا ْقناا ا ِْلنْ ا‬
We have certainly created man in the best of stature. (Sura Teen, v. 4)
According to the above definitions the Western philosophy of human rights are unlimited
and without any terms and conditions of duties. So we do not find any relationship
between Rights and Duties. But in Islamic philosophy, the human Rights are not
unlimited and have a reciprocal relationship to the Duties.

The Western scholar have the routine to declare every good thing to them and try to
prove that it is because of them that the world got this blessing; otherwise the world was
abrupt in ignorance and completely unaware of all these benefits. According to, Moulana
Moududi: It is vociferously claimed that the world got the concept of basic human rights
from the Magna Carta of Britain; though the Magna Carta itself came into existence six
hundred years after the advent of Islam. But the truth of the matter is that until the
seventeenth century no one even knew that the Magna Carta contained the principles of
Trial by Jury; Habeas Corpus, and the Control of Parliament on the Right of Taxation.1

Islam presented the complete concept of human rights at such a time when humanity
almost forgotten the teachings of the Prophets of Allah and there were no found any
concept of human rights in the society. At that time, Islam granted the fundamental rights
to the people in the shape of the Last Sermon of the Prophet (Pbuh).

2.1 Last Sermon of Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings of Allah be upon Him)

Beloved Prophet Muhammad, May God send His praises upon him, was born in Mecca,
Saudi Arabia circa 570 C.E. He is an example for all of humanity. He was a remarkable
man at all times. He excelled in all walks of life by being a prophet, ruler, orator, soldier,
husband, friend, father, uncle, nephew, and a grandfather. He was a man of love,
patience, courage, wisdom, generosity, intelligence and magnitude who inspired millions
of lives throughout the world.

God says in the Quran that he was sent as a mercy for the people of the world. “We have
sent you not but as a mercy for the mankind. (Quran 21:107)

1
Maududi, Sayed , Abu al Ala , Human Rights in Islam, The Islamic Foundation , London,1980, pp.31

48
His Prophetic Mission began at the age of forty, circa 610 C.E., and continued until 632
C.E. From the path of ignorance, mankind was lead to the straight path and was blessed
with the guidance of God. Shortly before his death, Prophet Muhammad delivered a
sermon during the Hajj, which came to be known as his Final Sermon?. This final sermon
was not only a reminder to his followers, but also an important admonition. The final
sermon confirms the end of his Prophetic Mission. Year 10 A.H. of the Islamic Calendar
is considered to be one of the most significant years for three reasons. Firstly, this was the
year when the Prophet delivered his Last Sermon during his farewell pilgrimage to
Mecca. Secondly, this was the year where number of deputations came to the Prophet to
announce their Islam as well as their tribes. Thirdly, it was the golden period of Islam
when multitudes of people embraced the faith by accepting the message of the Prophet.

Prophet Muhammad undertook his farewell pilgrimage in the year 10 A.H. His farewell
pilgrimage to Mecca is one of the most significant historical events in the minds of
Muslims, for it was the first and last pilgrimage made by Prophet Muhammad, as well as
being the model for performing the fifth pillar of Islam, the Hajj. Prophet Muhammad’s
final sermon was delivered during the Hajj of the year 632 C.E., the ninth day of Dhul
Hijjah, the 12th month of the lunar year, at Arafat, the most blessed day of the year. There
were countless Muslims present with the Prophet during his last pilgrimage when he
delivered his last Sermon.

The Final Sermon:

After praising, and thanking God, the Prophet, may God send His praises upon him said:

 “O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year, I shall
ever be amongst you again. Therefore, listen to what I am saying to you very
carefully and take these words to those who could not be present here today.

 O People, just as you regard this month, this day, and this city as Sacred, so regard
the life and property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to
you to their rightful owners.
 Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your
Lord, and that He will indeed reckon your deeds.

 God has forbidden you to take usury (interest), therefore all interest obligation shall
henceforth be waived. Your capital, however, is yours to keep. You will neither
inflict nor suffer any inequity. God has Judged that there shall be no interest, and that
all the interest due to Abbas ibn Abdal Muttalib shall henceforth be waived...

 Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever
be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things.
 O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they

49
 also have rights over you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives only
under a trust from God and with His permission. If they abide by your right then to
them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well
and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your
right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well
as never to be unchaste.

 O People, listen to me in earnest, worship God, perform your five daily prayers, fast
during the month of Ramadan, and offer Zakat. Perform Hajj if you have the means.

 All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor
does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; white has no superiority over
black, nor does a black have any superiority over white; [none have superiority over
another] except by piety and good action.

 Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute
one brotherhood. Nothing shall be legitimate to a Muslim which belongs to a fellow
Muslim unless it was given freely and willingly. Do not, therefore, do injustice to
yourselves.
 Remember, one day you will appear before God and answer for your deeds. So
beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone.

 O People, no prophet or apostle will come after me, and no new faith will be born.
Reason well, therefore, O people, and understand words which I convey to you. I
leave behind me two things, the Quran and my example, the Sunnah, and if you
follow these you will never go astray.

 All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again;
and it may be that the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to
me directly.
 Be my witness, O God, that I have conveyed your message to your people.

Thus the beloved Prophet completed his Final Sermon and upon it, near the summit of
Arafat, the revelation came down: “This day have I perfected your religion for you,
completed, My Grace upon you, and have chosen Islam for you as your religion”. (Quran
5:3) Even today the Last Sermon of Prophet Muhammad is passed to every Muslim in
every corner of the word through all possible means of communication. Muslims are
reminded about it in mosques and in lectures. Indeed the meanings found in this sermon
are indeed astounding, touching upon some of the most important rights God has over
humanity, and humanity has over each other. Though the Prophet’s soul has left this
world, his words are still living in our hearts.

50
2.2 Rights to Life

Among all the creation of Allah swt, human beings are the most superlative creation. In
order to protect this creation Allah has made some rules and regulations which all
Muslims ought to obey and if disobeyed then there will be serious punishments and
consequences. The first thing that we find in Islam in this connection is that it lays down
some rights for man as a human being. In other words it means that every man whether
he belongs to Islamic country or others, whether he is a believer or unbeliever, whether
he lives in some forest or is found in some desert, he has some basic human rights simply
because he is a human being, which should be recognized by every Muslim. In fact it will
be his duty to fulfil these obligations.

The first and the foremost basic right is the right to live and respect human life. Allah swt
has declared human life as a sacred thing, which every being has to protect it both
individually and collectively. As Allah swt explicitly mentioned in Quran:
ِ‫احيا النَّاس ا‬ ِ‫ض فا اكأاََّّناا قا تال النَّاس ا‬ ٍ ‫س أاو فاس‬ ِ ‫ام ْن قا تال نا ْف‬
‫مج ايعا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫اها فا اكأاََّّناا أ ْ ا‬
‫احيا ا‬
ْ ‫مج ايعا اوام ْن أ‬ ‫ا ا‬ ِ ‫ام ِِف األ ْار‬ ‫سا بغا ِْري نا ْف ٍ ْ ا‬
‫ا ا‬
“Wo ever kills a person (unless it is for murder or corruption on earth) it is as if he killed
the whole of mankind and whoever saves it, it is as if he saved the whole of mankind.”
(Sura Al-maidah, v.32)

Misconceptions about Islam: In the post 11 September 2001 legal and political
environment, Islam appears to have become one of the most misunderstood religions.
Islam has been equated with fanaticism, intolerance, violence and wars of aggression -
the classical Jihad ideology is often deployed, to cast doubts on the compatibility of Islam
with modern norms of international law as enunciated in the United Nations Charter. This
is the mistaken belief of West about Islam that Islam promotes terrorism in the shade of
Jihad and violates the sanctity of human life. This is totally contradicts to the Islamic
human rights to life.

The word “jihad” comes from the root word jahada, which means to “struggle” or
“striving” (in the way of God) or to work for a noble cause with determination; it does
not mean a “holy war” (war in Arabic is harb and holy is muqaddas), unlike its medieval
Christian counterpart term, “crusade” (“war for the cross”). However, the word jihad has
appeared widely in the Western news media following the 11 September 2001 terrorist
attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, but the true meaning of this term in
the Islamic world is still not well understood by non-Muslims.

Islam comes from the root word Salaam, which means peace. It also means submitting
ones will to Allah (swt). The word Salaam is also an attribute of God. In this context, it
means ‘The Giver of Peace’. Muslims greet each other with As-salaamu alaikum which

51
translates to wishing peace for one another. Even when wronged, the Glorious Qur’an
advises Muslims to struggle against the temptation for hostility:
ِ ‫س ُن فاِإ اذا الَّ ِذي با ْي نا ا‬ ِ
ٌ ‫ك اوبا ْي ناهُ اع اد ااوةٌ اكأانَّهُ اوِِلٌّ اَح‬
‫يم‬ ْ ‫السيِةاةُ ا ْمفا ْع ِِبلَِِّت ه اي أ‬
‫اح ا‬ ‫اواَل تا ْستا ِوي ا ْحلا ا‬
َّ ‫سناةُ اواَل‬

“And not alike are the good and the evil. Repel (evil) with what is best, when lo! He
between whom and you was enmity would be as if he were a warm friend…” [Al-
Fusulat, 41:34]
At the individual level, jihad primarily refers to the inner struggle of being a person of
virtue and submission to God in all aspects of life. At the collective level, jihad can take
various forms, such as:

1. Intellectual Jihad, which comprises of the struggle to convey the message of God to
humankind and to combat social evils through knowledge, wisdom and dignified
discourse. As the Glorious Qur’an says:
ِ ِ ِ
ِ ‫اَّلل و اع ِمل ص‬ ِ
‫ال إِنَِّين م ان ال ُْم ْسل ِم ا‬
‫ني‬ ‫احلاا اوقا ا‬ ‫س ُن قا ْواَل ِمَّ ْن ام اعا إِ اَل َّ ا ا ا‬
‫اح ا‬
ْ ‫اوام ْن أ‬
“Who is better in speech than one who calls (men) to Allah, works righteousness, and
says, “I am of those who bow in Islam”? [Al-Fusulat, 41:33]

2. Economic Jihad, which comprises of economic measures, and spending from one’s
means to improve the living conditions of the poor and the downtrodden.
3. Physical Jihad, which involves collective armed self-defense, as well as retribution
against tyranny, exploitation, and oppression.

Thus the concept of Jihad is vast and comprehensive. Admittedly, it’s the last category of
Jihad that is a cause for concern to many.

Jihad on the battlefield, in the Islamic perspective, is the last resort, and is subject to
stringent conditions. It can be waged only to defend freedom, which includes freedom of
faith. The Glorious Qur’an says:
َِّ ‫اَّلل ولاواَل مفْع‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ َّ ِ ِ ‫اَّلل اعلاى نا‬ ِ ِِ ِ
‫اَّلل‬ ُ ‫ين أُ ْخ ِر ُجوا م ْن م اَي ِره ْم بِغا ِْري اح ٍق إََِّل أا ْن يا ُقولُوا اربُّناا َُّ ا ْ ا‬
‫ الذ ا‬،‫ص ِره ْم لا اقد ٌير‬
ْ ‫ين يُ اقاتالُو ان ِِبانَّ ُه ْم ظُل ُموا اوإِ َّن َّا‬
‫أُذ ان للَّذ ا‬
ِ َِّ ‫اسم‬ ِ ِ ‫ات وم‬ ِ ‫ت‬ ِ ٍ ‫ضهم بِب ع‬
‫ريا‬
‫اَّلل اكث ا‬ ُ ْ ‫ساج ُد يُ ْذ اك ُر ف ايها‬ ‫ص اوام ُع اوبِيا ٌع او ا‬
‫صلا او ٌ ا ا ا‬ ‫ض اِلُد ام ْ ا‬ ْ ‫َّاس با ْع ا ُ ْ ا‬
‫الن ا‬
“To those against whom war is made, permission is given (to fight), because they are
wronged; - and verily, Allah is most powerful for their aid; - (They are) those who have
been expelled from their homes in defiance of right, - (for no cause) except that they say,
“our Lord is Allah”. For had it not been that Allah checks one set of people by means of
another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues,
and mosques, in which the name of Allah is commemorated in abundant measure.” (Al-
Hajj, 22:39-40)
Moreover, the Qur’an says:
52
 ِ ِِ ِ ِ َّ ِ ِ ِ‫ال والن‬
ِ ِ ‫ني ِمن‬ ِ ِ ِ‫وما لا ُكم اَل تُ اقاتِلُو ان ِِف سب‬
ِ ْ ‫اَّلل والْمست‬
ْ ‫ين يا ُقولُو ان اربَّناا أا ْخ ِر ْجناا م ْن اهذه الْ اق ْرياة الظَّ ِامل أا ْهلُ اها او‬
‫اج اع ْل‬ ‫ساء اوالْ ِولْ ادان الذ ا‬
‫الر اج ا ا‬ ‫ضعاف ا ا‬ ‫يل َّ ا ُ ْ ا‬ ‫ا‬ ْ ‫اا‬
‫ريا‬ ِ ‫اجعل لاناا ِمن لا ُدنْ ا‬ ِ ‫لانا ِمن لا ُدنْ ا‬
‫ك ناص ا‬ ْ ْ ‫ك اولياا او ْ ا‬ ْ ‫ا‬

“And why should ye not fight in the cause of God and of those who, being weak, are ill-
treated (and oppressed) Men, women and children, whose cry is: “Our Lord! Rescue us
from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from the one who will
protect; and raise for us from the one who will help” (Al-Nisa, 4:75)

Moreover, The Holy Prophet (Pbuh) has given clear instructions about the behaviour of
the Muslim army. As mentioned, He (Pbuh) said: “Set out for Jibad in the name of Allah
and for the sake of Allah. Do not lay hands on the old verging on death, on women,
children and babies. Do not steal anything from the booty and collect together all that
falls to your lot in the battlefield and do well, for Allah loves the virtuous and the pious.”

So great is the respect for humanly feelings in Islam that even the wanton destruction of
enemy's crops or property is strictly forbidden. The righteous Caliphs followed closely
the teachings of Allah and those of His Apostle in letter and spirit the celebrated address
which the first Caliph Abu Bakr r.a gave to his army while sending her on the expedition
to the Syrian borders is permeated with the noble spirit with which the war in Islam is
permitted. He said: “Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in
the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not
mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm
to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not ary of
the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted
their lives to monastic services; leave them alone”

Same assence we found in the sermons of Umar r.a and Ali r.a that to be righteous even
in the battle-field. As mentioned by Umar r.a said when addressing to the Muslim army:
“I order you and your soldiers to fear Allah in any case, for fear of Allah is the best
preparedness to meet the enemy and the most powerful stratagem in war. Also I order
you and your soldiers to be more cautious of wrongdoings then your enemy, because the
sins of the army are more dangerous to them then enemy. Muslims are assisted by their
enemy’s disobedience of Allah. Otherwise we will not have the power to counter them.
For our number is not as theirs, nor is our equipment like theirs. If we and they become
equal in disobedience, they will have the advantage of power, and if we are not enabled
by our righteousness, we will not defeat them by force. As you march, remember that
guardians from Allah know what you are doing. Be shy of them and don’t commit
offense while you are in the way of Allah. Do not say our enemy is worse than us, so he
will not be empowered upon us. People may be punished via others worse than them.
When they disobeyed Allah, sons of Israel were punished through the Magus disbelievers
who wreaked havoc on their Land, and it was an indisputable word (of Allah). Ask Allah

53
to help you against yourselves as well as you ask him victory against your enemy. May
Allah grant this to all of us.”

Ali r.a said while addressing: “O servants of Allah, fear Allah Almighty, lower your gaze,
reduce the voices and talk less; engage yourself in entrenchment, embattling, advancing,
contending, strategizing for war, archery and spearing; remain firm and remember Allah
much so that you may succeed, and do not quarrel with one another lest you would lose
courage and your power depart. Be steadfast, surely Allah is with those who remain
steadfast. Oh Allah grant them patience and facilitate them and reward them with greater
award”.
Thus the conditions of physical Jihad are clearly defined in the Qur’an and in the rules
specified by the Muslim Caliphs. Although Islam permits Jihad on the battlefield under
the conditions mentioned above, the rules of engagement reflect Islam’s inherent
inclination towards peace.

No aggression towards civilians: Military conflict is to be directed only against fighting

troops and not against civilians, as the Glorious Qur’an says: “Fight in the cause of Allah
those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors” (Al-
Qur’an 2:190)

As far as the non-combatant population is concerned such as women, children, the old
and the infirm, etc., the instructions of the Prophet are as follows: “Do not kill any old
person, any child or any woman” “Do not kill the monks in monasteries” or “Do not kill
the people who are sitting in places of worship.” Thus non-combatants are guaranteed
security of life even if their state is at war with an Islamic state.

Upholding justice: The ravages of war are not an excuse for Muslims to engage in any
form of cruelty or violation of human rights. As the Qur’an says: “O ye who believe!
stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the hatred of others to
you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to piety: and
fear Allah. For Allah; is well-acquainted with all that ye do.” [Al-Qur’an 5:8]
It is forbidden under Islamic law, to ill-treat prisoners of war or to deny them the
essentials of life, including medical treatment.

Respect for Religious freedom: Physical Jihad cannot be waged with the objective of
compelling people to embrace Islam. The Glorious Qur’an says: ِ ‫اَل إِ ْكراها ِِف‬
‫الدي ِن‬ ‫ا‬
“Let there be no compulsion in religion” (Al-Bakara, 2:256)
ِ
Moreover it is said: ‫َّاس اح ََّّت يا ُكونُوا ُم ْؤمنِ ا‬
‫ني‬ ‫ت تُ ْك ِرهُ الن ا‬
ِ‫ض ُكلُّ ُهم ا‬
‫مج ايعا أافاأانْ ا‬ ْ ِ ‫ك ادآل ام ان ام ْن ِِف ْاأل ْار‬
‫اء اربُّ ا‬
‫اول ْاو اش ا‬

54
“If it had been thy Lord’s willed, those on earth would have believed, all of them
together. So, will you (O Muhammad Pbuh) then compel mankind, until they become
believers?” (Sura Younas, 10:99)

Accept peace: If the enemy offers peace, it should be accepted even at the risk of
possible deception. The Glorious Qur’an says:

‫يم‬ ِ َِّ ‫لسل ِْم فااجنح اِلا وتاوَّكل علاى‬

ِ َّ ‫اَّلل إِنَّهُ ُهو‬ َّ ِ‫اوإِ ْن اجنا ُحوا ل‬
ُ ‫يع ال اْعل‬
ُ ‫السم‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ْا ْ ا ا ا ْ ا‬
“But if the enemy inclines towards peace, do thou (also) incline towards peace, and trust
in Allah: for He is One that heareth and knoweth (all things)” [Al-Anfal, 8:61]

Terrorism on the other hand, is usually defined as ideologically motivated indiscriminate

violence that targets civilians, with the intention of inspiring terror in order to achieve
political ends. Although this definition ignores the reality of state terrorism, it is clear that
terrorism has no place in the noble concept of Jihad. Even Jihad that involves physical
conflict is the very antithesis of terrorism, as is clear from the following differences:

1. Jihad can be launched only by an established authority or government or state as a

policy in order to deter aggression. Terrorism, on the other hand, is committed by
individuals or groups that have no legitimacy to speak for the majority.

2. Jihad is limited to combatants while terrorism involves indiscriminate killing of

civilians.
3. Jihad, when the need arises, is declared openly, while terrorism is committed secretly.
4. Jihad is bound by strict rules of engagement while terrorism is not bound by any rules.

It is clear from the foregoing discussion that Jihad is a vast concept that encompasses
various spheres of activity, all directed towards the betterment of self and society.
Regardless of how legitimate a cause may be, Islam does not condone the killing of
innocent people. Terrorizing the civilian population, whether by individuals or states, can
never be termed as jihad and can never be reconciled with the teachings of Islam.

As far as the question of taking life in retaliation for murder or the question of
punishment for spreading corruption on this earth is concerned, it can be decided only by
a proper and competent court of law. If there is any war with any nation or country, it can
be decided only by a properly established government. In any case, no human being has
any right by himself to take human life in retaliation or for causing mischief on this earth.
Therefore it is incumbent on every human being that under no circumstances, he should
be guilty of taking a human life. If anyone has murdered a human being, it is as if he has
slain the entire human race. These instructions have been repeated in the Holy Quran in
another place saying:

َّ ‫س الَِِّت اح َّرام‬
‫اَّللُ إَِل ِِب ْحلا ِق‬ ‫اوَل تا ْقتُ لُوا النَّ ْف ا‬

55
Do not kill a soul which Allah has made sacred except through the due process of law...
(Sura al-Ana’am, v.151)

Moreover, due to this sanctity of human life and its valuability, Prophet Pbuh considered
the life as the highest peak of Iman, if he declares the love of Allah swt and His Prophet
Pbuh even more than his own life. As mentioned in Hadith that once Prophet Pbuh was
holding hand of Umar r.a, He r.a said, O Prophet of Allah I love you more than anything
in the world except my life. Prophet Pbuh replied to Umar! By God, you cannot reach to
the highest peak of Iman if your love for me is not more than your life. Umar r.a replied;
now i love my Prophet even more than my life. Upon hearing that Prophet Pbuh said,
now you Umar have reached the highest peak of faith. (Sahih Bukhari)

Among the non-Muslims, those who do not believe on divine religions, also made some
legislations to protect the life of humans. But all of them had changed with the passage of
time according to the requirement. What Islam introduced the building of rights and laws
are the best among all and for all humans till the Day of Judgment. That is why these
rules are being accepted universally.

The Right to Life' universally has been given to man only by Islam. As for others, it is
observed that the people who talk about human rights if they have ever mentioned them
in their Constitutions or Declarations, then it is clearly implied in them that these rights
are applicable only to their citizens or they have been framed for the white race alone in
the past. This can clearly be gleaned by the fact that human beings were hunted down like
animals in Australia and the land was cleared of the aborigines for the white man.
Similarly the aboriginal population of America was systematically destroyed and the Red
Indians who somehow survived this genocide were confined to specified areas called
Reservations. They also penetrated into Africa and hunted down human beings like wild
animals. All these instances go to prove that they have no respect for human life as such
and if they have, it is only on the basis of their nationality, color or race. Contrary to this,
Islam recognizes this right for all human beings. If a man belongs to a primitive or savage
tribe, even then Islam regards him as a human being. Now we see some of the rules
regarding Human Life.
Every right in Islam is fulfilled or protected in two ways:
1. Positive way: It means that every individual should perform some actions for the
fulfillment of that particular right.

2. Defensive way: It means that every individual should restrain himself of

committing an act so to protect that particular right.

Positive way
There are several rights of body that Allah has imposed on us to protect it.

56
1. Right to feed: Islam imposes this right in order to survive in this world. So it’s
our responsibility to provide it with proper food and drink, as our body is a
fidelity to us by Allah swt. Allah says in the Quran:
ِ ‫الش ْيطا‬ ِ ‫ض حالَل طايِبا وَل تاتَّبِعوا ُخطُو‬ ِ
ٌ ِ‫ان إِنَّهُ لا ُك ْم اع ُد ٌّو ُمب‬
‫ني‬ َّ ‫ات‬ ‫ا‬ ُ ‫ا ا‬ ‫َّاس ُكلُوا ِمَّا ِِف األ ْار ِ ا‬
ُ ‫اَي أايُّ اها الن‬
“O people! Eat of what is lawful and good on earth and do not follow the
footsteps of Satan.” (Al-Bakarah, 168)
So, according to this verse, putting your life in danger by stop eating and drinking
intentionally or by doing hunger protest is not allowed in Islam, as no one has a
right to kill himself or hurt it in any manner.

2. Right to protect it from environmental effects: This means to provide proper

clothing and sheltering to our body to protect it from getting harmful effects of
nature, e.g. wearing warm clothes in winter season and casual clothes in summer.
As what mentioned in Quran:
َِّ ‫ت‬
‫اَّلل ل ااعلَّ ُه ْم يا َّذَّك ُرو ان‬ ِ ‫ك ِمن آَي‬ِ ‫اس التَّ ْق اوى اذلِ ا‬ ِ ‫َي ب ِين آمم قا ْد أانْزلْنا علاي ُكم لِباسا ي وا ِري سوآتِ ُكم وِري ا‬
‫ك اخ ْي ٌر اذل ا ْ ا‬ ُ ‫شا اولبا‬ ‫اْ ْ ا‬ ‫ا ا ا ْ ْ ا ا ُا‬ ‫ا ا اا‬

“O children of Adam! We have indeed sent down to you clothing to cover your
shame and clothing for beauty and clothing that guards against evil that is the
best. This is of the communications of Allah that they may be mindful. (Al-A’raf,
26)
ِ ُّ ‫آم ام ُخ ُذوا ِزينا تا ُك ْم ِعنْ اد ُك ِل ام ْس ِج ٍد اوُكلُوا اوا ْش اربُوا اوَل تُ ْس ِرفُوا إِنَّهُ َل ُِحي‬
‫ب ال ُْم ْس ِرف ا‬
‫ني‬ ‫اَي باِين ا‬

“O children of Adam! Dress properly at every place of worship and eat and drink
but do not be excessive. Allah swt does not love the excessive. (AL-A’raf, 31)

3. Right to clean: Islam stresses a lot on the account of cleanliness to an extent that
it declares half the rank of iman as mentioned in Hadith: Cleanliness is half of
iman. (Sahih Muslim) Now it is our duty to make our body clean at least once a
week, as Prophet Pbuh said that: it’s a right of body upon us to clean it once in
seven days.” (Bukhari)

4. Right to medicate: Islam also stresses a lot on the concept of medication and
medical research, as mentioned in Hadith nurrated by Abu Huraira r.a: The
Prophet said:
ِ
‫اء إَِل أانْ از ال لاهُ ش افاءا‬ َّ ‫اما أانْ از ال‬
‫اَّللُ ام ا‬

“There is no disease that Allah has created, except that He also has created its
treatment." (Bukhari)

57
 In this Hadith Islam encourages to the believers to excel in the research of
medical sciences so to protect the human life. Moreover, if we got ill, then it is
among the Sunnah of Prophet Pbuh to cure the illness.

5. Right to exercise: Islam lays so much importance on living a healthy life and it
would only be possible if a person is physically and mentally fit. It can only be
achievable with the daily physical exercise. Its importance is profoundly
explained by the Hadith of Prophet Pbuh, as He Pbuh said that: “Any action
without the remembrance of God is either a diversion or heedlessness except of
four acts: Walking from target to target [during archery practice], horse riding,
swimming, getting amused with one’s wife. (Al-Tabarani)

6. Right to continue the generation: Islam also focuses on to continue with the
generation of humanity. For that Islam established the system of nikah in order to
protect the continuity of generation and rebuke the one who deviates from the
Sunnah of Prophet. As Prophet Pbuh said that: “Nikah is my Sunnah, and
whoever deviates from my Sunnah will not be from among us.” (Bukhari) And
Prophet PBUH said that: “abundance in offspring’s so that I will get nobility over
other nations on the Day of resurrection.”

7. Right to protect the embryo: Islam does not only talks about the protection of
the living human beings, its protection also leads to the protection for those who
does not born yet, like the baby in the womb of a mother. Islam also gave the
rights to that and made it haram to have abortion.

 If a person divorces his wife in the state of pregnancy, Islam imposes the
obligation on man to provide with his wife the expenses of daily life until the
baby born.

 If a person hit a pregnant woman by which embryo got damaged in that case a
person has to give ransom of freeing a slave or to give equal amount of money i.e.
50 dinar (i.e. 218.25 gram of gold). (Sahih Bukhari)

Defensive way
1. System of Qisas: As it is mentioned that Allah swt declared human life as the most
precious creature among all the other creations and compare abandoning of a single life
with the abandoning of whole mankind and saving of a single life as saving of whole
humanity.
There can be several forms of saving man from death. A man may be ill or wounded,
irrespective of his nationality, race or color. If you know that he is in need of your help,
then it is your duty that you should arrange for his treatment for disease or wound. If he is
dying of starvation, then it is your duty to feed him so that he can ward off death. If he is
drowning or his life is at stake, then it is your duty to save him. It is surprised to hear that

58
 the Talmud, the religious book of the Jews, contains a verse of similar nature, but records
it in altogether different form. It says: “Whoever destroyed a life of the Israelite, in the
eyes of the Scripture, it is as if he destroyed the whole world. And whoever protected and
saved one life of the Israelite, in the light of the Scripture, it is as if he saved the whole
world.” Talmud also contains the view that if a non-Israelite is drowning and you tried to
save him then you are a sinner. Can it be given a name other than racialism? We regard it
as our duty to save every human life, because it is thus that we have been enjoined in the
Holy Quran. In the order to protect humanity from being killed, Islam made the system of
“Qisas”.

What is Qisas?
Qisas is an Arabic term which means “Legal Retaliation," and follows the principle of an
eye for an eye. This is where the perpetrator of the crime is punished with the same injury
that he caused to the victim. If the criminal killed the victim, then in return he will be
killed. If he cut off or injured a limb of the victim, then his own limb will be cut off or
injured if it is possible without killing the criminal. Allah Almighty says in Quran:
ِ ‫َي أايُّها الَّ ِذين آمنوا ُكتِب علاي ُكم ال ِْقصاص ِِف الْ اق ْت لاى ا ْحل ُّر ِِب ْحل ِر والْعب ُد ِِبلْعب ِد واألُنْ ثاى ِِبألُنْ ثاى فامن ع ِفي لاه ِمن أ‬
ِ‫اخ ِيه اشيء فااتِباعٌ ِِبلْمعروف‬
ُْ ‫ا‬ ‫ٌْ ا‬ ْ ُ ‫اْ ُ ا‬ ‫ُ ُ ا اْ اْ ا‬ ُ ‫ا اْ ُ ا‬ ُ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
“O you who believe! Retribution is prescribed for you in case of murder, the free for the
free, and the slave for the slave and the female for the female. But if the killer is forgiven
by the brother of the killed against blood money, then adhering to it with fairness...”
(Sura Bakarah, v.178)

Killing a person has three cases:

1. Premeditated murder; (Intentionally killing)
2. Quasi-premeditated murder; (Suspected intentionally killing)
3. Mistaken murder; (Unintentionally killing)

1. Killing intentionally: In Arabic it is called Qatl-al-‘Amd. It means the murder in

which one intentionally kills a human being while being aware that his blood is inviolable
by attacking him with something fatal. In this situation if a person kills someone with the
intention of murdering and uses different means by which a person would die like by
hitting with iron rod or heavy rock or stabbing him with knife or poison him or by
shooting or by car hitting or pushing him from a high roof or in water or by strangling
him with rope or by hands or putting him in front of wild animals, etc. Then in that case
the court will subjugate the murderer to the victim’s family to choose any of the three
options, as mentioned by the Prophet Pbuh: If a person killed an innocent Muslim he
would be given under the custody of victim’s family, if they want to kill him it’s up to
them, if they want to take blood money then it will be of 100 camels i.e. 30 (3 year old

59
she camel), 30 (4 year old she camel), 40 (5 year old she camel), what is good for them is
for them and all that is to make tricky for the murderer. (Tirmizi)

Killing person is haram in Islam, as mentioned in Quran:

َّ ‫س الَِِّت اح َّرام‬
‫اَّللُ إَِل ِِب ْحلا ِق‬ ‫اوَل تا ْقتُ لُوا النَّ ْف ا‬
“And do not kill the soul which God made sacred, except in the course of justice.” (Al-
Isra, 33)
Moreover, it has been explained:
ِ ِ َّ ‫ضب‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫ومن ي ْقتل م ْؤِمناا مت ع ِم ادا فاجزا ُؤهُ جهن‬
‫اَّللُ اعلايْه اول ااعناهُ اوأاعا َّد لاهُ اع اذ ااِب اعظ ا‬
‫يما‬ ‫َّم اخال ادا ف ايها اوغا ا‬ُ ‫اا اا‬ ‫ا ا ْ ا ُ ْ ُ ُا ا‬
“And whoever kills a believer intentionally, his recompense is Hell to abide therein, and
the Wrath and the Curse of Allah swt are upon him and a great punishment is prepared
for him. (Sura al-Nisa, v.93)
And the Prophet Pbuh said that: “A Muslim who declare oneness of Allah and the
prophet hood of the Prophet Pbuh, it is not permissible to kill him unless with three
conditions: a person who commits adultery for the second time, a person who killed
someone intentionally or if a person leaves Islam after embracing it.” (Bukhari)

Conditions of Qisas:
Qisas means a person would be killed in the punishment of killing someone. But it should
be kept in mind that implementation of Qisas will only be applied or fulfilled by the
government authorities after the approval from the sharia courts as no ordinary person
can take the life of others even a son cannot take the revenge of his father death.
Moreover, it contains some conditions when to put this obligation.

1. The killer should be an adult and sane, as there is no qisas on a child. Prophet
Pbuh said that: “there is no accountability on the actions of three people, a child
unless he becomes of age of adult, sleeping person until he woke up, an insane
unless became sane.” (Abu Daud)

2. The murdered person must be one of those whose blood is inviolable, as qisas was
ordained to save human lives. Thus, if a Muslim kills a disbeliever who are in a
state of war with Muslims, or if he kills an apostate before the latter declares his
repentance or an adulterer commits adultery for the second time or muhsin, there
will be neither qisas nor diyah due on the part of the perpetrator. Yet, he is to
undergo discretionary punishment (Ta’zeer; court decided punishment) for
arrogating to himself the ruler’s authority.

3. He would be killed the same way as he killed the person. But if he brutally killed
then he will not be killed in this way in respect of humanity.
4. The murdered person must not be one of the murderer’s children or descendants.

60
Main objectives of qisas: It’s a blessing for the humanity in order to protect their lives
and to protect their generation and to make people fear of killing someone and to protect
themselves from enmity and to feel the killer the someway what a murdered person felt.

2. Suspected intentionally killing: According to scholars, quasi-premeditated murder

occurs when someone kills another with the intention of causing him harm or injury, not
death. Such a cause is regarded as quasi-premeditated murder whether the murderer’s
purpose is aggression or mere disciplinary punishment, as the offender exceeds the limits
in doing so until results of death. It is called “quasi-premeditated murder” as the
perpetrator just intends harm or injury, but he unintentionally kills the victim. In this
situation a person’s only intention is to take revenge not to kill but he used some means
which leads a person to die like to hold up a person in to a prison without feeding him or
tie him down near the bank of a river where the water rises etc.

In this case a person wouldn’t be killed like in Qisas but has to pay blood money to the
victim’s and to fulfill the atonement i.e. freeing a slave or have fasting of two consecutive
months. As Prophet Pbuh said: “Suspected intentionally killing is like intentionally
killing but in that a person would not be killed as in qisas. (Sunan Abu Daud)

Abu Hurayrah r.a narrated: “Two women from (the tribe of) Hudhayl fought with each
other and one of them hit the other a stone that killed both her and the fetus she carries.
The killer’s agnate relatives and those of the victim’s relative, took the case to the
Prophet (PBUH) to judge, He Pbuh ordered that the diyah for the murderer women was to
be paid by the murderer’s agnate relatives.”

Diat (Blood mony): The diat should be, as mentioned by Abdullah bin Mas’ood r.a: 40
(four year old pregnant she camels), 30 (three old she camels), 30 (two year old she
camels). (Sunan Abu Dawood)
This blood money would be paid in the time period of three years.
Atonement: Freeing a slave, if not then a person will fast for two consecutive months.

3. Killing Unintentionally: This occurs when someone kills an inviolable human being
by mistake while doing something permissible for him to do. In this situation if a person
killed someone unintentionally as if a person fell upon on other person or throw an arrow
or stone towards an animal which accidently hits a human or dug a well and someone fall
into it or doing some construction and the building fell down, so in that case no qisas
would come on him but he has to pay diat and compensation instead. As mentioned in
Quran:

61
‫ص َّدقُوا فاِإ ْن اكا ان ِم ْن قا ْوٍم‬ َّ ‫سلَّ امةٌ إِ اَل أا ْهلِ ِه إََِّل أا ْن يا‬ ِ ٍِ ٍ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ
‫اواما اكا ان ل ُم ْؤم ٍن أا ْن يا ْقتُ ال ُم ْؤمناا إََّل اخطاأا اوام ْن قا تا ال ُم ْؤمناا اخطاأا فا تا ْح ِر ُير ارقا باة ُم ْؤمناة اومياةٌ ُم ا‬
‫سلَّ امةٌ إِ اَل أا ْهلِ ِه اواحتْ ِر ُير ارقا با ٍة ُم ْؤِمنا ٍة فا ام ْن املْ اِجي ْد‬ ِ ِ ٍ ِ ِ ٍِ ٍ ِ
‫اع ُد ٍو لا ُك ْم او ُه او ُم ْؤم ٌن فا تا ْح ِر ُير ارقا باة ُم ْؤمناة اوإ ْن اكا ان م ْن قا ْوم با ْي نا ُك ْم اوبا ْي نا ُه ْم ميثاا ٌق فادياةٌ ُم ا‬
ِ ِ َّ ‫اَّلل واكا ان‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ
‫يما‬‫يما احك ا‬ ‫اَّللُ اعل ا‬ ‫ام اش ْه اريْ ِن ُمتا تااب اع ْني تا ْوباةا م ان َّ ا‬
ُ ‫فاصيا‬

“Never should a believer kill another believer unless by error, Anyone who kills a
believer by error must set a free believing slave and pay compensation to the victim’s
family unless they remit it as charity”….. If he can’t free a slave then have fasting of two
consecutive months in regards of seeking forgiveness from Allah swt. (Nisa – 92)

Diat (Blood money): In this case the diat would be of giving ransom to the victim’s
family i.e. 30 (three year old she camels), 30 (two year old she camels), 20 (two year old
male camels), 20 (one year old she camels). (Abu Dawood) This blood money would be
fulfilled in the time period of three years.
Atonement: Freeing a slave, if not then a person will fast for two consecutive months.

Qisas in Self-Defense: If someone kills someone in defending himself then there would
be no blame on him. As what Abu Huraira r.a nurrated: “a man came to the Prophet Pbuh
and asked him, if anyone trying to snatch my wealth from me, what I should do then? He
Pbuh said: Do not let him take. He asked again if he fights with me, He Pbuh replied:
then fight with him. He asked if he kills me. He Pbuh said, then you would be considered
as martyred. He asked that if I kill him in defending myself. He Pbuh said: No blame
would come to you and he would be in hell fire. (Sahih Muslim)

Qisas for the Parts of Body: The qisas for the parts of body and wounds is stated in
Quran and Sunnah, Allah says: “And We ordained for them therein a life for life, an eye
for an eye, a nose for a nose, an ear for an ear, a tooth for a tooth, and for wound is legal
retribution…” (Quran: Al-Maidah: 45)

Qisas for Wounds: The qisas is to be carried out for every wound that reaches the bones,
as it can be exacted with neither injustice nor excessiveness, such as the wound of the
head, face, upper arm, leg, thigh and foot. As Allah says: “and for wounds is legal
retribution.” (Al-Maidah: 45)
As for the wounds that do not reach the bones, it is impermissible to apply the qisas to
them, even if they are head wounds or the like. To illustrate, there is no retribution
applicable as regards the case of the wound ion the internal part of the abdomen, the chest
or the upper part of the chest, as the depth of the wound cannot be specified so there is no
assurance that there will be neither injustice nor excessiveness.
In this regard, Ibn Majah related that the Prophet (PBUH) said: “No qisas is to be
executed in a skull-fracturing wound, an abdomen deep flesh-cutting wound, nor a bone
breaking and dislocating wound.”

62
Moreover, Shaykh-Islam Ibn Taymiyah(may Allah have mercy on him) said: “The qisas
for wounds is stated by the Noble Quran, the Sunnah and the consensus of Muslim
scholars, provided that the retaliatory injury is just like the original one. That is, if the
head of a person is fractured by someone, the injured person has the right to retaliate for
in the same way, but if it is unattainable to exact just, accurate retribution as in the case of
breaking an internal bone or any other kind of head fracture less in degree than a bone
clearing wound, retribution becomes impermissible, and the diyah (indemnity) becomes
obligatory instead.”

Qisas when Group of people kills an Individual: When a group of people

premeditatedly and wrongfully kills an individual, the whole group is to be killed in qisas
according to the most preponderant opinion adopted by the Muslim scholars (may Allah
have mercy on him). This opinion is based on the general meaning of the Quranic verse
in which Allah, Exalted be He, says:
“O you who have believed, prescribed for you is legal retribution for those murdered…..
And there is for you in legal retribution [saving of] life, O you [people] of understanding,
that you may become righteous.” (Al-Baqarah: 178-179)
The aforementioned opinion is also the one unanimously maintained by the Prophet’s
Companions. To illustrate, Sa’id Ibn al-Musayyab reported that ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab
(may Allah be pleased with him) had ordered to killed seven men of the people of Sana in
retribution for killing one man. ‘Umar said: “If all the people of Sana had acted together
in killing him, I would have killed them all in qisas.” It is also stated that other
companions were of the same opinion, and they would killed a group of people in
retribution for killing one person; there was none who disagreed with them, so there was
a consensus on this juristic view.
The great Muslim scholar Ibn al-Qayyim (may Allah have mercy on him) said: “The
companions and the majority of faqihs unanimously agree on the ruling that a group of
people are to be killed (in retribution) for killing one person, though it may appear to
contradict the basic principle of qisas, namely saving of lives. They maintain so as not to
let the non-application of the qisas to a group of murderers be the pretext for further
conspiracy to shed blood.

2. Committing Suicide: Suicide is a major sin. Killing oneself is prohibited as Islam

made it haram and the one who does that is faced with a warning of eternity in the Fire of
Hell, where Allah will punish him with the means that he used to commit suicide. It was
narrated from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him) that the Prophet
(blessings and peace of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever throws himself down from a
mountain and kills himself will be throwing himself down in the Fire of Hell for ever and
ever. Whoever drinks poison and kills himself will be sipping it in the Fire of Hell for

63
ever and ever. Whoever kills himself with a piece of iron will have that iron in his hand,
thrusting it into his belly in the Fire of Hell for ever and ever.” (Sahih Bukhari)
The believer has to be patient and to seek the help of Allah, and understand that no matter
what hardship befalls him in this world -- no matter how severe it is -- the punishment of
the Hereafter is worse than it. It is not acceptable according to anyone who is of right
mind to run away from the heat of the desert and throw himself into the fire. How can he
flee from temporary hardship and difficulty -- which inevitably will come to an end -- to
an eternal punishment which has no end?
A Muslim should ponder and realize that he is not the only one in this world who is
affected by calamity and hardship. Calamities befell the greatest of mankind, namely the
Prophets, Messengers and the righteous. They also befell the worst of mankind, namely
the disbelievers and atheists. Calamity is part of the natural order of things and hardly
anyone is safe from it.

3. Abstain from sins/crimes: Islam made compulsory for every Muslim to abstain from
committing sin or crime, as all sins are injurious to health like of drinking alcohol that
leads to the sickness and sometimes to death and all crimes that create injustice in a
society like stealing or gambling which creates situation of anarchy in a society which
leads to the killing of people. So Islam made every sin or crime illegal for humanity.

4. Restriction of migration in spread of contagious disease: Islam restricts ones

migration from a place effected by some viral disease e.g. Plague; where bacteria are
transmitted to humans through physical contact, that leads to death. In such catastrophic
scenarios, Islam forbids the effected to leave the place until he gets cured. This is done in
order to stop the transmission of viral bacteria to other places.

As narrated by “Abdullah bin ‘Amir bin Rabi’a, he said: ‘Umar bin Al-Khattab left for
Sham, and when he reached a placed called Sargh, he came to know that there was an
outbreak of an epidemic (of plague) in Sham. Then ‘Abdul Rahman bin ‘Auf told him
that Allah’s Apostle said, “If you hear the news of an outbreak of an epidemic (plague) in
a certain place, do not enter that place and if the epidemic falls in a place while you are
present in it, do not leave that place.” So ‘Umar r.a returned from Sargh.”

64
2.2 Right to Property

Definition of Property: A property can be defined with two conditions, firstly every
asset or wealth which is in physical form and that can come into possession of anyone
called as property like currency or a piece of land, or animals, or trading goods, etc., so
wisdom, knowledge, health cannot come under the category of property. In modern time
the concept of intellectual property comes in this first condition as an idea would only
become a patent if it described or expressed on paper or being manufactured in to a
product. Only idea that exists into mind cannot be claimed as property. Secondly, that
thing which is in physical form should not be impossible to possess it like sun, moon,
universe, etc. as they are physical in nature but cannot be in possession of anyone.

Ownership of Property: The right to own a property is an instinctive matter. It is related

to survival and self-preservation. If we look at the Quran as being my right or your right
to property it puts it in the proper framework. In numerous verses in the Quran we find
that it gives clear indication that everything is owned by Allah swt. For example a verse
says:

‫ض اواما فِي ِه َّن او ُه او اعلاى ُك ِل اش ْي ٍء قا ِد ٌير‬ ِ ‫السماو‬

ِ ‫ات اواأل ْار‬ ‫ْك َّ ا ا‬
َِِّ
ُ ‫َّلل ُمل‬

To Allah belongs the domain of Heaven and Earth and everything in between and He is
able to do all things. (Al-Maida, v.120)
Moreover, it says:
ِ ‫ك الْمل‬ِ
‫ْك‬ ُ ‫قُ ِل اللَّ ُه َّم امال ا‬

“Say O Muhammad! O Allah. Master and possessor of the kindom” (Al-Imran, v.26)

There are many similar references to this in the Quran which give us a clear indication
that the right of ownership in the absolute sense belongs to Allah and to Allah alone. The
submission to Allah as the owner of the universe doesn’t mean that we as human beings
do not have the right to own property. It simply puts this right of ownership within the
broader context. Ownership is part of our responsibility as trustees of Allah on earth. The
clear evidence of this are numerous in Quran as it says:
ِ َّ ‫َّواب‬ َّ ‫ان‬ ِ ‫الص ادقا‬
َّ ‫ات اوأ‬ ِ ‫اَّلل ُهو ي ْقبل التَّوبةا اعن ِعب‬
َّ ‫امهِ او اَيْ ُخ ُذ‬ َّ ‫أااملْ يا ْعلا ُموا أ‬
‫يم‬
ُ ‫الرح‬ ُ َّ ‫اَّللا ُه او الت‬ ‫ان َّا ا ا ا ُ ْ ا ْ ا‬

"Know they not that Allah do accept repentance from His votaries and receives their gifts
of charity, and that Allah is verily He, the Oft-Returning, Most Merciful” (Al-Tauba,
v.104)

It uses the term “their” property which shows that there is no contradiction between the
ownership in the absolute sense which is in the Hand of God and our human right to own
within these boundaries and to dispose and use them within the restriction that God has

65
provided. This is not only found within the Quran but we find that in the Prophetic
Tradition, the practice of Prophet Muhammad and His companions, shows clearly that
property rights are to be acknowledged and respected.

These restrictions are all non-excessive, because under the term restrictions various
systems go into great length trying to restrict this basic instinctive right, which is
determined by Islamic Law and God’s revelation. The first restriction is that the
acquisition of this property should be through legitimate means. Of course Islam
recognizes the sanctity of property, the right to defend one’s property but this property
should have been obtained through legitimate and lawful means. Second, when one uses
their property they have to use it in a way that does not cause harm to other people. The
concept of harm is interesting in Islam and has two angles. One basic rule established in a
saying of the Prophet was that one should not harm himself or others. This means that if
one has a piece of land in a residential area one cannot say this property is theirs and they
can do with it as they wish and build a factory on it. As we know in many countries there
are regulations that restrict zoning. In Islamic Law, a long time before these laws came
into effect; during the days of the Prophet this principle was established. One cannot say
that because they own certain property that they have the right to monopolize the basic
necessities of people by withholding basic needs like food or milk because they decided
not to sell while letting people starve.

Another concept in avoiding harm is that Islam says that private harm could be tolerated
if it is necessary to prevent a greater harm which would affect a larger number of people.
For example if one has a house and it was decided that for the benefit of all a road had to
be widened or a utility has to be established and there is no other way but to cut into
one’s property. In this case with fair compensation one should not be defensive about
their property.

Another basic requirement is that a person can dispose of their property the way that he
or she likes, provided that the person is mentally capable of doing this. In other words if
the person who owns the property is insane then for his own protection there must be a
trustee appointed on him. One is entitled to their property rights provided that they fulfill
their duties and obligations that emanate from one’s position in regards to the property.

Conditions of owning property:

One of the legitimate means of property acquisition would be to own something as a
result of your personal effort and labor. This may include salary, hunting, fishing,
commercial operations, etc.

Second, one could own property based on rights that Islamic Law gives you. For example
a wife is entitled by Islamic Law for full maintenance and this responsibility falls fully on
the husband. Anything that he gives to his wife is her own property. Another aspect is

66
inheritance, according to the law of inheritance in Islam which has interesting elements
and one can own property on the basis of inheritance.

Third: if a person is unable, poor or disabled, he can own whatever is given to him by
way of Zakah or charity. If someone receives a gift, the item becomes his/her property.
Exchange could be another source of property. An example could be a barter system.

There are also unlawful means of acquisition. This includes usurping the property of
someone else without his or her consent which includes theft, extortion or embezzlement
of public funds. Second, taking the property of others with their approval but through
crooked means which are forbidden in Islam such as cheating, misleading contract, and
deception. Also, gambling in all its forms is illegitimate and any property gained in this
manner is not lawful. To gain property through unlawful labor or work like sorcery or
magic, prostitution, get paid for participating in a crime and bribery is haram. Also,
gaining property through an unlawful contract like usury or interest is also unlawful. The
permissible and the forbidden are matters which are deeply ingrained and relate to the
moral teachings of Islam and its ethical orientation for the protection to every member in
society.

Limitation of Property:
Islam does not differentiates between man and woman regarding possession of wealth.
Both of them have equal rights of making assets of wealth as much as they want. As
mention in the Quran:
ِ ‫ص‬ ِ ِ ِ‫صيب ِِمَّا ا ْكتاسبوا ولِلن‬
ِ ِ ‫لرج‬ ِ
‫ب‬ ‫يب ِمَّا ا ْكتا ا‬
‫س ْا‬ ٌ ‫ساء نا‬
‫اُ ا ا‬ ٌ ‫ال نا‬ ‫ل ِا‬
“For men is a share of what they have earned and for a women is a share of what they
have earned. (Sura Nisa: 32)
According to this verse, no one has any kind of authority over the other’s asset even of
the slightest thing. So, no husband has any right over his wife assets and no wife has any
right of involvement in her husband assets. And no son has any right to utilize his father
wealth until he got died and his child will get the money according to the system of
“miras (inheritance)”. There is no limitation of making assets and Property in Islam
therefore no government can interfere in any person’s personal property. But the Islam
does not like the possession of extra ordinary assets. As mentioned in Quran:

ٌ‫إََِّّناا أ ْام اوالُ ُك ْم اوأ ْاوَل ُم ُك ْم فِ ْت ناة‬

“Your possessions and your children are a test” (Al-Taghabun, 15). Also it is said:
ِِ ِ ِ ‫الشي‬ ِ ِ ِ
‫ورا‬ ِ ‫اط‬
َّ ‫ني اواكا ان‬
‫الش ْيطاا ُن ل اربه اك ُف ا‬ ‫ين اكانُوا إِ ْخ اوا ان َّ ا‬
‫اوَل تُباذ ْر تا ْبذ ايرا إِ َّن ال ُْمباذ ِر ا‬

“Do not squander wastefully. The extravagant are the brothers of devils. And Shaitan is
ever ungrateful to his Lord” (Al-Isra, 26)

67
Whatever the property or asset a person owns he has to answer for each thing in front of
Allah swt. As what Prophet Pbuh said that: “A person cannot move on the day of
judgment unless he answers about four questions, 1) About his age in which thing it
utilized, 2) About the knowledge how much he acted upon it, 3) About the wealth from
where it earned and where it spent, 4) About his body in what pleasures it spent. (Tirmizi)

Types of wealth: There are enormous types including halal and haram, but Islamic jurists
divided them into three main types:

 Transferable and non-transferable property

 Valued stuff includes matchable and non-matchable property
 Decay able and non-decay able property

1. Transferable and non-transferable

Transferable: This type of property includes property that can be transferred from one
place to another like fruits, vegetable, electronic accessories, vehicles, currency, etc.

Non-Transferable: This contains types of property which are immovable like houses,
land, trees, etc.
2. Valued stuff: This contains two types of wealth
1. Match able stuff 2. Non-Match able stuff

Match able stuffs: Are those which has its copy available in market, e.g. watches, cars,
mobile phones, etc. Means if someone accidently destroy this type of property than
he/she can provide with the alternative of the same product. It includes four types of
stuffs:

 Things which are measured in volume: i.e. milk, petrol, kerosene oil, etc.
 Things which are weighted in kg: i.e., wheat, rice, pearls, etc.
 Things which are counted: i.e. eggs, banana, oranges, etc.
 Things which are measured in units: i.e. cloth, mirror, wires, etc.

Non-Match able stuff: This includes those materials which do not have its copy or
alternatives in the market available, e.g. animals, houses, land, etc. If a person accidently
destroy it then he has to fulfill the penalty by paying the price of the product.

3. Decay able stuff and non-decay able

Decay able stuffs: are those who survive for limited time or their benefits are for a very
short period of time, like eatable stuffs includes fruits, vegetables, etc.

Non-decay able stuffs: are those things which resist their nature even for a long time and
can be benefit at any time, like books, clothes, machinery, furniture, etc.

68
Benefit of distributing the wealth into different types
The core benefit in distributing the wealth into different types is due to the easiness for
the people to understand the legibility and non-legibility of the product and to decide the
penalty if destroyed by others, so no injustice would be done. E.g. putting the type of
property into the category of halal and haram would help in a way that if anyone deals in
alcoholic beverages, then it would be easy to understand that dealing in any alcoholic
related things is haram because it comes under the category of haram products or selling
pork would result in haram earning as Islam made the pork haram.
There are other benefits as under:

 The goods which comes under the category of transferable goods, cannot be
buyable unless it comes in front of the buyer. For that dealing it on phones and
fixing prices without seeing it would be considered as batil. Moreover buying
products online based on cash on delivery are allowed as the buyer has the option
of seeing the product before payment or return the product within a specified
period of time.

 The goods which has its alternatives in market like of wheat, electronic devices,
machinery or currency, if a person damages accidently other’s property then he
would provide the same product to the owner as penalty or if someone takes a
product as a loan in case of currency, then he would return the same amount to the
owner. If the owner charges him with extra on the original, it would count as
interest/riba which is prohibited in Islam.

 In the category of valuable stuffs which do not have its alternatives available in
market like animals, houses, etc. in that case if a person damages a property, he
has to pay penalty with the cost of the product according to the owner’s demand
as there is no same product available in market. The difference that occurs in the
amount if exceeds the value of the product does not count in as interest.
Islam protects the right of property in two ways:

Positive way
1. Paying zakat of wealth: Islam introduced the system of zakat to give rights of
others in a manner that the wealth should not get restricted in the hands of a
portion of a society. As a result, the level of poverty increases due to the
imbalance distribution of wealth as the richer which has more resources becomes
richer and the one who has low level of resources becomes poorer day by day
which ends in increasing of crimes like stealing and theft. So Islam puts an
obligation on the rich people of the society to extract a portion of wealth from the
surplus amount they have to the needy people, so that they can also enjoy the

69
 basic needs of life. Same way Islam introduces the system of sadaqat to help the
needy people.

2. Halal earning: Islam strictly advises the Muslims to be truthful and loyal with
others for that anything which deceive other’s, Islam made it haram. Islam
declares anything as haram for two reasons: Firstly the characteristics of that thing
or action is injurious to health. Secondly that action violates the rights of others.
For that Islam encourages Halal earning means that it should be without any
corruption, without effecting the rights of others like in gambling, earning through
interest or from deceiving by showing good quality product and giving low
quality product or increasing the price of the product rashly, etc. Once the Prophet
Pbuh was passing by a person in the market who was selling wheat, He Pbuh
entered his hand into the sack of wheat which He found wet. Prophet Pbuh asked
why it is wet. He replied: it got wet in rain. He Pbuh said that why didn’t you put
it openly so that people could see it and said; whoever deceive people will not be
from among us. (Muslim)

3. Paying the debts: Islam encourages Muslims to help their brothers in the time of
need, to provide them with financial help by lending them some money. Allah
loves those who do charity. As mentioned in the Quran: “And be charitable, Allah
loves the charitable.” (Al-Baqarah, 195) Nurrated by Imam Tabarani, that; once a
person came to the Prophet Pbuh and asked, which people Allah loves most and
what action Allah loves most? The Prophet Pbuh said: The dearest person to
Allah swt is the one who helps the people most in the time of need and the best
action is to make a Muslim brother happy or to fulfill his desire or to lend him
money or to overcome his hunger. Beside this Islam also strictly enforces a
Muslim who took the loan, should return it as soon as possible in his life, because
it cannot be forgiven unless you paid it back or a person forgives it, as mentioned
in the Prophetic Hadith that; every sin of a martyr has been forgiven by Allah swt
except the debt.” (Muslim)

4. Lost thing: If someone found lost thing on the ground, then Islam teaches us to
return the thing back to its owner even if it takes a year to search. As mentioned in
hadith, that the Prophet Pbuh once asked about a piece of gold or silver, if
someone found it? He Pbuh replied that: find its owner for a year, afterwards you
can utilize it, but if ever its owner came back then you have to return it to him.
(Sahih Bukhari)
It has other requirements:

 If the thing is priceless or very ordinary like pen or pencil or small amount of
currency not more that 5 or 10 rupees, then we can utilize it, if we don’t know the
owner. If we know the owner then we should give it back even if it is one rupee.

70
  If the lost thing is animal especially camel, then Prophet Pbuh said: Do not take it,
it will drink and eat by itself.

 If the thing you found is very precious and costly then we have to wait for the
year in searching for the owner of the product.

Defensive way
1. Interest (usury): It’s a blessing of Allah swt on the humanity that He swt has
made the interest prohibited. As mentioned in Quran:

ِ ‫اَّللُ الْبا يْ اع او اح َّرام‬

‫الراِب‬ َّ ‫اح َّل‬
‫اوأ ا‬

“Allah has permitted the trading and forbidden the usury.” (Al-Baqarah, 275)

The reason of abandoning interest is because of the cruelty on the poor people
with the fact that if a person takes a loan it would be very difficult for him to pay
back as the lender demands more than what he has lend. If a person not able to
payback his loan in a specified period of time, the interest would become double
and the poor person spends all his life and his coming generation in paying debts.
For this reason, Allah swt declared this interest as a war against Allah and His
Prophet. As mentioned in Quran:

‫اَّلل اوار ُسولِ ِه‬

َِّ ‫ب ِمن‬ ِ ِ ِ ‫اَّللا او اذ ُروا اما باِقي ِم ان‬
‫الراِب إِ ْن ُك ْن تُ ْم ُم ْؤمنِ ا‬
‫ني فاِإ ْن املْ تا ْف اعلُوا فاأْ اذنُوا ِبا ْر ٍ ا‬ ‫ا‬ َّ ‫آمنُوا اتَّ ُقوا‬
‫ين ا‬
ِ َّ
‫اَي أايُّ اها الذ ا‬
“O you who believe! Be afraid of Allah and give up what remains from Riba, if
you are believers. And if you do not do it, then take a notice of war from Allah
and His Messenger.” (Sura Al-Bakara, v. 276)

2. Stealing: Another important factor in protecting the right of wealth of people that
Islam obligates not to take the property or wealth of a person without his consent
otherwise it would be counted as stealing. For that Islam introduces the system of
“Hudood” in that it specifies the punisment of stealing as “hand cutting”. As
mention in the Quran:
َِّ ‫السا ِرقاةُ فااقْطاعوا أاي ِدي هما جزاء ِِباا اكسبا نا اكاَل ِمن‬
‫اَّلل‬ َّ ‫السا ِر ُق او‬
َّ ‫او‬
‫ا‬ ‫اا‬ ‫ُ ْ اُ ا اا ا‬

“As for the thief, whether male or female, cut their hands as a penalty for what
they have reaped, a deterrent from God.” (Al-Maidah, 38).

But Islam specifies the minimum limit on which punishment would be

implemented as quarter of dinar, as narrated by Narrated 'Aisha r.a: The Prophet
said, "The hand should be cut off for stealing something that is worth a quarter of
a Dinar or more." (Sahih Bukhari)

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3. Bribery: Islam supports the concept of legibility and open merit based selection.
For that Islam prohibits bribery in any sense. This thing is like a termite which
destroys the society from within its roots as a result, undeserved and illegible
people being selected by giving huge bribes on the irrelevant posts which
eventually weakens the system. Islam made it haram because it also forfeit the
right of rightful person. And the wages that illegible person is taking is the right
of someone else and due to this the righteous and talented people starve to death
due to lack of occupations. For that Prophet Pbuh declared, not only the bribe
giver but also the accepter, both of them will be in hell fire. (Bukhari)

4. Orphan’s wealth: Islam not only looks after the right of those who are adults or
old aged people but also the rights of those who are immature of age. Islam warns
those who took the responsibility of the orphans, not to grasp their inheritance
what their parents had left for them. As mentioned in Quran:
ِ
ُ‫س ُن اح ََّّت يا ْب لُ اغ أا ُشدَّه‬ ْ ‫ال الْياتِي ِم إَِل ِِبلَِِّت ه اي أ‬
‫اح ا‬ ‫اوَل تا ْق اربُوا ام ا‬

“And do not come near to the property of the orphan except with the best
intentions until he reaches the age of maturity. (Al-’Anaam, 152)

In this verse, the best intention means that if the care taker is poor and cannot
manage all the matters of an orphan then he can utilize his inheritance for only in
the orphan matters. Moreover if the care taker is very poor to an extent that he
cannot manage his own food for his family, then Islam allows him in a very
limited sense to use his inheritance for his own purpose with precaution.

5. Inheritance: Islam not only talks about the protection of property for the living
beings but its protection stretches to the future preservation of wealth, in a way
that Islam forbids a person to give its whole wealth into charity. As mention in the
hadith that: “When Sa’ad bin abi Waqas r.a got very ill, he said to the Prophet
Pbuh that I want to give my whole wealth into charity. Prophet Pbuh said: No, He
said: half? He Pbuh said: no, he said: third part? Prophet Pbuh said: ok but third
part is still very much, as it is better to leave your family wealthy than to leave
them in misery begging to the people for food.”(Sunan Nasai)

6. Hoarding of selling goods: Hoarding means to buy things in the time of

abundance and hoard it up unless the supply becomes short in the market so it
would be sold in the higher prices. Islam forbids its followers from hoarding the
eatable stuffs specifically. Prophet Pbuh said: whoever hoards the products or
stored it from the Muslims, Allah will punish him by leprosy and bankruptcy.
(Musnad Ahmed) Moreover, He Pbuh said: “he who hoards up food for more than
forty days (in entertainment of higher prices) Allah has no need of him and he has
no need of Allah”. (Musnad Ahmed)

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 7. Public property: Public property is a type of property which a person has full
right to get benefit from but not allowed to damage it as it is not his property. This
type of property includes gardens, parks, roads, streets, etc. that belongs to no
one. So it is the duty of everyone when using it, has to maintain it properly.

2.3 Right to Protect One’s Honor

Honor is one of the things which Islam guarded, granted protection, and placed in its
proper position that deserves protection and glorification because honor is one of the five
necessities in the life of a person. These necessities are: Religion, mind, soul, money, and
honor. For honoring a Muslim, the tolerant Islamic Shari`ah came to protect these
necessities and establishes all guarantees to protect honors against defects and
shortcomings. Scholars and Mujtahidun (scholars who exert efforts in extending Shari`ah
rulings to new events) in every time agreed that the objectives of Islamic legislation aim
all to protecting these five necessities.

A beholder in the Glorious Qur'an and the Prophetic Sunnah sees the great interest Islam
granted to honor where many Qur'anic Ayahs and Hadiths came to guard and protect
honor. So, we find Islam prohibit adultery and consider it one of the major sins: As
mentioned in Quran: "And come not near to unlawful sex. Verily, it is a Fâhishah (i.e.
anything that transgresses its limits: a great sin), and an evil way (that leads one to Hell
unless Allâh forgives him)." [Surat Al Isra': v.32].

Adultery slanders honors, causes lineages to be lost, as it leads to aggression against

sanctities, demolition of families, and corruption of manners. Hence, Islam prescribed a
punishment for it which is lashing of unmarried people. As mentioned in Quran: "The
fornicator (both male and female), flog each of them with a hundred stripes. Let not pity
withhold you in their case, in a punishment prescribed by Allâh, if you believe in Allâh
and the Last Day. And let a party of the believers witness their punishment. (This
punishment is for unmarried persons guilty of the above crime, but if married persons
commit it (illegal sex), the punishment is to stone them to death, according to Allâh's
Law)." [Surat An-Nur: 2].

The matter does not stop at the prohibition of adultery, but we find Islam prohibits all its
introductions such as looking, Khulwah (being alone with a member of the opposite sex),
Tabarruj (women dressing up immodestly in violation of the Islamic dress code), and
others. Allah (Glory be to Him) commanded male and female Muslims with lowering
gazes: "Tell the believing men to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things), and
protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts). That is purer for them. Verily, Allâh
is Well-Acquainted with what they do. And tell the believing women to lower their gaze
(from looking at forbidden things), and protect their private parts (from illegal sexual

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acts) and not to show off their adornment except only that which is apparent (like both
eyes for necessity to see the way, or outer palms of hands or one eye or dress like veil,
gloves, head-cover, apron, etc.)" (Surat An-Nur: 30 - 31).

Moreover, Islam is a religion of peace, love and compassion for that lies, injustice,
suspicion, backbiting, slander and gossips are totally alien to Islam. In fact they are
considered amongst the most destructive of major sins. This is so because these sins sow
enmity and discord among the Muslim community (Ummah) and lead to its destruction.
They cause hostilities between people of the same household, between neighbors, friends
and relatives. Furthermore, Islam Protect the right of Honor in two ways:

Positive way
1. Equality: Islam does not discriminate between people on the bases of cast, color
and race. Islam equally distribute the rights, respect and honor among the people.
As mentioned in Quran: “O people! We created you from male and a female, and
made among you races and tribes that you may know one another. The best
among you in sight of Allah is the most righteous.” (Al-Hujurat, 13) And Prophet
Pbuh said that: if a person having slightest particle of arrogance and proudness in
his heart, will not enter into the Heaven.” (Muslim) Arrogance is anti of equality
as an arrogant person consider others lower than him. So Islam strictly against of
being arrogant.

2. Covering of body: Islam teaches self-respect by obligating every Muslim to

cover his or her body as required. Nurrated by Imam Tirmazi: “A person asked
the Prophet Pbuh about the satar (covering of body), He Pbuh said: it should be
covered so that no one sees you. He again asked: if a person is alone, is it allow to
be naked in privacy? Prophet Pbuh said: no, it is not allowed because Allah has
more right to be ashamed off than the people.” With the concept of covering of
body Islam teaches Muslims self-respect and from it to respect others as no one
would like to pull off his clothes in front of others, the same way we should
respect others.
3. Covering the mistakes of others: Islam strictly forbids Muslims to not to dispose
of secrets of anyone in public so that he feel ashamed in front of anyone. As what
Prophet Pbuh said that: “every Muslim is a brother to another in a way he does
not treat him with cruelty nor leave him in calamity, whoever overcome the
difficulty of his brother Allah will overcome his difficulties on the Day of
Judgment, whoever keep secrets of the mistakes of his brother, Allah will keep
secrets of his sins on the Day of Judgment”. (Bukhari)
4. Lowering of gazes: Islam teaches us to respect others by obligating men and
women to lower their gazes. As being of opposite in natures they attract to each
other as a result they look at each other in an unethical way. So Islam stresses on

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 this account to lower our gazes to give respect to one another. And those who
disobey this obligation will come under the curse of Allah swt. As Prophet Pbuh
said: Allah swt curses a person who sees and the one who has been seen. (Sunan
Al-Baihaqi)
5. Give respect to others even of small status: Islam discourages the
discrimination among people on the basis of color, cast and status as all are equal
in the sight of Allah. It is said that: “Once there was a black lady used to clean
Masjid-e-Nabvi. After some time she had stopped coming. Prophet Pbuh asked
about her from his companions. They said: she got died. The Prophet Pbuh said:
why didn’t you infrom me? They said: she is of small status, that’s why we didn’t
bother to tell you. Prophet Pbuh asked them to show him her grave. He Pbuh
himself went on her grave for supplication.” (Muslim)
6. Respect to non-Muslim: Islamic respect and honor not only stretched to the
Muslims but it also stretches to the non-Muslims. As Allah swt mentioned in
Quran: “As for those who have not fought against you for your religion, nor
expelled you from your homes, Allah does not prohibit you from dealing with
them kindly and equitably. Allah love the equitable.” (Al-Mumtahina, 8).
Moreover, Abdul Rahman r.a narrated that once a funeral of a non-Muslim passed
by two of the companions of Prophet, they stood up in respect. People asked why
you stood for him, it’s the funeral of a non-Muslim. They replied: “once we were
sitting with the Prophet Pbuh, a funeral of a Jewish passed by, Prophet Pbuh stood
up. Companions said, O Prophet of Allah, he was Jewish. He Pbuh replied: isn’t
he was a human also.” (Muslim)

Defensive way
1. False accusation: Islam condemns firmly all kind of lies as Prophet Pbuh said: A
Muslim might commits other sins but cannot be a liar. (Sahih Bukhari) Among
this lie, false accusation is one of the most serious crime. For that Quran advises
not to accept the testimony of those who put false accusations on the chastity of
pious people. Allah says in Quran:
ِ ‫ك هم الْ اف‬ ِ ِ ‫ات ُُثَّ امل َيْتُوا ِِبارب ع ِة ُشه اداء فا‬
ِ ‫والَّ ِذين ي رمو ان الْم ْحصنا‬
‫اس ُقو ان‬ ُ ُ ‫امةا أابا ادا اوأُولاة ا‬ ‫وه ْم َثااانِ ا‬
‫ني اجلْ ادةا اوَل تا ْقبا لُوا اِلُ ْم اش اه ا‬ ُ ‫اجل ُد‬
ْ ‫ْا ا ا ا‬ ‫ْا‬ ‫ُ ا‬ ُْ‫ا ا ا‬
“Those who accuse chaste women, then cannot bring four witnesses, whip them
eighty lashes and do not ever accept their testimony. For these are the rebellious.”
(Sura Noor-4)

Moreover Prophet Pbuh counted the false accusation in one of the seven most
deadliest sins except for those who repent afterwards as He Pbuh said there are
seven major deadly sins, abstain yourself from those. Sahaba r.a asked, what are
those? He Pbuh said: “making partners to Allah swt, sorcery, killing a person

75
 without guilt, false accusation upon chaste and pious woman, taking interest,
taking orphan’s wealth, and running from battle feild. (Sahih Bukhari)

2. Making fun of others: Mocking others or making fun of on any disability or by

any mean is a spiritually ill act which Islam strictly condemned. Allah says in
Quran:

‫سى أا ْن يا ُك َّن اخ ْي ارا ِم ْن ُه َّن‬ ٍ ِ‫َي أايُّها الَّ ِذين آمنوا َل يس اخر قاوم ِمن قاوٍم عسى أا ْن ي ُكونُوا اخي را ِم ْن هم وَل نِساء ِمن ن‬
‫ساء اع ا‬
‫ْا ُ ْ ا ا ٌ ْ ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا اُ ا ْ ْ ْ ٌ ْ ْ ا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
“O you who believe, do not let men make fun of other men, perhaps they may be
better than they are. Also, do not let women make fun of other women, as it may
be that they are better than they are.” (Al-Hujurat, v.11)

3. Nick naming others: Allah swt advises us to not to make nick names of each
other, as it is a hideous sin in Islam, as mentioned in Quran:

‫ك ُه ُم الظَّالِ ُمو ان‬

‫ب فاأُولاةِ ا‬ ِ
ْ ُ‫سو ُق با ْع اد ا ِْلمياان اوام ْن املْ يات‬
ُ ‫اَلس ُم الْ ُف‬
ْ ‫س‬ ِ ِ ِ
‫س ُك ْم اوَل تا ناابا ُزوا ِبألالْ اقاب بةْ ا‬
ِ
‫اوَل تالْم ُزوا أانْ ُف ا‬
“Nor shall you slander one another, nor shall you insult one another by
nicknames. How bad is it, to insult one’s brother after having Faith? And
whosoever does not repent, such are indeed the wrong-doers. (Al-Hujurat, 11)

It is said that: Once a woman visited Aisha (r.a), after she had left, Hazrat Aisha
Siddiqa (r.a) made a sign with her hand indicating to the Prophet (Pbuh) that the
woman was short of stature. The Prophet (Pbuh) immediately chastised her by
saying, “You have backbitten!” (Tirmidhi)

Imam Al- Nawawi, a great scholar, commented regarding the above Hadith
saying, “This Hadith is paramount with regard to backbiting and I don’t know
anything more severe than this (in regards of protecting the honor of a person).”

4. Najwa: It means silent gossiping in a sense that if a group consisting of three or

more members sitting together, so no two members talk to each other secretly
avoiding the third one. It’s in disrespect and dishonor of the third person as he
feels awful by thinking that they are talking about him in bad sense. As mentioned
in Quran:
‫َّج اوى ِم ان‬
ْ ‫ إََِّّناا الن‬...‫ْب اوالتَّ ْق اوى‬
ِ ِ‫اج ْوا ِِبل‬ ِ ‫الر ُس‬
‫ول اوتا نا ا‬ َّ ‫ت‬ ِ
ِ ‫صي‬ ِ
‫اج ْوا ِِب ِْل ُِْث اوال ُْع ْد اوان اوام ْع ا‬ ‫آمنُوا إِ اذا تا نا ا‬
‫اج ْي تُ ْم فاال تا تا نا ا‬ ‫ين ا‬
ِ َّ
‫اَي أايُّ اها الذ ا‬
ِ ‫الشيْطا‬
‫ان‬ َّ
“O you who believe! When you converse secretly, do not converse in sin and
aggression and disobedience of the messenger, but converse in virtue and piety…
Conspiracies are from satan.” (Al-Mujadila, 9-10)
It should be noted that how far Islam approaches in honoring the humanity that
even for the slightest fantacy or imagination that develops in the mind of a person.

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5. Backbiting and Nameemah: Backbiting is a major sin in Islam. It means to
expose the secrets of someone to others which a person does not like to discuss.
And Nameenah is a kind of backbiting but a step forward to it, means to discuss
the private matters to others with exaggeration in order to create enmity among
people. Allah swt says in Quran:
ِ ‫اَّلل تا َّو‬ ِ ‫ب أاح ُد ُكم أا ْن َيْ ُكل احلم أ‬
َّ ‫اخ ِيه ام ْي تاا فا اك ِرْهتُ ُموهُ اواتَّ ُقوا‬ ِ ‫ض ُكم ب ْع ا‬
‫يم‬ ٌ ‫اَّللا إِ َّن َّا‬
ٌ ‫اب ارح‬ ‫ضا أ ُاحي ُّ ا ْ ا ا ْ ا‬ ‫ب با ْع ُ ْ ا‬
ْ ‫اوَل ياغْتا‬
“Do not back bite one another, would any of you like to eat the flesh of his dead
brother? You would detest that.” (Al-Hujurat, 12)

Moreover, it is said that; “Once the Prophet Pbuh with his companions was
passing through somewhere, they found two graves which have been given
punishment. Prophet Pbuh said: one of them used to deal people with nameemah
and the other didn’t preserve himself from sprinkles of urine.”
5. Seeking secrets of others: Spying or thinking about someone in negative sense is
an ill-act in Islam. We should avoid this as no one likes to be spied or think
negatively about him; in this way Islam also protect the honor of others.

Imam Al-Nawawi (rh) said that scholars have differentiated between ‘tajassus’,
which means ‘snooping’ and listening to other people’s conversations, and
‘tajassus’, which means ‘spying’, seeking out other people’s faults and looking
for secrets. Both activities are considered evil and have been forbidden. As Allah
says in Quran: “O you who believe! Avoid much suspicion; indeed some
suspicion is sin. And spy not, neither backbite one another. Would one of you like
to eat the flesh of his dead brother? You would hate it. And have Taqwa of Allah.
Verily, Allah is the One Who forgives and accepts repentance, Most Merciful.
(Al-Hujrat v: 12)

Seeking out information about other people’s state of affairs, searching and
disclosing their secrets have been strictly forbidden. (Hence, to eavesdrop upon
somebody while hiding or pretending to sleep is like spying on others.) Spying
done with the intention of exposing the faults or unveiling the secrets of others is
a sin. It also leads to backbiting which is Haram. Allah has closed every door that
leads to the evil of backbiting and has made spying Haram.

Abu Huraira (RA) narrated that the Prophet (Pbuh) said: “Beware of suspicion,
for suspicion is the worst of false tales; and do not look for the others’ faults and
do not spy, and do not be jealous of one another, and do not desert (cut your
relation with) one another, and do not hate one another; and O Allah’s
worshipers! Be brothers (as Allah has ordered you!). (Bukhari)
Our relationships should always have only a positive outcome. That’s the only
way to seek Allah’s favor when in the company of others. We should say what’s

77
 good or refrain from saying anything. We should also have the moral sense and
courage to stop others from backbiting for even if we don’t contribute to it, we
become guilty of the sin by being silent listeners and participants. The best means
of avoiding it is by changing the topic or saying sensibly that we don’t really
know the whole truth of the matter so that we shouldn’t be unfair to anyone.

6. Not scaring people: Making fun of other by scaring him is totally forbids in
Islam as in result it dishonor others or even leads to death of someone. So for that
celebrating April fools or Halloween are not allowed in Islam. Narrated by Abu
Layla: “The companions of Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon
him) said that they were travelling with the Prophet (Pbuh), and a man among
them fell asleep. Some of them got a rope and tied him. When he woke up got
scared as he found himself tied. When the Messenger of Allah (Pbuh) knew about
it, said: “It is not permissible for a Muslim to frighten another Muslim.” (Abu
Dawood).

2.4 Right to Justice

In the Islamic perspective, justice denotes placing things in their rightful place. It also
means giving others equal treatment. In Islam, justice is one of the moral virtue and an
attribute of human personality. Justice is close to equality in the sense that it creates a
state of equilibrium in the distribution of rights and duties, but they are not identical.
Sometimes, justice is achieved through inequality, like in unequal distribution of wealth.
Allah swt conveyed us through His Messenger:

“O My slaves, I have forbidden injustice for Myself and forbade it for you. So avoid
being unjust to one another.” (Sahih Muslim)

Thus, justice represents moral rectitude and fairness, since it means things should be
where they belong. The Quran, the sacred scripture of Islam, considers justice to be a
supreme virtue. It is a basic objective of Islam to the degree that it stands next in order of
priority to belief in Tawheed and to believe on prophecy of Prophet Pbuh. Allah swt
declares in the Quran:

َّ ‫ب لِلتَّ ْق اوى اواتَّ ُقوا‬

َّ ‫اَّللا إِ َّن‬ ِ ِ ٍ ِ ِ ِ ِ ‫َي أايُّها الَّ ِذين آمنوا ُكونُوا قا َّو ِام‬
‫اَّللا‬ ُ ‫ني ََّّلل ُش اه اداءا ِِبلْق ْس اوَل اْجي ِرامنَّ ُك ْم اشناآ ُن قا ْوم اعلاى أاَل تا ْعدلُوا ا ْعدلُوا ُه او أاق اْر‬
‫ا‬ ُ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
‫اخبِريٌ ِباا تا ْع املُو ان‬
ِ

“O you who believe! Stand out firmly for Allah and be just witnesses and let not the
enmity and hatred of others make you avoid justice. Be just that is nearer to piety and fear
Allah. Verily, Allah is well-Acquainted with what you do. ” (Al-Maidah: v.8)

78
Therefore, one may conclude that justice is an obligation of Islam and injustice is
forbidden. The centrality of justice to the Quranic value system is displayed by the
following verse:
ِ ‫ْكتاب وال ِْميزا ان لِي ُقوم النَّاس ِِبل ِْقس‬
ِ ِ ِ ِ
ْ ُ ‫لا اق ْد أ ْار اسلْناا ُر ُسلاناا ِبلْبا يناات اوأانْ ازلْناا ام اع ُه ُم ال ا ا ا ا ا ا‬
“We sent Our Messengers with clear signs and sent down with them the Book and the
Measure in order to establish justice among the people…” (Quran 57:25)
For justice, Quran uses the word “adal” in various meanings but mainly it uses against
two things, i.e. Cruelty and Profligate or immortality. There is no proper word which can
explain its meaning but somehow we translated it with “justice” which is a part of “adal”.
Linguistically it means “equity”, literally it means to give every soul its proper right and
it is the middle thing between the two extremism. This is a very important and valuable
right which Islam has given to man as a human being. This makes the point clear that
Muslims have to be just not only with ordinary human beings but even with their
enemies. In other words, the justice to which Islam invites his followers is not limited
only to the citizens of their own country, or the people of their own tribe, nation or race,
or the Muslim community as a whole, but it is meant for all the human beings of the
world. Muslims therefore, cannot be unjust to anyone. Their permanent habit and
character should be such that no man should ever fear injustice at their hands, and they
should treat every human being everywhere with justice and fairness.

The main theme of Quran is to prevail justice among the people, and the main purpose of
sending the Prophets is to maintain the balance in this world as mentioned in Quran:

‫ش ِاء اوال ُْم ْن اك ِر اوالْبا غْ ِي يا ِعظُ ُك ْم ل ااعلَّ ُك ْم تا اذَّك ُرو ان‬

‫ان اوإِيتا ِاء ِذي الْ ُق ْراب اويا ْن اهى اع ِن الْ اف ْح ا‬
ِ ‫اَّلل َيْمر ِِبلْع ْد ِل وا ِْل ْحس‬
‫إ َّن َّا ا ُ ُ ا ا ا‬
ِ

“Allah commands justice and goodness and generosity towards relatives. And He forbids
immortality and injustice and oppression. He advices you so that you may take heed.”
(Al-Nahl, 90)

In this verse Allah swt mentioned three positive points i.e. Justice, goodness, generosity
and three negative point i.e. immortality, injustice, oppression in regards of “adal”.
Islam protects the right of “adal” in two ways, i.e. Positive way and Defensive way.

Positive way: It contains three major points as mentioned in above verse, i.e. Justice,
goodness and generosity.
1. Justice: It includes mainly:

 Fulfilling of Promise: Fulfilling of Promises or covenants is a part of iman and

Allah obligates His followers to fulfill their pledges by saying in the Quran:

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 ‫اوأ ْاوفُوا ِِبل اْع ْه ِد إِ َّن ال اْع ْه اد اكا ان ام ْسةُوَل‬

“Fulfill your pledge, because pledge involves responsibility”. (Al-Isra, 34)

Narrated by Al-Bara’ ibn-e-’Azib r.a that the Prophet Pbuh ordered us to do

seven things and forbade us from seven things. He Pbuh ordered us: to follow the
funeral procession, to visit the sick, to accept invitation, to help the oppressed, to
fulfill the oaths, to return the greetings and to reply the sneezer… (Sahih
Bukhari) Moreover, the one who does not fulfill his promise declare as a
characteristic of a hypocrite.

 Keeping the fidelity: Keeping fidelity is one of the major part of justice. As
Allah says in the Quran:

‫َّاس أا ْن احتْ ُك ُموا ِِبل اْع ْد ِل‬ ِ ِ ‫اَّلل َيْمرُكم أا ْن تُ اؤمُّوا األام ااَّن‬
‫ت إِ اَل أا ْهل اها اوإِذاا اح اك ْمتُ ْم با ْا‬
ِ ‫ني الن‬ ‫ا‬ ْ ُ ُ ‫إِ َّن َّا ا‬

“Allah instructs you to give back things entrusted to you, to their owner. And
when you judge between people, judge with justice.” (Al-Nisa, 58)

Moreover, Prophet Pbuh counted a person who deceit in fidelity, as hypocrite, He

Pbuh said: Three signs is of a hypocrite; if he speaks; lies, if he promises; breaks
it, and if entrusted fidelity; deceit. (Bukhari)

 Proper measurement: Justice also requires to give proper measurements while

selling and buying of products mainly includes all form of exchanges for money.
Allah swt says in the Quran:
ِ ‫وأاوفُوا الْ اكيل وال ِْميزا ان ِِبل ِْقس‬
ْ ‫ْا ا ا‬ ْ‫ا‬

“And give full weight and full measure, equitably.” (Al-An’aam, 152)

Prophet Pbuh said: There are five things if you commit them Allah’s punishment
will come on you and I seek Allah’s protection from it:

1. When the people start committing sins openly then Allah swt will impose
sickness and diseases upon you, which your ancestors never heard of it.
2. When you stop giving proper measurement when selling goods, then be
prepared for famine and hunger and cruel leaders will be appointed upon you.
3. When you stop giving zakat then Allah will stop raining. If there would be no
animal living on earth then you will not get a single drop of it.
4. When you start breaking the oaths of Allah and His Prophet, then Allah swt
will make enemies who rule over you and what you had left they will snatch
from you.
5. And if you do not rule by the Book and choose your desires then Allah will
appoint upon you the worst people. (Ibn-e-Maja)

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2. Goodness: This means “ehsan” which means to do something with perfection i.e. to
have a good behavior with others even if he does not behave properly. This is a major
part of ethics. Its importance and seriousness is explained by Prophet Pbuh that He
said: the relation breaker will not enter into the heaven. (Bukhari)

3. Generosity: This means to help poor relatives in time of need by giving alms and
charity in the form of zakat and sadaqat as a right to them.

Defensive way
1. Immortality: Every immortality act makes a person unjust then no good thing or
leniency comes in his heart. And Islam criticizes it a lot by saying:
ِ ‫شةُ ِِف الَّ ِذين آمنوا اِلم ع اذاب أالِيم ِِف الدُّنْيا و‬
َّ ‫ادآلخ ارةِ او‬
‫اَّللُ يا ْعلا ُم اوأانْتُ ْم َل تا ْعلا ُمو ان‬ ِ ‫إِ َّن الَّ ِذين ُِحيبُّو ان أا ْن تا ِشيع الْ اف‬
‫اح ا‬
‫ا ا‬ ٌ ٌ ‫ا ا ُ ُْ ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬
“Those who love to see immortality spread among the believers, for them is a
painful punishment, in this life and in the Hereafter.” (Al-Noor, 19)
Prophet Pbuh said: My whole nation would be forgiven except the one who does sins
(immorality) openly. (Bukhari)

2. Injustice: Islam strictly advices his believers not having self-disputes on worldly
matters and to solve them as soon as possible, otherwise you would become weak. As
the true strength of Islam is in when you stay affirmed and aliened together, as what
Prophet Pbuh said: that all Muslims like a body, when one part of it feels pain the
whole body senses that. (Bukhari) Moreover, it is mentioned in Quran:

َّ ‫ب لِلتَّ ْق اوى اواتَّ ُقوا‬

‫اَّللا إِ َّن‬ ِ ِ ٍ ِ ِ ِ ِ ‫َي أايُّها الَّ ِذين آمنوا ُكونُوا قا َّو ِام‬
ُ ‫ني ََّّلل ُش اه اداءا ِِبلْق ْس اوَل اْجي ِرامنَّ ُك ْم اشناآ ُن قا ْوم اعلاى أاَل تا ْعدلُوا ا ْعدلُوا ُه او أاق اْر‬
‫ا‬ ُ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
‫اَّللا اخبِريٌ ِِباا تا ْع املُو ان‬
َّ
“O you who believe! Be upright to God, witnessing with justice; and let not the hatred
of a certain people prevent you from acting justly. Adhere to justice for that is nearer
to piety.” (Al-Maidah, 8)
Prophet Pbuh said that: it is not allowed for a Muslim to stay displeased from his
brother more than three days and the better one is he who starts talking.” (Bukhari)

3. Oppression: Justice is one of the characteristics of Allah swt and oppression is totally
against it. No nation can survive while having oppression among its people.
Prophet Pbuh said: help the oppressor and the oppressed. A person asked O Prophet
of Allah! We will help the oppressed it is known, but how could we help the
oppressor? He Pbuh said: stop him from his cruelty; this is how you would help him.
(Bukhari)

Prophet Pbuh said: “Allah swt does not listen to the supplication of oppressor”. And
that there is no hijab in the supplication between the oppressed and Allah swt.”
(Hadith)

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Chapter 3: Moral & Ethical Foundations of Islam

The word “morality” comes from the Latin word moralitas meaning “manner, character,
and proper behavior”. Morality generally refers to a code of conduct, that an individual,
group or society hold as authoritative, in distinguishing right from wrong. Such an ideal
code of conduct is often espoused in preference to other alternatives. Islam as a
comprehensive way of life encompasses a complete moral system that is an important
aspect of its world-view. We live in an age where good and evil are often looked at as
relative concepts. Islam however, holds that moral positions are not relative, and instead,
defines a universal standard by which actions may be deemed moral or immoral.

Islam’s moral system is striking in that it not only defines morality, but also guides the
human race in how to achieve it, at both an individual as well as a collective level. The
Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator
and Sustainer of the Universe. Islam considers the human race to be a part of God’s
creation, and as His subjects. From an Islamic perspective, the purpose of human life is to
worship God, by leading this worldly life in harmony with the Divine Will, and thereby
achieve peace in this world, and everlasting success in the life of the hereafter. Muslims
look to the Glorious Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet as their moral guides.
The Glorious Qur’an says:

‫ال اعلاى‬‫ني اوآتاى ال اْم ا‬ ِ ‫َّلل اوالْيا ْوِم ْادآل ِخ ِر اوال اْم االئِ اك ِة اوالْكِتا‬
‫اب اوالنَّبِيِ ا‬
َِّ ‫ْب من آمن ِِب‬ ِ ِ ‫ْب أا ْن تُولُّوا وجوه ُكم قِبل الْم ْش ِر ِق والْمغْ ِر‬
‫ب اولاك َّن الِ َّ ا ْ ا ا‬ َّ ِ‫س ال‬
‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ُُ ا ْ اا ا‬ ‫لايْ ا‬
ِِ ِ َّ ‫يل و‬ ِ ‫حبِ ِه ذا ِوي الْ ُقرب والْي تامى والْم‬
‫الزاكاةا اوال ُْموفُو ان بِ اع ْهده ْم إِذاا اع ا‬
‫اه ُدوا‬ َّ ‫الص االةا اوآتاى‬ َّ ‫اب اوأاقا اام‬ ِ ‫الرقا‬ِ ‫ني اوِِف‬ ‫السائِل ا‬ ِ َّ ‫ني وابْن‬
‫السب ِ ا‬ ‫ساك ا ا ا‬ ‫ْا ا اا ا ا ا ا‬ ُ
ِ ِ ِ
َّ ‫ْس أُولاة ا‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ َّ ‫و‬
‫ك ُه ُم ال ُْمتَّ ُقو ان‬ ‫ص ادقُوا اوأُولاة ا‬
‫ين ا‬
‫ك ا لذ ا‬ ِ ‫ني الْباأ‬ ‫ين ِِف الْباأ ا‬
‫ْساء اوالض ََّّراء اوح ا‬ ‫الصاب ِر ا‬ ‫ا‬

“It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is
righteousness- to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and
the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for
orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves;
to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye
have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and
throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the Allah-fearing.” [Al-
Bakarah, v: 177]

This verse underscores the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based, before all
else on a true and sincere faith. The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation
with God, who sees all, at all times and everywhere. He knows the secrets of the hearts
and the intentions behind all actions. Therefore, Islam enjoins moral behavior in all
circumstances; God is aware of each one when no one else is. It may be possible to
deceive the world, but it’s not possible to deceive the Creator.

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The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be
moral in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication. The Glorious
Qur’an also says:
َِّ ‫َّلل ما امل ي ن ِز ْل بِ ِه سلْطا ااَّن وأا ْن تا ُقولُوا علاى‬
ِ ِْ ‫ش اما ظا اه ار ِم ْن اها اواما باطا ان او‬ ِ
‫اَّلل اما اَل‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ُ ‫اْل ُْثا اوالْبا غْ اي بِغا ِْري ا ْحلا ِق اوأا ْن تُ ْش ِرُكوا ِِب َّ ا ْ ُ ا‬ ‫قُ ْل إََِّّناا اح َّرام ارِ اّب الْ اف اواح ا‬
‫تا ْعلا ُمو ان‬

Say: the things that my Lord hath indeed forbidden are: shameful deeds, whether open or
secret; sins and trespasses against truth or reason; assigning of partners to Allah, for
which He hath given no authority; and saying things about Allah of which ye have no
knowledge. [Al-A’raf, v: 33]

It is interesting that the Qur’an refers to “sins and trespasses against truth or reason. It is
an indication of God’s blessing to every human being, of an innate moral sense. Such a
moral sense, when uncorrupted by family or society, is what leads people to
commendable acts of virtue. Islam aims to enhance and amplify the moral sense in every
human being and adorn the individual’s character with the noblest of virtues. The Islamic
moral principles therefore, appeal naturally to the human intellect, while elevating the
pursuit of morality to the level of worship. This is because Islam holds every action that
is done with the goal of attaining of God’s pleasure to be worship.

3.1 Tolerance

Tolerance (tsamah) is an important trait of a Muslim’s good character. Lexically it means

“to restrain oneself”. Literally it means “the ability or willingness to tolerate the existence
of opinions or behavior that one dislikes or disagrees with.” Moreover, it means “to
bear”, as a concept, it refers to respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity
of cultures, forms of expression and ways of being human. In Arabic, it is called tasamuh.
Words like hilm (forbearance) or ‘afw (forgiveness) or saf-h (overlooking) also convey
the meaning of tolerance. In Persian and Urdu, we use the word rawadari which is
derived from rawa meaning acceptable or bearable.

The Qur’an speaks about the basic dignity of all human beings regardless of their race,
color, language or ethnicity. The Shari’ah recognizes the right to life, property, family
honor and conscience of all people. From the very beginning, freedom of religion has
been guaranteed by Islam. It prohibits coercion in matters of faith and belief. The Qur’an
says: “There is no compulsion in religion.” In matters of religion coercion is not
permitted and by implication it is accepted that in matters like culture and other worldly
practices also the use of force and undue influence is prohibited. In Surah al-Shura, Allah
says to the Prophet (pbuh): ‘’If they turn away, we have not sent you as a guard over
them. Your duty is but to convey (the message).’’ In Sura al-Nahl, Allah further reveals
to the Prophet (pbuh) the method to be followed while preaching the Message of Allah:

83
“Invite [all] to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful graciousness. Your Lord
knows best, who have strayed from His Path, and who receive guidance.”

Allah swt further addressing Mankind by saying: “Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger,
and beware [of evil]: if you do turn back, know then that, it is our Messenger’s duty to
proclaim [the message] in the clearest manner.”

The Holy Qur’an further says addressing the Prophet (pbuh): “Say: ‘Obey Allah, and
obey the Messenger: but if you turn away, he is only responsible for the duty placed on
him and you for that placed on you. If you obey Him, you shall be on right guidance. The
Messenger’s duty is only to preach the clear [message].”

Thus we see that the verses mentioned above give an injunction not to coerce people,
present the message to them in a decent and clear way, invite them to the truth and do
your best in presenting and conveying the message of Allah to humanity, while it is
totally up to them to accept or to reject it. Allah revealed to the Prophet (Pbuh): “And
say, ‘The truth is from your Lord, so whosoever wants let him believe and whosoever
wants let him deny.”

Here the question arises: if Allah gives us the choice to believe or not to believe and
prohibits the Prophet (Pbuh) not to use force or coercion against non-believers, why did
He punish the people of Prophet Nuh, the Thmud, the Lut and the people of Prophet
Shu’aib and the Pharaoh and his followers? The answer is found in the Qur’an itself.
Those people were not punished simply because of their disbelief but because of their
oppression of the righteous and because they stopped others to come to the way of Allah.
Ibn Taymiyah, the great scholar, said: “States may live long in spite of their people’s
disbelief (kufr), but they cannot live long when their people become oppressors.’’

Islam permits coercion and use of force only against those who fight Islam and Muslims.
Allah says, “Fight in the cause of Allah those who attack you, but do not transgress
limits; for Allah loves not transgressors.” The purpose of jihad is not to convert people to
Islam. The Qur’an says, ‘’La ikraha fi al-din” which means that there is no compulsion in
religion. The real purpose of jihad is to remove injustice, oppression and stop aggression.
Muslims are allowed to keep good relations with non-Muslims. The Qur’an says, ‘’Allah
does not forbid you that you show kindness and deal justly with those who did not fight
you in your religion and did not drive you out from your homes.”

Islam may tolerate anything but it teaches zero tolerance for injustice, oppression and
violation of the rights of other human beings. Allah says,

“And why should you not fight in the cause of Allah and of those who, being weak, are
ill-treated? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this
town whose people are oppressors, and rise for us from your side one who will protect,
and raise for us from your side one who will help.”

84
Islam teaches tolerance at all levels: between family members, between husband and
wife, between parent and child, between groups and nations. The Qur’an says: “O
Mankind! We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes
so that you might [affectionately] come to know one another. Surely, the most honored
among you, in the sight of Allah, is the one who is the best in conduct.” The best conduct
in Islam is to treat human beings with dignity, equality, fraternity and justice.

Thus tolerance is the need of the hour today as it was yesterday. We must emphasize the
need for this virtue among us and in the world. We must foster tolerance through
deliberate policies and efforts. Our focus should be multiethnic. We should teach our
children respect of each other irrespective of caste, creed, gender, nationality and
ethnicity. Tolerance is the cordial knot which binds the family and society, which keep
the nation intact. Disrespect gives rise to persons who may change the course of a nation.
We should inculcate in our children the quality of tolerance, forbearance, and forgiveness
because the family is the first school of citizenship. A child learns the lesson of life in the
manner it suckles in the lap of its mother. This always affects its mind, behavior and
culture. Only a healthy and cultured family can make a healthy and cultured nation which
is necessary to establish peace, prosperity and security in the world. Society cannot be
governed by law alone. Law has a relation with society. It suffers if society is rigid and
intolerant.

Tolerance on worldly calamities:

Patience and Tolerance is the key feature which leads to the self-purification that helps us
in bearing the problems of this world and stops us from indulging into the false pleasure.
Allah swt discusses about tolerance in Quran several times and advices his beloved
Prophet to be patient on the cruelty by the pagans of Mecca. As mentioned in Quran:

‫ين ُه ْم َمُْ ِسنُو ان‬ ِ َّ

‫ين اتَّ اق ْوا اوالذ ا‬
ِ َّ َّ ‫ إِ َّن‬،‫ضيْ ٍق ِِمَّا مياْ ُك ُرو ان‬
‫اَّللا ام اع الذ ا‬
َِّ ‫واصِب وما صب ر اك إََِّل ِِب‬
ُ ‫َّلل اواَل احتْ از ْن اعلاْي ِه ْم اواَل تا‬
‫ك ِِف ا‬ ُ ْ‫ا ْ ْ اا ا‬
“So be patient. Your patience is solely from God. And do not grieve over them and do
not get stressed by their schemes. God is with those who are righteous.” (Al-Nahl, v. 127)
And for other’s Allah swt advising them to be patient on every calamity they face in this
world as this world is temporary and full of calamities which would surely come in order
to testify our faith, and those who show patience, Allah will reward them limitless, as
mentioned in Quran:

‫اَّنا يوَّف الصابرون أجرهم بغري حساب‬

Only those who are patient shall receive their rewards in full, without reckoning/ without
limit. (Sura Zumur, v. 10)

85
Reasons of calamities in the world:
Disasters and calamities have been created for a reason, which none can fully
comprehend but Allah. Some of the things that Allah has shown to us indicate this.

1 – Disasters and calamities are a test of the believer’s patience. Allah says: “Or think
you that you will enter Paradise without such (trials) as came to those who passed away
before you? They were afflicted with severe poverty and ailments and were so shaken
that even the Messenger and those who believed along with him said, ‘When (will come)
the Help of Allah?’ Yes! Certainly, the Help of Allah is near!” (Al-Baqarah v: 214)

2 – This is a sign of man's weakness and his need for his Lord, and shows that he cannot
succeed unless he realizes his need for his Lord and starts beseeching Him.

3 – Calamities are a means of expiation of sin and raising one's status. The Prophet
(Pbuh) said: “There is nothing that befalls a believer, not even a thorn that pricks him, but
Allah will record one good deed for him and will remove one bad deed from him.” (Sahih
Muslim) It was narrated that Abu Hurayrah (r.a) said: The Messenger of Allah (Pbuh)
said: “Trials will continue to befall the believing man and woman, with regard to
themselves, their children and their wealth, until they meet Allah with no sin on them.
(Sunan Tirmazi)

4 – One of the reasons for calamities is so that people will not feel content only with this
world. If the world were free of calamities, man would love it more and feel content with
it, and would forget about the Hereafter. But calamities wake him up from his negligence
and make him strive for the place in which there are no calamities or trials.

5 – One of the greatest reasons behind calamities and trials is to warn against falling short
in some matters, so that man can make up for the areas in which he has fallen short. This
is like the warning that is issued to an employee or student who is falling short. The
purpose behind it is to make him make up for his shortcomings. If he does that, then all
well and good, otherwise he deserves to be punished. The evidence for that includes the
verse, i.e. “Verily, We sent (Messengers) to many nations before you (O Muhammad).
And We seized them with extreme poverty (or loss in wealth) and loss in health (with
calamities) so that they might humble themselves (believe with humility). When Our
Torment reached them, why then did they not humble themselves (believe with
humility)? But their hearts became hardened, and Shaytan (Satan) made fair‑seeming to
them that which they used to do.”[al-An’am 6:42]

6 - Another reason for calamities is as a punishment for those who were previously
warned, but did not benefit from the warning and mend their ways, and persisted in their
sin. Allah says (interpretation of the meaning): “…so We destroyed them for their sins
…” [al-Anfal 8:54] “And when We decide to destroy a town (population), We (first) send
a definite order (to obey Allah and be righteous) to those among them [or We (first)

86
increase in number those of its population] who lead a life of luxury. Then, they
transgress therein, and thus the word (of torment) is justified against it (them). Then We
destroy it with complete destruction.” [al-Isra v:16]

Ibn Taymiyah (may Allah have mercy on him) said: “Grief may be accompanied by that
for which a person will be rewarded and praised, so it may be good in that sense (not that
grief is good in and of itself) such as one who feels sad for falling short in religious
matters or for calamities that befall the Muslims. In this case a person will be rewarded
for what is in his heart of loving good and hating evil.”

7 – Worship at times of hardship and tribulation has a special flavor and a special reward.
It was narrated from Ma’qil ibn Yasar that the Prophet (Pbuh) said: “Worshipping at
times of tribulation is like migrating to join me.” (Sahih Muslim)

Imam Al-Nawawi said in the explanation of the above Hadith that, The reason why
worship at such times is of such great virtue is that people become negligent about
worship and are distracted from it, and no one focuses on worship except a few.”

8 – Blessings that come after pain, hardship and calamity are more precious to people. So
then they appreciate the blessings of good health and safety as they should be
appreciated. Another of the benefits of calamity is a reminder of how Allah has blessed
man, because the man who is created with sight – for example – forgets the blessing of
sight and does not really appreciate it, but if Allah tests him with temporary blindness,
then restores to him his sight, he will fully understand the value of this blessing. If things
are always easy a person may forget this blessing and not be grateful for it, so Allah takes
it away and then restores it, as a reminder to him to be grateful for it.

9 – The benefit of calamity is that it rescues man from negligence and alerts him to his
shortcomings in keeping his duty to Allah, so that he does not think that he is perfect,
which would lead to the hardening of his heart and negligence. Allah says (interpretation
of the meaning): “When Our torment reached them, why then did they not humble
themselves (believe with humility)? But their hearts became hardened, and Shaytan
(Satan) made fair‑seeming to them that which they used to do.”[al-An’am v:43]

10 – One of the benefits of tribulations and hardships is purification. Hardships reveal

how people really are, and distinguish the good from the bad, the true from the false, and
the believer from the hypocrite. Allah says of the Battle of Uhud and what happened to
the Muslims on that day, explaining part of the wisdom behind this trial (interpretation of
the meaning): “Allah will not leave the believers in the state in which you are now, until
He distinguishes the wicked from the good.” [Aal ‘Imran 3:179] So the true nature of all
things is shown clearly.
11 – When Muslims help those Muslims who have been afflicted by calamity, they will
be rewarded for that. The Prophet (Pbuh) said: “The likeness of the believers in their

87
mutual love, mercy and compassion is that of the body; when one part of it suffers, the
rest of the body joins it in staying awake and suffering fever.” (Sahih Bukhari)

And He (Pbuh) said: “None of you truly believes until he loves for his brother what he
loves for himself.” (Narrated by al-Bukhari)
12 – At times of hardship and war we see the true meaning of the words of Allah:
ِ ‫اْل ُِْث والْع ْدو‬ ِ ِ‫اوتا اع ااونُوا اعلاى ال‬
‫ان‬ ‫ْب اوالتَّ ْق اوى اواَل تا اع ااونُوا اعلاى ِْ ا ُ ا‬

“Help you one another in Al‑Birr and At‑Taqwa (virtue, righteousness and piety) but do
not help one another in sin and transgression.” [Al-Maidah v:2]

Religious tolerance: One of the most important aspects of the Human Rights issue is the
respect and tolerance which society must show towards the religions of other people; this,
of course, includes the issue of freedom of religion.

Allah explicitly teaches us this religious tolerance by telling Prophet that your core
responsibility is to call people towards Islam and declare the message of Allah. You are
not responsible for letting them embracing Islam.

َّ ‫غ او‬
‫اَّللُ يا ْعلام اما تُ ْب ُدو ان اواما تاكْتُ ُمو ان‬ ِ ‫الر ُس‬
ُ ‫ول إََِّل الْبا اال‬ َّ ‫اما اعلاى‬

“Not upon the Messenger is [responsibility] except [for] notification. And Allah knows
whatever you reveal and whatever you conceal”. (Sura Maida – 99)
ِ ‫اَّلل اِْس‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ُّ ‫الدي ِن قا ْد تا ب َّني‬
ِ ‫اَل إِ ْكراها ِِف‬
‫يم‬
ٌ ‫يع اعل‬ ‫ك ِِبلْ ُع ْراوة ال ُْوثْ اقى اَل انْف ا‬
ٌ َُّ ‫ص اام اِلاا او‬ ‫سا‬ ْ ‫الر ْش ُد م ان الْغا ِي فا ام ْن يا ْك ُف ْر ِِبلطَّاغُوت اويُ ْؤم ْن ِِب ََّّلل فا اقد‬
‫استا ْم ا‬ ‫اا‬ ‫ا‬
“There shall no compulsion in acceptance of the religion. The right course has become
clear from the wrong. So whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah has
grasped the most trustworthy handhold with no break in it. And Allah is knowing and
hearing.” (Sura A-Baqarah – 256)

.‫ِل ِمي ِن‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ

‫قُ ْل اَي أايُّ اها الْ اكاف ُرو ان اَل أا ْعبُ ُد اما تا ْعبُ ُدو ان اواَل أانْ تُ ْم اعاب ُدو ان اما أا ْعبُ ُد اواَل أا اَّن اعاب ٌد اما اعبا ْد ُُْت اواَل أانْ تُ ْم اعاب ُدو ان اما أا ْعبُ ُد لا ُك ْم مينُ ُك ْم اوِ ا‬
“O you, who do not believe, I worship not what you worship, and you are not
worshipping, what I worship. Nor am 1 worshipping what you worship; neither -are you
worshipping what I worship. Therefore to you, your religion, and to me my religion.”
(chap. 109)

Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, believes in prophets and messengers of God. One
interesting way of understanding the Islamic view on freedom of religion is to look at the
role of the prophets and messengers. Had they been sent to forcefully bring the people
into their teachings? Were Moses, Jesus and Muhammad Pbuh ordered by the Almighty
to impose their teachings upon the people by sword? Absolutely not! Look at the Qur'an,
the holy scripture of Islam; the revealed words of God where He clearly outlines the duty
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of his mes-sengers by saying: “There is no (obligation) on messenger except to deliver
(the message). God knows what yon expose and what conceal”. (Al-Maidah, v: 99).

Once the people of Mecca said to Prophet Muhammad that if God did not want them to
worship idols then why He does not forcefully prevent them from doing so. Then God
sent the following message:

‫آِب ُؤاَّن اواَل اح َّرْمناا ِم ْن ُمونِِه ِم ْن اش ْي ٍء اك اذلِ ا‬

‫ين ِم ْن قا ْبلِ ِه ْم فا اه ْل‬ ِ َّ ٍ ِ ِِ ِ َّ ‫اء‬ ِ َّ ‫وقا ا‬
‫ك فا اع ال الذ ا‬ ‫اَّللُ اما اعبا ْد اَّن م ْن ُمونه م ْن اش ْيء اَْن ُن اواَل ا‬ ‫ين أا ْش ارُكوا ل ْاو اش ا‬ ‫ال الذ ا‬ ‫ا‬
ُ ِ‫الر ُس ِل إََِّل الْبا االغُ ال ُْمب‬
‫ني‬ ُّ ‫اعلاى‬

“And those who associate others with Allah say, "If Allah had willed, we would not have
worshipped anything other than Him, neither we nor our fathers, nor would we have
forbidden anything through other than Him." Thus did those do before them. So is there
upon the messengers except [the duty of] clear notification.” (Sura Nahl – 35)
So we see that from the Qur'anic point of view, the mission of the prophets and
messengers of God was not to forcefully impose their teachings on the people but to
guide them and ask them to accept God with their own will.

Example from Prophet’s Life:

The dealings of the Prophet, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, with other
religions can best be described in the verse of the Quran: “To you be your religion, to me
be mine.”

The Arabian Peninsula during the time of the Prophet was a region in which various
faiths were present. There were Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, polytheists, and others
not affiliated with any religion. When one looks into the life of the Prophet, one may
draw on many examples to portray the high level of tolerance shown to people of other
faiths.
In order to understand and judge this tolerance, one must look into the period in which
Islam was a formal state, with the specific laws laid down by the Prophet in accordance
with the tenets of religion. Even though one can observe many examples of tolerance
shown by the Prophet in the thirteen years of his stay in Mecca, one may incorrectly think
that it was only due to seeking to raise the profile of the Muslims and the social status of
Islam and in general. For this reason, the discussion will be limited to the period which
commenced with the migration of the Prophet to Medina, and specifically once the
constitution was set.
The best example of the tolerance shown by the Prophet to other religions may be the
constitution itself, called the ‘Saheefah’ by early historians. When the Prophet migrated
to Medina, his role as a mere religious leader ended; he was now the political leader of a
state, governed by the precepts of Islam, which demanded that clear laws of governance

89
be laid out to ensure harmony and stability in a society which once had been distraught
by decades of war, one which must ensure the peaceful coexistence of Muslims, Jews,
Christians and polytheists. Due to this, the Prophet laid down a ‘constitution’ which
detailed the responsibilities of all parties which resided in Medina, their obligations
towards each other, and certain restrictions which were placed on each. All parties were
to obey what was mentioned therein, and any breach of its articles was regarded as an act
of treachery.

As a Nation: The first article of the constitution was that all the inhabitants of Medina,
the Muslims as well as those who had entered the pact from the Jews, Christian, and
idolaters, were “one nation to the exclusion of all others.” All were considered members
and citizens of Medina society regardless of religion, race, or ancestry. People of other
faiths were protected from harm as much as the Muslims, as is stated in another article,
“To the Jews who follow us belong help and equity. He shall not be harmed nor his
enemies be aided.” Previously, each tribe had their alliances and enemies within and
without Medina. The Prophet gathered these different tribes under one system of
governance which upheld pacts of alliances previously in existence between those
individual tribes. All tribes had to act as a whole with disregard to individual alliances.
Any attack on other religion or tribe was considered an attack on the state and upon the
Muslims as well. The lives of the practitioners of other religions in the Muslim society
was also given protective status. The Prophet said: “Whoever kills a person who has a
truce with the Muslims will never smell the fragrance of Paradise.” (Sahih Muslim)

Since the upper hand was with the Muslims, the Prophet strictly warned against any
maltreatment of people of other faiths. He said: “Beware! Whoever is cruel and hard on
a non-Muslim minority, or curtails their rights, or burdens them with more than they can
bear, or takes anything from them against their free will; I (Prophet Muhammad) will
complain against the person on the Day of Judgment.” (Abu Dawud)
To Each Their Own Religion: In another article, it states, “the Jews have their religion
and the Muslims have theirs.” In this, it is clear that anything other than tolerance would
not be tolerated, and that, although all were members of a society, each had their separate
religion which could not be violated. Each was allowed to practice their beliefs freely
without any hindrances, and no acts of provocation would be tolerated.

There are many other articles of this constitution which may be discussed, but emphasis
will be placed on an article which states, “If any dispute or controversy likely to cause
trouble should arise, it must be referred to God and His Messenger.” This clause
maintained that all inhabitants of the state must recognize a higher level of authority, and
in those matters which involved various tribes and religions, justice could not be meted
out by individual leaders; rather it must be adjudicated by the leader of the state himself
or his designated representatives. It was allowed, however, for individual tribes who were

90
not Muslims, to refer to their own religious scriptures and their learned men in regards to
their own personal affairs. They could though, if they opted, ask the Prophet to judge
between them in their matters. God says in the Quran:

ْ ‫اح ُك ْم با ْي نا ُه ْم أ ْاو أا ْع ِر‬

‫ض اع ْن ُه ْم‬ ‫فاِإ ْن اجاءُ ا‬
ْ ‫وك فا‬

“If they do come to you, either judge between them or decline to interfere...” (Sura al-
Maida, v: 42)
Here we see that the Prophet allowed each religion to judge in their own matters
according to their own scriptures, as long as it did not stand in opposition to articles of
the constitution, a pact which took into account the greater benefit of the peaceful co-
existence of the society.

Stages of Tolerance:
1. Obligatory tolerance: i.e. on the obedience of Allah, in the abstention of sins and
on calamities like illness, poverty, etc.

2. Recommended tolerance: i.e. from being not unethical like getting angry on
every things that goes wrong, not to mourn like the people of jahiliyah, etc.

3. Haram tolerance: i.e. stop eating and drinking which lead a person to die or to
put oneself into the danger like to fight with wild animals or to jump into fire or
anything which may take person’s life even if he can defend himself or not to stop
someone from doing haram thing if you can stop him, etc.

Ways to get tolerance:

1. Faith in the good reward of akhira: Allah swt has prepared great reward for the
“sabireen” in the hereafter, as mentioned in Quran:

‫صبا ُروا‬ ِ َّ ِ‫ات لانُ ب ِوئا نَّهم ِمن ا ْجلن َِّة غُرفاا اجتْ ِري ِمن احتْتِها ْاألانْهار اخالِ ِدين فِيها نِعم أاجر الْع ِامل‬ ِ َّ ‫والَّ ِذين آمنُوا و اع ِملُوا‬
ِ ‫احل‬
‫ين ا‬
‫ني الذ ا‬‫ا ا ْا ُْ ا ا‬ ُ‫ا‬ ‫ْ ا‬ ‫ا ُْ ا ا ا‬ ‫الص ا‬ ‫ا ا ا ا‬
‫او اعلاى ارِبِِ ْم ياتا اوَّكلُو ان‬

“And those who have believed and done righteous deeds - We will surely assign
to them of Paradise [elevated] chambers beneath which rivers flow, wherein they
abide eternally. Excellent is the reward for the workers who endure patiently and
they trust in their Lord.” (Al-Ankaboot, 58-59)

2. By perception of his own creation: When a person thinks of his own creation
that he was nothing then Allah made him into existence, there will be no
arrogance in his heart in order to accept the reality and that he is not permanent in
this world, and will have to die one day. And all the sufferings will end will that.
Allah swt has explained the characteristics of those people in Quran: “Give good

91
 news to the sabireen, those who, when a calamity afflicts them, says: To God we
belong and to Him we will return.” (Al-Baqarah, 155-156)

3. Faith on Predestination: Every Muslim should believe as it is the part of the

Islamic doctrine that what Allah predestined for a person will eventually fulfilled
and that would be in favor of that person, as Allah swt says in Quran:

‫ري‬ ِ َِّ ‫ك اعلاى‬

‫اب ِم ْن قا ْب ِل أا ْن نا ْب ارأ ااها إِ َّن اذلِ ا‬
ٍ ‫ض اواَل ِِف أانْ ُف ِس ُك ْم إََِّل ِِف كِتا‬ ِ ‫ما أاصاب ِمن م‬
ِ ‫صيبا ٍة ِِف ْاأل ْار‬
ٌ ‫اَّلل ياس‬ ُْ ‫ا ا ا‬

“No disaster strikes upon the earth or among yourselves except that it is in the
register before We bring it into being - indeed that, for Allah is easy. (Al-Hadid,
v. 22)

4. Hope for better: Allah has created human with a nature of hastening that what he
wills, wants to get in a jiffy. As mentioned in Quran:

‫سا ُن ِم ْن اع اج ٍل‬ ِْ ‫ُخلِ اق‬

‫اْلنْ ا‬
“The human being was created of haste”. (Al-Anbia, 37)

As a result, if he does not get it at the first attempt, he would start panicking.
Nothing in this world will stay in its same term, so after hardship there should be
easiness. As mentioned in Quran:
“God will bring ease after hardship.” (Al-talaq, 7)

5. Comparing the catastrophe with others: Allah swt has given man countless
blessings, and he should be thankful to Allah swt in every aspect of life. Even if
he gets any displeasure in this life, he would still be thankful to Allah because
there are many others who are in worst conditions than yours. As what Prophet
Pbuh said: “O people! When any of you gets any displeasure, he should feel
glorified as no one will get the displeasure like of mine as I got the worst of all.
(Ibn-e-majah)
6. Sense of shame and fear: When a person commits a sin he should have to think
that to whom I am disobeying. He should fear from Allah as his punishment is
unbearable.

92
3.2 Forgiveness

Linguistically it means “to go back or to return”, literally it means “to step back from the
sins or disobedience and returned towards Allah swt”. So the forgiveness is based on two
things: “one is to stop committing sins and second is to return towards the right path.”

Prophet Pbuh was instructed by Allah swt to seek forgiveness so many times in Quran
like in Sura al-Nasr:

‫استا غْ ِف ْرهُ إِنَّهُ اكا ان تا َّو ااِب‬ ‫سبِ ْح ِِبا ْم ِد اربِ ا‬

ْ ‫ك او‬ ‫فا ا‬
“Then exalt (Him) with praise of your Lord and ask forgiveness of Him, indeed He is
ever acceptance of forgiveness.” (Sura al-Nasr – 3)

He Pbuh was innocent and infallible and in no need for forgiveness but still Allah
instructed him to seek forgiveness as with it Allah elevate his rank. Prophet Pbuh said “I
seek forgiveness more than 70 times a day”. (Sahih Bukhari)
And for us it is farz as we all are guilty of committing crimes. We are not free from the
tensions of world, from the negligence of Allah swt, from the whispering of satin, etc. So
in every stage of life we need forgiveness of Allah swt. As mentioned in Hadith: “Prophet
Pbuh said: All of the children of Adam are sinners, and the best of sinners are those who
repent.” (Sunan Ibn-e-Majah)

Characteristics of Tauba:
Allah loves those who repent. As mentioned in Hadith that Prophet Pbuh called those
who repents are the best among the others: as mentioned: “All of the children of Adam
are sinners, and the best of sinners are those who repent.” (Sunan Ibn-e-Majah)

Moreover Prophet Pbuh said: “A person once went on a journey through the desert. He
had his camel and all the basic necessities of journey like food and water on it.
Accidently he lost his camel while sleeping. He searched a lot but couldn’t find it. He laid
down with all his hopes vanished for life. Suddenly he fall asleep and when he woke up,
sees that his camel with all his belongings, standing in front of him. He got too excited as
like his life returns to him and in this excitement he said: O Allah I am your Lord and you
are my servant. In addition, Prophet Pbuh said, Allah loves his abd even more than that.
(Sahih Muslim)

Allah loves a person who seeks forgiveness, as Prophet Pbuh said in Hadith-e-Qudsi: “I
am as My servant thinks (expects) I am. I am with him when he mentions Me. If he
mentions Me to himself, I mention him to Myself; and if he mentions Me in an assembly,
I mention him in an assembly greater than his. If he draws near to Me of hand’s length, I
draw near to him an arm’s length. And if he comes to Me walking, I go towards to him
running.” (Sahih Bukhari)

93
Allah swt joined His name with mercy. As whenever we start reading Quran or doing
something we recite, as: “Begin with the name of Allah who is the most merciful and the
most beneficent”. Allah might have said that Begin with the name of Allah whose
punishment is very sever instead He swt mentioned His name with mercy. And in every
Salah, we read in every rakat as: (‫الرِحي ِم‬
َّ ‫الر َْحا ِن‬ ‫ب ال اْعال ِام ا‬
َّ ‫ني‬ َِِّ ‫ )ا ْحلم ُد‬i.e. All the praises and thanks
ِ ‫َّلل ار‬ ْ‫ا‬
to Allah, the Lord of everything, the most Beneficent and the most Merciful. (Sura al-
Fatiha, v. 1-2). So we should seek forgiveness and mercy from Allah swt every time as it
is one of the great characteristics of Allah swt among other attributes of Him.

Do not get hope-less: Allah’s mercy is more than anything else even more than His
anger, as mentioned in Hadith: “That My mercy is dominant over My anger” (Sahih
Bukhari). Even if your crimes reach to the level of the mightiest mountains or even to the
sky still Allah except your forgiveness. As mentioned in Hadith: “If you have committed
any crime, then perform two nafil with the intention of repentance and seek forgiveness,
Allah surely forgives you.” (Musnad Ahmed)
Declaration of Allah swt: Allah says in Quran:

‫الرِحيم‬ ِ
ُ ‫وب امج ايعا إِنَّهُ ُه او الْغاُف‬
َّ ‫ور‬ ُّ ‫اَّللا ياغْ ِف ُر‬
‫الذنُ ا‬
َِّ ‫امي الَّ ِذين أاسرفُوا علاى أانْ ُف ِس ِهم اَل تا ْقنطُوا ِمن ر َْح ِة‬
َّ ‫اَّلل إِ َّن‬ ‫ْ اا‬ ‫ا‬ ْ ‫قُ ْل اَي عبا ِ ا ا ْ ا ا‬
ِ

“Say, O My servants who have transgressed against themselves, do not despair of God’s
mercy, for God forgives all sins. He is indeed the forgiver, the clement.” (Al-Zumar, 53)
Allah swt changes the bad deeds into good deeds in reward of repentance:

‫اب‬
ُ ‫ف لاهُ الْعا اذ‬ْ ‫اع‬
‫ضا‬ ‫ْق أ ااَث اما يُ ا‬ ‫اَّللُ إََِّل ِِب ْحلا ِق اواَل يا ْزنُو ان اوام ْن يا ْف اع ْل ذالِ ا‬
‫ك يال ا‬ َّ ‫س الَِِّت اح َّرام‬ ِ َِّ ‫ين اَل يا ْدعُو ان ام اع‬ ِ َّ
‫اَّلل إ اِلاا آ اخ ار اواَل يا ْقتُ لُو ان النَّ ْف ا‬ ‫اوالذ ا‬
ِ ‫اَّلل غا ُف‬ ٍ ‫اَّلل سيِةااِتِِم ح‬ ِ ‫احلا فاأُولاةِ ا‬ ِ ‫ي وم ال ِْقيام ِة وَياْلُ ْد فِ ِيه مه ااَّن إََِّل من اَتب وآمن و اع ِمل اعم اال‬
‫ب‬
‫يما اوام ْن اَت ا‬ ‫سناات اواكا ان َُّ ا‬
‫ورا ارح ا‬ ‫ك يُباد ُل َُّ ا ْ ا ا‬ ‫ص ا‬‫اْ ا ا اا ا ا ا ا‬ ‫ُا‬ ‫اْ ا ا ا ا‬
َِّ ‫وب إِ اَل‬ ِ ‫و اع ِمل‬
‫اَّلل امتا ااِب‬ ُ ُ‫صاحلاا فاِإنَّهُ يات‬
‫ا ا ا‬

“And those who do not invoke with Allah another deity or kill the soul which Allah has
forbidden [to be killed], except by right, and do not commit unlawful sexual intercourse.
And whoever should do that will meet a penalty. Multiplied for him is the punishment on
the Day of Resurrection, and he will abide therein humiliated. Except for those who
repent, believe and do righteous work. For them Allah will replace their evil deeds with
good. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful. And he who repents and does
righteousness does indeed turn to Allah with repentance.” (Sura Furqan, 68-71)
Allah swt declaring us through the Prophet Pbuh:

‫اب ْاألالِيم‬ َّ ‫يم اوأ‬ ِ َّ ‫امي أِاين أا اَّن الْغا ُفور‬

ِ ‫نابِئ ِعب‬
ُ ‫ان اع اذ ِاّب ُه او ال اْع اذ‬ ُ ‫الرح‬ ُ ‫ْ ا‬

“[O Muhammad], inform My servants that it is I who am the Forgiving, the Merciful.
And that it is My punishment which is the painful punishment. (Sura Hijr, 49-50)

94
Prophet Pbuh said that “Allah swt stretches His hand at night in order to forgive those
who committed sins in the morning and stretches His hand in the morning in order to
forgive who committed sins at night.

Promise of Allah swt: At the time when Allah swt expelled the satin from heaven, he
declared to Almighty Allah that he will deviate His people. Upon it Allah swt also made
a promise to him that whenever they ask forgiveness from me, I will forgive them. As
mentioned in Quran:
ِ ِ َّ ‫ض اال و‬ ِ ِ ِ َّ ‫ش ِاء و‬ ِ
‫يم‬
ٌ ‫اَّللُ اواس ٌع اعل‬ ‫اَّللُ ياع ُد ُك ْم امغْف اراة منْهُ اوفا ْ ا‬ ‫الش ْيطاا ُن ياع ُد ُك ُم الْ اف ْق ار او اَي ُْم ُرُك ْم ِِبلْ اف ْح ا ا‬
َّ
“Satan threatens you with poverty and orders you to immorality, while Allah promises
you forgiveness from Him and bounty. And Allah is all-Encompassing and knowing.”
(Sura Bakara – 268)

Hasting in seeking forgiveness: Quran emphasizes a lot that we should seek forgiveness
as soon as possible so to avoid Allah wrath that comes on sinner, as mentioned in
glorious Quran:
ِ ِ ِ ‫وأانِيبوا إِ اَل ربِ ُكم وأ‬
‫ص ُرو ان‬ ُ ‫اسل ُموا لاهُ م ْن قا ْب ِل أا ْن اَيْتيا ُك ُم ال اْع اذ‬
‫اب ُُثَّ اَل تُ ْن ا‬ ْ ‫ا ْا‬ ُ ‫ا‬

“And return [in repentance] to your Lord and submit to Him before the punishment
comes upon you; then you will not be helped.” (Sura Zumar, v.54)

‫ٌ إِ اَل يا ْوِم يُبْ اعثُو ان‬

ٌ ‫ت اك َّال إِنَّ اها اكلِ امةٌ ُه او قاائِلُ اها اوِم ْن اوارائِ ِه ْم با ْراز‬
ُ ‫يما تا ارْك‬ ِ ِ ‫ون لاعلِي أا ْعمل‬
‫صاحلاا ف ا‬
‫اُ ا‬
ِ ِ ِ ‫ال ر‬
‫ب ْارجعُ ا‬‫ت قا ا ا‬
ُ ‫اح اد ُه ُم ال اْم ْو‬ ‫اح ََّّت إِذاا اج ا‬
‫اء أ ا‬

“[For such is the state of the disbelievers], until, when death comes to one of them, he
says, "My Lord, send me back. That I might do righteousness in that which I left behind."
No! It is only a word he is saying; and behind them is a barrier until the Day they are
resurrected.” (Sura Mu’minoon, v.99-100)

Have competition in seeking forgiveness: Allah swt advising us to compete each other
in seeking forgiveness. As mentioned in Quran:
َّ ‫شاءُ او‬
‫اَّللُ ذُو‬ َِّ ‫ضل‬
‫اَّلل يُ ْؤتِ ِيه ام ْن يا ا‬ ُ ْ ‫ك فا‬
َِّ ‫َّت لِلَّ ِذين آمنوا ِِب‬
‫َّلل اوُر ُسلِ ِه ذالِ ا‬ ُ‫ا ا‬ ْ ‫ُعد‬ ِ ‫الس ام ِاء او ْاأل ْار‬
ِ‫ض أ‬ َّ ‫ض‬ ُ ‫اسابِ ُقوا إِ اَل امغْ ِف ارةٍ ِم ْن اربِ ُك ْم او اجن ٍَّة اع ْر‬
ِ ‫ض اها اك اع ْر‬
‫ض ِل ال اْع ِظيم‬ْ ‫الْ اف‬

“Race toward forgiveness from your Lord and a Garden whose width is like the width of
the heavens and earth, prepared for those who believed in Allah and His messengers.
That is the bounty of Allah which He gives to whom He wills, and Allah is the possessor
of great bounty.” (Sura Hadid, v.21)

Prophets mission: Every Prophet had one thing common that all of them call their
nations towards Allah swt and His forgiveness, as mentioned in Quran at various places
about the Prophets. As for Adam a.s when he committed mistake by eating the forbidden

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fruit in heavens, Allah swt taught Adam a.s the wording by which Allah accepted their
repentance. As mentioned in Quran:
‫الرِحيم‬
َّ ‫اب‬ َّ ‫اب اعلاْي ِه إِنَّهُ ُه او الت‬
ُ ‫َّو‬
ٍ ِ ِ ِ ‫فا تا لا َّقى ا‬
‫آم ُم م ْن اربِه اكل امات فا تا ا‬
“Then Adam a.s receive words from his Lord, so he relented towards him. Allah is the
relenting and the merciful.” (Al-Baqarah, 37)
As for Hud a.s:
‫اء اعلايْ ُك ْم ِم ْد ار اارا اويا ِز ْم ُك ْم قُ َّو اة إِ اَل قُ َّوتِ ُك ْم اواَل تا تا اولَّ ْوا ُُْ ِرِمني‬ ِ
َّ ‫استا غْ ِف ُروا اربَّ ُك ْم ُُثَّ تُوبُوا إِلايْ ِه يُ ْر ِس ِل‬
‫الس ام ا‬ ْ ‫اواَي قا ْوم‬
“O my people, ask forgiveness from your Lord and repent to Him. He will release the sky
pouring down upon you, and will add strength to your strength”. (Hud, 52)

As for Saleh a.s:

‫استا غْ ِف ُروهُ ُُثَّ تُوبُوا إِل ْاي ِه إِ َّن ارِّب‬ ِ
ْ ‫استا ْع ام ارُك ْم ف ايها فا‬ ِ ‫شأا ُك ْم ِم ان ْاأل ْار‬
ْ ‫ض او‬ َّ ‫ال اَيقا ْوِم ا ْعبُ ُدوا‬
‫اَّللا اما لا ُك ْم ِم ْن إِل ٍاه غا ْي ُرهُ ُه او أانْ ا‬ ِ ‫اُوم أا اخاهم ص‬
‫احلاا قا ا‬ ‫اوإِ اَل َث ا ُ ْ ا‬
ٌ ُُِ ‫يب‬
‫يب‬ ٌ ‫قا ِر‬
“And to the thamood, (we sent) their brother Saleh. He said: O my people, worship God,
you have no God other than Him. He initiated you from the earth, and settled you in it. So
seek his forgiveness and repent to Him.” (Hud, 61)
As for Shuaib a.s:
ِ ِ ِ ‫و‬
ٌ ‫استا غْف ُروا اربَّ ُك ْم ُُثَّ تُوبُوا إِل ْايه إِ َّن ارِّب ارح‬
‫يم او ُموم‬ ْ ‫ا‬
“And ask your Lord for forgiveness and repent to Him. My Lord is Merciful and
Loving.” (Hud, 90)

Types of Tauba:
1. Specific tauba: i.e. to ask forgiveness of the specific action and from every kind
relating to that action, which a person committed, e.g. if a person drinks alcohol
then stop from it and from every kind of it.

2. General tauba: i.e. generally asking forgiveness of Allah every time even from
the actions which are not swear like being unethical, or to do something makrooh,
etc.

Conditions of Tauba:
1. Islam: Tauba is not valid unless a person is Muslim, while for the non-Muslim
his tauba would be entering into the folds of Islam. Allah says in the Quran:

‫ض اال اَل با ِعي ادا‬ َِّ ‫شاء ومن ي ْش ِر ْك ِِب‬ ِ ‫اَّلل اَل ي غْ ِفر أا ْن ي ْشر اك بِ ِه وي غْ ِفر ما ُمو ان ذالِ ا‬ ِ
‫ض َّل ا‬
‫َّلل فا اق ْد ا‬ ُ ْ ‫ك ل ام ْن يا ا ُ ا ا‬ ‫اا ُ ا‬ ‫إ َّن َّا ا ُ ُ ا‬
God will not forgive that He be associated with partners, and forgive anything less
than that to whom He wills.” (Al-Nisa, 116)

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2. Sincerity: That means to leave and repent on sin, should be for the sake of Allah
swt not by being fear of someone or due to being pressurized by someone or for
showing purpose i.e. Riya, etc. Allah says in Quran:
ِ ِ ‫احلا واَل ي ْش ِر ْك بِ ِعب ا‬
ِ ‫فامن اكا ان ي رجو لِ اقاء ربِ ِه فالْي عمل اعم اال‬
‫امة اربِه أ ا‬
‫اح ادا‬ ‫ا‬ ُ ‫ص ا ا‬ ‫اْ ُ ا ا ا ْ ا ْ ا ا‬ ْ‫ا‬

“Whoever hopes to meet his Lord, let him work righteousness and never associate
anyone with the service of Lord”. (Al-Kahf, 110)
3. Repentance: There is no tauba but with the sin, and It is very important to know
the things which comes under the category of sins, so when a person understand
that what I am doing is an act of sin, and that I am disobeying my Lord, then he
should feel repentance on his actions. Moreover, this repentance is the beginning
of tauba i.e. if a person start feeling shame upon his bad actions, as what the
Prophet Pbuh said: “repentance is the tauba”. (Ibn-e-Maja). This repentance leads
a person in abstaining from that bad act and stopping him from committing it
again.

4. Firm intention: i.e. firm Determination follows from regret, which means “to
determine not to return to a sin again”. Allah says in Quran:

‫آم ام ِم ْن قا ْب ُل فا نا ِس اي اواملْ اِجن ْد لاهُ اع ْزاما‬

‫اولا اق ْد اع ِه ْد اَّن إِ اَل ا‬
“And We covenanted with Adam before but he forgot and We found him in less
determined.” (Taha, 115)

5. Give back the right of a person: Prophet Pbuh said: “if any of you had any right
of his brother then settle it in this world, before a time comes when no dirham or
dinar would give any benefit. Moreover, the ransom be paid in exchange of good
deeds.” (Bukhari)

6. Tauba should be in the time of acceptance: it has two things:

 Tauba should be before death or even before the state of naza’. As Allah says
in Quran:
ِ َّ ُ ْ‫ال إِِين تُب‬ ِ ‫السيِةا‬
‫ات اح ََّّت إِذاا اح ا‬ ِِ ِ ْ‫ولاي‬
ٌ ‫ين مياُوتُو ان او ُه ْم ُك َّف‬
‫ار‬ ‫ت ْادآل ان اواَل الذ ا‬ ‫ت قا ا‬
ُ ‫اح اد ُه ُم ال اْم ْو‬
‫ض ار أ ا‬ ‫ست الت َّْوباةُ للَّذ ا‬
َّ ‫ين يا ْع املُو ان‬ ‫ا ا‬
‫يما‬ ِ ‫أُولاةِ ا‬
‫ك أا ْعتا ْد اَّن اِلُ ْم اع اذ ااِب أال ا‬
“But repentance is not available for those who commit evils untill when death
approaches on of them, he says: Now I repent, nor for those who die as
disbelievers. For them we have prepared a painful punishment.” (Al-Nisa, 18)

 Tauba should be before the closing of time of acceptance, i.e. a time when sun
will rise from the west and sets in the east. As Prophet Pbuh said: “Whoever

97
 ask forgiveness of Allah before the sun rise from west, Allah will surely
forgive him. After that it won’t be acceptable.” (Sahih Muslim)

Benefits of Tauba:
1. Cause of love of Allah swt: Allah loves those who seek forgiveness from Him, as
mentioned in Quran:
ُّ ‫ني اوُِحي‬
‫ب ال ُْمتاطا ِه ِر ا‬
‫ين‬ ‫َّوابِ ا‬ ُّ ‫اَّللا ُِحي‬
َّ ‫ب الت‬ َّ ‫إِ َّن‬
Allah loves the repentant and He loves those who keep clean.” (Al-Bakarah, 222)
2. Changing of bad deeds into good deeds: Allah will not only forgives but due to
this virtue Allah change the bad deeds in to good deeds, as declared in the Quran:
ِ ‫اَّلل غا ُف‬ ٍ ‫اَّلل سيِةااِتِِم ح‬ ِ ‫احلا فاأُولاةِ ا‬
ِ ‫إََِّل من اَتب وآمن و اع ِمل اعم اال‬
‫يما‬ ‫سناات اواكا ان َُّ ا‬
‫ورا ارح ا‬ ‫ك يُباد ُل َُّ ا ْ ا ا‬ ‫ص ا‬ ‫اْ ا ا اا ا ا ا ا‬

“Except for those who repent, and believe, and do good deeds. For then Allah
replace their bad deeds with good deeds. Allah is ever forgiving and merciful.”
(Al-Furqan, 70)
Moreover Prophet Pbuh said: “When a person sincerely repents, will becomes like
he never committed that sin.” (Sunan ibn-e-majah)
3. Cause of safety from calamities: Allah says in the Quran:

‫اَّللُ ُم اع ِذبا ُه ْم او ُه ْم يا ْستا غْ ِف ُرو ان‬ ‫اَّللُ لِيُ اع ِذبا ُه ْم اوأانْ ا‬

َّ ‫ت فِي ِه ْم اواما اكا ان‬ َّ ‫اواما اكا ان‬

“God would not punish them while you are amongst them. And God would not
punish them as long as they seek forgiveness.” (Al-Anfal, 33)
4. Cause of better life in this world: Allah says in Quran:

ُ ‫ضلاهُ اوإِ ْن تا اولَّ ْوا فاِإِين أا اخ‬

‫اف اعلا ْي ُك ْم‬ ْ ‫ت ُك َّل ِذي فا‬
ْ ‫ض ٍل فا‬ ِ ‫اعا حسناا إِ اَل أاج ٍل مس امى وي ْؤ‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ
ُ‫ا ُ ا ا‬ ‫استا غْف ُروا اربَّ ُك ْم ُُثَّ تُوبُوا إل ْايه ميُات ْع ُك ْم امتا ا ا ا‬ ْ ‫اوأان‬
‫اب يا ْوٍم اكبِ ٍري‬
‫اع اذ ا‬

“And ask your Lord for forgiveness and repent to Him. He will provide you with
good sustenance until a stated term and will bestow His grace on every possessor
of virtue.” (Al-Hud, 3)

Forgiveness among people

Explaining forgiveness among people, we the very best example from the history that
when Ayesha r.a was slandered with evil law, one of the people who was spreading
rumors was Mistah a family member of Abu Bakr r.a as his mother was the cousin of His
r.a. Moreover, He r.a use to help him with financial support, helped him to buy a house,
helped him to marry and at the end he returned the favor by accusing his cousin Ayesha
r.a. the mother of believers, the daughter of Abu Bakr r.a, and the wife of Prophet Pbuh.

98
So when Abu Bakr r.a heard of him saying this to whom he had financed, he swore an
oath that I will not spend a single penny as long as I am alive.
Upon this Allah swt revealed versed of sura Noor saying:

َّ ‫ص اف ُحوا أ ااَل ُِحتبُّو ان أا ْن ياغْ ِف ار‬ َِّ ‫يل‬ِ ِ‫ين ِِف اسب‬ ِ ِ ‫ُوِل الْ ُقرب والْم‬ ِ َّ ‫ض ِل ِم ْن ُكم و‬
ُ‫اَّلل‬ ْ ‫اَّلل اولْيا ْع ُفوا اولْيا‬ ‫ني اوال ُْم اهاج ِر ا‬ ‫الس اعة أا ْن يُ ْؤتُوا أ ِ ْ ا ا ا ا‬
‫ساك ا‬ ‫ْ ا‬ ْ ‫اواَل اَيْتا ِل أُولُو الْ اف‬
ِ ‫اَّلل غا ُف‬
‫يم‬
ٌ ‫ور ارح‬ ٌ َُّ ‫لا ُك ْم او‬

“And let not those of virtue among you and wealth swear not to give [aid] to their
relatives and the needy and the emigrants for the cause of Allah, and let them pardon and
overlook. Would you not like that Allah should forgive you? And Allah is Forgiving and
Merciful.” (Sura Noor, v.22)

Anybody who deserve to be angry, anyone who deserve to cut the kinship, anyone who
deserve to swear an oath, he would be Abu Bakr r.a. as it was not just sarcastic comments
but an evil lie upon his beloved daughter, an evil lie upon the mother of the believers, an
evil lie upon the wife of the Prophet Pbuh. But when Abu Bakr r.a heard this verse that
Allah is addressing him in this verse by saying O Abu Bakr you are among the “ulul fadl”
(the righteous and noble person), you are not like others. You are the one who should
forgive. By this Abu Bakr r.a. forgive the Mistah and continue with financial support.

This is the nature of the world that you will find people hurting you, they will take what
is yours and in return you will do the same thing. Then what is the philosophy of Islam in
this? Islam gives the concept of “al-tasamuh” “al-‘afwu” i.e. to forgive and pardon
people. Allah swt links the forgiveness with heavens that if you want to go to the heavens
and need the love of Allah, then be forgivable to people, as explained in Quran:

‫ني‬ ِ ِ ْ ‫ُعد‬ ِ ‫ات و ْاألارض أ‬ ُ ‫او اسا ِر ُعوا إِ اَل امغْ ِف ارةٍ ِم ْن اربِ ُك ْم او اجن ٍَّة اع ْر‬
‫َّت لل ُْمتَّق ا‬ ُ ْ ‫الس ام ااو ُ ا‬
َّ ‫ض اها‬

“And hasten to forgiveness from your Lord and a garden as wide as the heavens and
earth, prepared for the righteous. (Sura al-Imran, v.133)
Moreover, Allah swt also explains the characteristics of the believers as:
ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ َّ ‫الَّ ِذين ي نْ ِف ُقو ان ِِف‬
‫ب ال ُْم ْحسنِ ا‬
‫ني‬ ُّ ‫اَّللُ ُِحي‬ ِ ‫ني اع ِن الن‬
َّ ‫َّاس او‬ ‫ظ اوال اْعاف ا‬ ‫الس َّراء اوالض ََّّراء اوالْ اكاظ ِم ا‬
‫ني الْغايْ ا‬ ُ‫ا‬

“The believers are those who spend in charity during ease and hardship and who restrain
their anger and pardon the people, for Allah loves the doers of good.” (Al- Imran, 134)
ِ
ِ ُّ ‫اَّلل إِنَّه اَل ُِحي‬ ِ ٍ
‫ب الظَّال ِم ا‬
‫ني‬ ُ َّ ‫اج ُرهُ اعلاى‬ ْ ‫او اج ازاءُ اسيِةاة اسيِةاةٌ مثْ لُ اها فا ام ْن اع افا اوأ‬
ْ ‫اصلا اح فاأ‬

“And the retribution for an evil act is an evil one like it, but whoever pardons and makes
reconciliation - his reward is [due] from Allah. Indeed, He does not like wrongdoers.”
(Sura Shura, v.40)

99
Islam also teaches us how to take revenge and specifies its limits, as in the verse above,
Allah swt explains four different levels of treating people, and it is up to you what you
will choose:

1. Haram (forbidden): Taking revenge more than what other person did to you is
totally not acceptable in Islam, as you will become cruel and you owe him your good
deeds in the hereafter if not seek forgiveness from that person.
2. Not recommended: i.e. taking revenge with the same intensity is not recommended
as it is difficult to measure the intensity of an action but still it is allowed if you do
not exceed the limit. So taking revenge with the same limit is allowed but not
preferable and will not count as the sign of a good believer.
3. Recommended: That you have forgiven but not forgotten. This is “afa” but not
“aslaha”, i.e. if you had an issue with your friend which he did wrong to you, you did
not take revenge but forgives him on his mischief except of returning to the level of
friendship.
4. Highest level: This level requires that you forgives and forgets i.e. after giving
pardon, you will return to the level of relation that you were before. This is the quality
of the true believer that verify the saying Allah that Allah loves those who forgives.

Prophet Pbuh said: Charity does not decrease wealth, and that no one forgives except
Allah increases his honor and no one humbles himself for the sake of Allah except Allah
raises his status. (Sahih Muslim)

Anas ibn Malik reported: A man came to the Messenger of Allah, with the killer of his
relative. The Prophet said: Pardon him. He refused to give pardon. The Prophet said:
Take the blood money. He refused to take it. Then Prophet said: Go, kill him, for you are
like him. Anas said: After hearing this, the man pardoned him. (Sunan al-Nasai)

100
3.3 Etiquettes of conversation

This is one of the most ignored subjects in our lives. Most of us either think that this is
too small a subject to pay attention to; or we are unaware of the importance given to this
by Islam. But, if we read and understand Qur’an, we will come to know that Allah is very
particular about this subject.

Islamic teachings put great emphasis on how we deal with people in our daily lives. The
prophet (S.A.W.S.) summed up his message by stating: “I have been sent to perfect the
best of manners”. As Muslims, we, therefore, have to be aware of how each one of us
deals with people in our circles. Our good dealings not only will ensure that we are not
violating other people’s rights but can also make us accepted, loved and appreciated by
others.

What is conversation? Conversation is a form of interactive, spontaneous

communication between two or more people. Typically it occurs in spoken
communication, as written exchanges are usually not referred to as conversations. The
development of conversational skills and etiquette is an important part of socialization.

What are etiquettes? It is a code of behavior that delineates expectations for social
behavior according to contemporary conventional norms within a society, social class, or
group.

Importance of conversation: Allah swt has created the human race with different color
and languages as mentioned in Quran:
ِ ِ ٍ ‫ك ادآلَي‬ ِ ِ ِ ُ ‫ض وا ْختِ اال‬ ِ
‫ت لل اْعال ِم ا‬
‫ني‬ ِ
‫ف أالْسنات ُك ْم اوأال اْوان ُك ْم إِ َّن ِِف ذال ا ا‬
ِ َّ ‫ْق‬
‫الس ام ااوات او ْاأل ْار ِ ا‬ ُ ‫آَيتِِه اخل‬
‫اوم ْن ا‬

“And among His signs is the creation of heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your
language and colors. In this are the signs for those who know.” (Al-Rum, 22)

Imam Razi said: in this verse the word diversity means the difference of nature, culture,
thinking, and ethics among human beings. So it is very important to know about the
etiquettes of conversation when dealing with the people of different culture.

Types of conversation
1) General conversation: i.e. includes private discussions mainly for consultation
purpose, friendly gossips between people, daily routine discussions, etc.

2) Educational / Professional conversation: i.e. includes teaching discussion,

delivering presentations, attending seminars and conferences regarding
educational fields, viva-voce examinations, etc.

101
 3) Political conversation: i.e. includes discussion about political issues regarding
country crisis, its stability and its devolvement, making legislations,
implementation of laws, etc.

4) Religious conversation: i.e. includes religious debates, giving fatwas, resolving

modern issues and dealing court cases, etc.

Characteristics of dialogue
Positive way
1. Showing humiliation: It is so easy to get carried away by whatever we may
possess of wealth and the good things of life. It is so easy and common to credit
ourselves with our achievements and feel proud of them, and then, as a matter of
course, to look down upon others who haven’t been able to make the same effort
or reach the status we might have achieved. What makes all this happen is our
own ego and the ever opportunistic Satan who knows our vulnerability. And so
the One Who cares for our well-being the most, Allah the Most Merciful, has
warned us against falling into the trap of pride and arrogance. Allah says in
Quran:

‫ال فا ُخوٍر‬ ُّ ‫اَّللا اَل ُِحي‬

ٍ ‫ب ُك َّل ُمُْتا‬ َّ ‫ض ام ار احا إِ َّن‬
ِ ‫ش ِِف ْاأل ْار‬ ِ ‫َّك لِلن‬
ِ ْ‫َّاس اواَل متا‬ ‫ص ِع ْر اخد ا‬
‫اواَل تُ ا‬

“And do not treat people with arrogance nor walk proudly on earth. God does not
love the arrogant showoffs.” (Al-Luqman, 18)

2. Patience and tolerance: Patience is another important factor in having good

conversation as everyone has different nature. Some will react leniently and some
in harsh behavior. In order to make peace situation, it is very important to have
patience in your temperament so to avoid inconvenience. Allah swt loves those
who develop this ability in them, as mentioned in Quran:

‫ب ال ُْم ْح ِسنِني‬
ُّ ‫اَّللُ ُِحي‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ َّ ‫الَّ ِذين ي ْن ِف ُقو ان ِِف‬
ِ ‫ني اع ِن الن‬
َّ ‫َّاس او‬ ‫ظ اوال اْعاف ا‬ ‫الس َّراء اوالض ََّّراء اوالْ اكاظ ِم ا‬
‫ني الْغاْي ا‬ ُ‫ا‬

“Those who give in prosperity and adversity and those who restrain anger and
those who forgive people, God love the doers of good. (Al-Imran, 134)

Moreover it is said that “once a Jew came to the Prophet Pbuh in order to testify
his patience and truthfulness of his prophecy. He sold out some dates to the
Prophet Pbuh with the condition of paying back after sometime. But he started
asking his money before the time and for that he started humiliating Prophet Pbuh
and his family by saying: “You Muhammad and family of bnu Abdul Muttalib are
among loan stalers. By hearing these harsh words Umar r.a intended to catch that
Jew. Prophet Pbuh said: O Umar! What comparison would be left between Me
and him, if I reacted the same way. You should be the one advising me to be

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 polite rather than punishing him. Then Prophet Pbuh gave his money back and
gave 20 sa’ (amount of food) more than he deserves in ethics. By seeing this
courteous of Prophet Pbuh, he embraced Islam”. (Majma ul Zawaid)
3. Leniency and Politeness: Allah swt says in Quran:

‫ت ا ْحلا ِم ِري‬
ُ ‫اص ْو‬ ِ ْ ‫ك إِ َّن أانْ اكر ْاأل‬
‫ص ْوتِ ا‬ ِ ‫ض‬ ِ ‫واق‬
‫ْص ْد ِِف ام ْشيِ ا‬
‫اص اوات ل ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ض م ْن ا‬
ْ ُ ‫ك اوا ْغ‬ ‫ا‬

“And moderate your stride and lower voice. The most repulsive of voices is the
donkey’s voice.” (Al-Luqman, 19)

4. Speaking Justly: Being truthful is one of the most important characteristics of a

Muslim and Prophet Pbuh counted lying as one of the sign of hypocrite, as
mentioned in Hadith the signs of Hypocrytes: when he is entrusted with
something, he proves dishonest; when he speaks, he lies; when he makes a
promise, he breaks it; and when he quarrels he crosses all limits of morality and
decency.” (Bukhari, Muslim)
Moreover He Pbuh said: if you believe on Allah and on the Day of Judgment,
then speak with truth and be just, otherwise keep silent.” (Muslim)

5. Avoid Confliction: Islam stresses a lot to avoid confliction as much as possible,

for that Quran tells us a great methodology i.e. when confliction occurs,
discussion should start with the common things, Allah says in Quran:
ِ ‫ضا أارِبِب ِمن ُم‬ ِ ‫اَّلل واَل نُ ْش ِر اك بِ ِه اشي ةاا واَل ي ت‬ ٍ ٍ ِ ِ ‫قُل َي أا ْهل ال‬
‫ون‬ ْ ‫ضناا با ْع ا ْ ا ا‬
ُ ‫َّخ اذ با ْع‬ ‫ْ ا ا‬ ‫اب تا اعالا ْوا إِ اَل اكل امة اس اواء با ْي نا ناا اوبا ْي نا ُك ْم أَّاَل نا ْعبُ اد إََِّل َّا ا‬ ِ ‫ْكتا‬
‫ْا ا‬
َِّ
‫اَّلل فاِإ ْن تا اولَّ ْوا فا ُقولُوا ا ْش اه ُدوا ِِبا ََّّن ُم ْسلِ ُمو ان‬

“Say, O people of the Book, comes to terms common between us and you, that we
worship none but God, and that we associate nothing with Him, and that none of
us takes others as lords beside Allah…” (Al-Imran, 64)

6. Utilizing easy vocabulary: It is one of the major terms that if the listener does
not understand your conversation then all of your efforts would be in vain. So it is
very important to lower or higher your speech difficulty level according to the
listener.

7. Speak slowly and properly: It is also a major factor in conversation as Musa a.s
asked from Allah the fluency and clearance of speech. As mentioned in Quran:

‫س ِاين يا ْف اق ُهوا قا ْوِِل‬ ِ ِ

‫احلُ ْل عُ ْق ادةا م ْن ل ا‬
ْ ‫او‬

“And loose the knot from my tongue so they may understand my words.” (sura
Taha, 27-28)

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 8. Time limitation: Another important factor is to limit the conversation as if your
discussions getting longer, people would stop paying attention as they start getting
bore. It is said that when Abdullah bin Mas’ood asked by people to deliver them
the lectures about Islam. He r.a suggested only one day in a week and said if you
suggest it every day, the importance or interest would get lower from your heart.

9. Stick to the point of discussion: Talking in vain will not only waste our time but
others also and is one of the causes of corruption of the tongue. Prophet
Muhammad (saw) said: “One of the signs of goodness of a Muslim submission to
Allah (SWT) is avoiding vain talks.”

Defensive way
1. Don’t speak too much: Speaking too much is bad and every word a person speaks will
be accountable. It has a very negative impact on persons personality as no one likes to
talk with him due to his chattering quality and also what the Prophet Pbuh said: “Do not
talk too much unless it is related to zikr, because speaking too much make the heart of a
person hard, and hard hearted people will be far away from Allah swt”. (Tirmazi)

2. Don’t speak badly about others: In talking too much we do not care about mocking
others. We often see people taking pleasure in making fun of others or mocking them. It
is the ego that craves for the satisfaction of proving oneself better than others by
looking out for others’ weaknesses and laughing at them? But Allah admonishes us: “O
you who believe! Let not a group scoffs at another group; it may be that the latter are
better than the former. Nor let (some) women scoff at other women, it may be that the
latter are better than the former. (Surah Hujrat, 11)

Allah tells us that our knowledge is restricted by our limited perception. Since we’re
not aware of any one’s real worth, wouldn’t it be foolish to laugh at those who might
actually be better than us? We can curb this tendency by opening our eyes to the fact
that when we think that others deserve to be ridiculed, we’re actually fooling ourselves
and no one else (though we might find a few thoughtless and insensitive people to give
us company in our foolish pastime).

3. Speaking to non-Mahram: Speaking to a non-mahram woman may occur because of a

need or it may occur needlessly. If it is done needlessly and only for fun and
enjoyment, then there is no doubt, it is haram and comes under the heading of the zina
of the tongue and ears about which the Prophet (Pbuh) said: “The son of Adam’s share
of zina (adultery) has been decreed for him, which he will inevitably get. The zina of
the eyes is looking, the zina of the ears is listening, the zina of the tongue is speaking,
the zina of the hands is touching, and the zina of the foot is walking. The heart longs
and wishes, and the private part confirm that or deny it.” (Sahih al-Bukhari).

104
 When there is a need to speak to a woman, the basic principle is that it is permissible,
but it is essential to pay attention to the following etiquette:

 The conversation should be limited to only what is necessary, without talking too
much or branching off into other topics.
 Avoiding joking and laughing; that is not part of etiquette and dignity.
 Avoiding staring and always trying hard to lower the gaze as much as possible; if
there is a quick glance for the purpose of speaking, there is nothing wrong with
that.
 Not softening the voice, by either party, or choosing soft words; rather they
should speak is the same, ordinary tone of voice as they would speak to anyone
else.
 Avoiding the use of any words that may have some suggestive meanings, and so
on.
 Not going to extremes in embellishing one’s speech. Some people use their skills
in communication with others by movements of the hand or face or by quoting
poetry or proverbs or romantic phrases. This is a means that the Shaytaan uses to
open the door to haram attraction between the sexes.
Allah says in Quran:
ٍ ‫ُوه َّن ِم ْن اوار ِاء ِح اج‬
‫اب اذلِ ُك ْم أاط اْه ُر لِ ُقلُوبِ ُك ْم اوقُلُوِبِِ َّن‬ ُ ‫اسأال‬
ْ ‫اعا فا‬ ُ ‫اوإِ اذا اسأالْتُ ُم‬
‫وه َّن امتا ا‬

“When you (need to) ask something from his ladies, ask them from behind the
hijab that makes for greater purity for your hearts and for theirs. (Sura Ahzab, 53)
4. Avoid quarreling with others: Whatever be our difference in opinions or feelings,
we’re expected to set them aside and maintain good relations with each other. Ego
‘nafs’ is never to be allowed to supersede true faith. The whole purpose of our life is to
prepare ourselves for the hereafter, and with this long term goal in mind we have to
overcome pettiness and trivialities. Our constant struggle is with two real enemies.
One is Satan who keeps making the world and worldliness more and more alluring for
us. The other is our own ego that inflates our importance in our eyes beyond any
sensible measure. It is these that cause conflicts and misunderstandings. For that
purpose Prophet Pbuh emphasized great to avoid misconceptions, as He said: who ever
leaves the dispute if he is on the wrong side, Allah will make for him a house in the
boundary of heaven and whoever leaves the dispute even if he is on the right side,
Allah will built for him a house in the middle of heaven. (Tirmazi)
5. Don’t over praise: Prophet Pbuh heard a person praising over praising to someone.
So Prophet Pbuh said that you have broken his back (means don’t make false praise).
(Bukhari)

105
6. Away from fanaticism: We should avoid from fanaticism, as enmity leads towards
injustice. That’s why Islam strictly advises to his followers to stay away from it as it
stops people from doing justice with people even if they deserve that. Allah says in
Quran, as mentioned:
‫ب لِلتَّ ْق اوى‬ ِ ِ ٍ
ُ ‫َل اْجي ِرامنَّ ُك ْم اشناآ ُن قا ْوم اعلاى أاَل تا ْعدلُوا ا ْعدلُوا ُه او أاق اْر‬
“And let not the hatred of others make you avoid justice. Be just that is nearer to
piety” (Sura Maidah, 8)
7. Do not criticize if you dislike something: Especially in food and eating stuffs
because someone made it for you that require a great deal of effort done before it. So,
it hurts the emotion of a person. As Prophet Pbuh used to put things aside if He Pbuh
didn’t like it, but never said a word or show unfavorable expressions.

3.4 Truthfulness & Honesty

Islam commands the Muslims to be honest and truthful to him and to others. This order
recurrently comes in the Noble Qur’an and the hadith of Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh).
Islam orders the Muslim to tell the truth even if it is against the one’s own interest. Islam
orders him not to cheat or betray other people. A Muslim is ordered by Allah to be
truthful in his words and deeds, privately and publicly alike. Islam demands us to stay
loyal, true and honest in life. We have the living example of our beloved Prophet Pbuh as
people would call him “sadiq and amin”. Allah swt says in Quran:
ِ ِ َّ ‫اَّلل وُكونُوا مع‬ ِ َّ
‫ني‬
‫الصامق ا‬ ‫اا‬ ‫آمنُوا اتَّ ُقوا َّا ا‬
‫ين ا‬
‫اَي أايُّ اها الذ ا‬

Oh you who believe! Be careful of (your duty to) Allah and be with the true ones. (Sura
al-tauba, v. 119)

Honesty does not only implies in words by telling the truth in all situations and under all
circumstances. It also implies fulfilling the promises, whether written or given verbally,
in text and spirit. Honesty also implies giving an honest opinion and the right advice to
the one who asks for it. Honesty also implies doing one’s work as sincerely and as
flawlessly as possible. Honesty also implies carrying out the duties as fully and
completely as possible whether the person under supervision or not. Honesty means
giving every person his due and deserved rights without his asking for these rights.
Honesty will be doing the right thing in the right way at the right time. Honesty means
objectivity in judgment, objectivity in assessment, and objectivity in decisions of all
types. Honesty implies the right selection of people and the right promotion of personnel,
i.e., selection by merit and promotion by merit, not by temper or favoritism or personal
relationships.
Quran stresses a lot on the subject of honesty and truthfulness, as mentioned:

106
 ِ ‫َي أايُّها الَّ ِذين آمنُوا اَل اَتْ ُكلُوا أاموالا ُكم ب ي نا ُكم ِِبلْب‬
‫اط ِل‬‫ْ ا ْ اْ ْ ا‬ ‫ا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
“Oh ye who believe! Eat not up each other’s property by unfair and dishonest means.”
(Sura Al-Nisa, v: 29)
A severe warning is given in the following verse to traders who cheat in weighing, Allah
says in Glorious Quran:
ِ ٍ ِ ‫وه ْم َيُْ ِس ُرو ان أ ااَل ياظُ ُّن أُولاةِ ا‬ ِ َّ ‫ويل لِلْمطا ِف ِف‬
ُ ‫ك أانَّ ُه ْم امبْ ُعوثُو ان ليا ْوم اعظ ٍيم يا ْوام يا ُق‬
‫وم‬ ُ ‫َّاس يا ْستا ْوفُو ان اوإِذاا اكال‬
ُ ُ‫ُوه ْم أ ْاو اوازن‬ ِ ‫ين إِذاا ا ْكتاالُوا اعلاى الن‬
‫ني الذ ا‬ ‫اْ ٌ ُ ا‬
ِ ‫النَّاس لِر‬
‫ب ال اْعال ِام ا‬
‫ني‬ ‫ُ ا‬
“Woe unto those who give short measure, those who when they are to receive their due
from people, demand that it be given in full but when they have to measure or weigh
whatever they owe to others, give less than what is due. Do they not know that they are
bound to be raised from the dead (and called to account) on an awesome Day, the Day
when all men shall stand before the Sustainer of all the worlds?” (Al-Mutafifeen, v: 1-6)

In the same way, the under mentioned verse exhorts Muslims to be very particular about
their trusts and about other people’s rights.

‫ت إِ اَل أا ْهلِ اها‬

ِ ‫اَّلل َيْمرُكم أا ْن تُ اؤمُّوا ْاألام ااَّن‬
‫ا‬ ْ ُ ُ ‫إِ َّن َّا ا‬
“Allah does commands you to render back your trust, to those to whom they are due.”(al-
Nisa, v:58)
Prophet Pbuh often used to say in his sermons: “Remember, there is no faith in him who
is not trustworthy; there is no place for him in religion that cares not for his pledged word
or promise.”

Another tradition says:” The signs of a hypocrite are three: when he speaks, he is false,
when he promises, he fails; and when he is trusted, he plays false.” (Sahih Bukhari)

Prophet Muhammad warned us of the dangers inherent in dishonesty, and the benefits of
living in an honest way. He Pbuh said: “Truthfulness leads to righteousness, and
righteousness leads to Paradise. In addition, a man keeps on telling the truth until he
becomes a truthful person. Falsehood leads to wickedness and evil-doing, and
wickedness leads to the (Hell) Fire, and a man may keep on telling lies till he is written
before God, as a liar”. (Sahih Al-Bukhari)

Honesty in business:
A true Islamic society is based upon honesty and justice, and is intolerant of dishonesty in
all its various forms. Honesty in all business transactions is emphasized and the Prophet
Muhammad exhorts Muslims to be scrupulously honest in all their dealings. Condemning
those who cheat in business the sacred Prophet has said: “He who cheats is not of us.
Deceitfulness and fraud are things that lead one to Hell.”

107
Once Prophet of Allah came upon a heap of corn in the market of Medina and thrust his
hand onto it. His fingers felt damp. On being asked, the trader replied that rain had fallen
upon it. The Prophet observed, “Why did you not then keep (the wet portion of) it above
the dry corn, so that men may see it? He who deceives, is not one of us.”

Thus traders who cheat by showing to customers a dishonest sample or by concealing

from them the flaws of the article they offer for sale are not true Muslims in the judgment
of the Holy Prophet and, God-forbidding, they are going to end up in hell. Another
tradition says: “The seller must explain to the buyer the defects, if any, in the quality of
the article offered for sale. Should this not be done, the seller will permanently be caught
in the Wrath of Allah (according to another narrator the exact words, ‘he will always be
cursed by the angels’).”

A tradition goes even to the extent of saying that, “If a person made a recommendation
for anyone in a just manner and gratified party gave him something as a gift (in return for
it) and he accepted it, then he committed a grave error (meaning that it, too, is a form of
bribery).”

Truth in Speaking:
It is of the mannerism of the high path of Islam to be honest when one speaks. The
Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, “Honesty certainly leads to goodness,
and goodness leads to paradise. Truly, a man keeps speaking the truth until he is
inscribed as being true through and through. And lying leads to going wrong, and going
wrong leads to hell. Truly, a man lies and lies until he is inscribed as being a liar through
and through” (Sahih Muslim).

It is prohibited to lie, except when making up between two people, or lying to an

opponent enemy in war strategically, or to one’s wife as in praising her. It is also
unlawful to praise or blame another with a falsehood. The Prophet (pbuh) said, “Lying is
wrong, except in three things: the lie of a man to his wife to make her content with him; a
lie in war, for war is deception; or a lie to settle trouble between people” (Musnad
Ahmad).

Ibn Jawzi has said, “The criterion for it is that every praiseworthy objective in Sacred
Law that cannot be brought about without lying is permissible to lie for if the objective is
permissible, and obligatory to lie for if the objective is obligatory.”

When lying is the single way to get one’s right, one may lie about oneself or another, if it
does not harm the other. And it is mandatory to lie to if necessary to protect a Muslim
from being murdered. But whenever one can achieve the objective by words that merely
give a misleading impression with actually being untrue, it is unlawful to tell an absolute
lie, because it is needless.

108
3.5 Sincerity

Sincerity is a crucial element of repentance and salvation in Islam. Muslims are primarily
encouraged to practice sincerity in their relationships with God, as well as to be honest in
relationships with one another. Sincerity before God is associated with faithfulness in
Islam. It is one of the most important criteria God uses to judge the state of an
individual's heart.

Linguistically it means “to make something free” and literally it means “to do an action
only for the sake of Allah swt.” The Arabic word for sincerity is "ikhlas." God judges the
actions of people to determine whether they are sincere. In particular, he discerns whether
a person commits good deeds out of genuine desire to please him or merely to attain the
adulation of other humans. Ikhlas is often translated into English as "sincerity of
intention," a distinction that underscores the centrality of personal motivation. Allah swt
explicitly mentioned in Quran the importance of sincerity, as mentioned:

‫ين الْ اقيِ ام ِة‬ ِ ‫الزاكاةا وذالِ ا‬ ِ ‫الدين حنا اف‬

ِ ِ ِ‫اَّلل ُمُْل‬ ِ ِ
ُ ‫كم‬ ‫الص االةا اويُ ْؤتُوا َّ ا‬
َّ ‫يموا‬
ُ ‫اء اويُق‬
‫ني لاهُ ا ُ ا‬
‫صا‬ ‫اواما أُم ُروا إََِّل ليا ْعبُ ُدوا َّا‬

“They were commanded only to worship Allah swt, devoting their faith to Him alone and
to practice regular prayer.” (Al-Bayinah, v. 5)

Moreover, Allah swt said to His beloved Prophet Pbuh to declare in front of people to
teach them the importance of sincerity, by saying:
َِِّ ‫قُل إِ َّن ص االِيت ونُس ِكي و اَْمياي وِماا ِايت‬
‫ب ال اْعال ِام ا‬
‫ني‬ ِ ‫َّلل ار‬ ‫ا ا ُ ا ا اا‬ ْ
“Say, My prayer and my worship and my life and my death are devoted to Allah, the
Lord of the world. (Al-’Anaam, 162)

Moreover, Prophet Pbuh said: three actions from which every Muslim should not be
inattentive in any case: 1) Sincerity in actions, 2) Advising the people, 3) Stick to the
Muslim community. (Sunan Tirmazi)

Fuzail bin ayaz said: “sincerity is based on two things: “akhlas” and “aswab”, i.e. if in
any action if a person’s intention is sincere but the action is haram, it will be rejected. If
an action is halal but the intention is not sincere, even then it will be rejected. Only when
action is halal and the intention is sincere, then it will be accepted by Allah swt.

Intention is the base of every action and it is like the soul of it, because this is the thing
which led a person to perform an action; good or bad. Moreover, it affects the hearts as
hearts are the place of intentions. When the intention goes wrong, the heart corrupts and
vice versa. That’s why Prophet Pbuh emphasized a lot on this account by saying:
“Acceptance and rejection of actions is based on intentions, and a person will eventually
get what he indented for”. (Bukhari)

109
Moreover, Prophet Pbuh said: “if a person does proper ablution and intends for
congregational prayer in masjid but when he reached, finds out that the prayer has ended,
afterwards he performed his prayer alone. Allah swt gives him the full reward of the
prayer like as he performed with the congregation based on his sincere intention.” (Sunan
Abu Dawd)

Vulnerability of lack of sincerity: A Muslim does every action only for the sake of
Allah as He swt deserves only to be worshipped and also to get reward in the akhira.
Without having sincere intention a person will not get anything but the tiredness.
Moreover, Quran gives strict warnings to those who do things for worldly pleasure and
pride, as Allah swt says in the Quran:

‫َّار او احبِ ا اما‬ ِ ِ ِ

ِ َّ ‫ف إِلاي ِهم أا ْعما اِلم فِيها وهم فِيها اَل ي ب اخسو ان أُولاةِ ا‬
ُ ‫س اِلُ ْم ِِف ْادآلخ ارة إََِّل الن‬
‫ين ل ْاي ا‬
‫ك الذ ا‬ ُ ْ ُ ‫ام ْن اكا ان يُ ِري ُد ا ْحلاياا اة الدُّنْياا اوِزينا تا اها نُ او ْ ْ ا ُ ْ ا ا ُ ْ ا‬
‫صنا عُوا فِ ايها اواِب ِط ٌل اما اكانُوا يا ْع املُو ان‬
‫ا‬
“Whoever desires the worldly life and its glitters, We will fully recompense them for
their deeds therein, and therein they will not be defrauded. They will have nothing but the
fire in the Hereafter. (Al-Hud, 15-16)

Prophet Pbuh said: “whoever acquire knowledge not for the sake of Allah but for the sake
of getting world, he will not get even the smell of Heaven.” (Sunan Abu Daud)

Types of actions for the sake of world:

1. Good deeds when performed for the sake of Allah swt but instead of getting
reward of akhirah in return a person wants the worldly pleasures, like protection
of wealth or better life in the world or protection from calamities and
catastrophes, etc.

2. Committing good actions for the sake of Ria (showing off) i.e. for the sake of
pride and respect from people.
3. A person who perform good deeds only for the sake of money, i.e. if a person
performed a hajj for others on wages or fight in the cause of Allah with the
intention of getting the war booty, etc.

4. Action that has been performed only for the sake of Allah swt but it banish him
from the circle of Islam, i.e. adding any obligation or rejecting it in Islam.

RIYA (Show off):

Riya refers to doing things that are pleasing to Allah with the intention of seeking
admiration from others. The intention in such cases, therefore, is usually to show off
one’s good deeds to win praise and admiration of others. It amounts to practicing virtue
out of vanity, with the aim of achieving popularity among people. Riya makes us focus
on earning appreciation from people rather than seeking Allah’s favor and acceptance. It

110
makes us focus on people’s appreciation of our virtuous acts, which means we give
importance to them, and not to Allah the Most Benevolent.

RIA is one of the greatest threats for a Muslim and to be ranked as hypocrisy as
mentioned in Quran, Allah says:

‫اَّللا إََِّل قالِ ايال‬

َّ ‫َّاس اواَل يا ْذ ُك ُرو ان‬
‫س ااَل يُ اراءُو ان الن ا‬
ِ َّ ‫ام ُعهم وإِ اذا قااموا إِ اَل‬
‫الص االة قا ُاموا ُك ا‬ ُ
ِ ِ ‫إِ َّن الْمناافِ ِقني َُيا‬
َّ ‫ام ُعو ان‬
‫اَّللا او ُه او اخ ُ ْ ا‬ ‫ُ ا‬

“The hypocrites try to deceive God, but He is deceiving them. And when they stand for
prayer, they stand lazily, showing off in front of people. (Al-Nisa, 142)

And this riya is more vulnerable than the fitna of Isa (a.s) and dajjal, as Prophet Pbuh
said: “Shall I not tell you the thing which is more dangerous than the fitna of dajjal? It is
“shirk al- khafi” i.e. Riya.” (Ibn-e-Majah)

Types of RIYA:
1) Intention of an action is for someone else not for Allah swt.
2) Intention of an action is for Allah swt, but changes for someone else.
3) Intention of an action from beginning till end only for the sake of Allah swt, but
when someone praised him he start feeling proud and likes that people continue
praising him.

4) Riya in clothes, i.e. wearing patched clothes with the intention that people would
call him zahid and abid.

5) Riya in conversation, i.e. speak in a sermonized way so that people would start
calling him scholar.

Ways to get sincerity: It is very important to get rid of riya and to establish the pure
relation with Allah swt. For that there are some methodologies by which we can get
sincere.

1) Knowledge: It is the key feature of achieving perfection in anything i.e. by

knowing every single aspect and types of riya so to avoid it.

2) Knowing the attributes of Allah: i.e. by knowing it that Allah swt is the only
one who can give benefits and no one beside Him could harm me or getting the
praise of someone does not make me greater in the sight of Allah. So why do I
actions for the sake of others. This rational thought will help him to get rid from
riya.

3) Appreciating the rewards of akhira: i.e. by realizing that what Allah swt will
provide me with His countless blessings in the hereafter, if I stay sincere with

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 Him in my entire life. This would be a very helpful remedy to avoid riya being
penetrated into heart.

4) Continuity of azkar: i.e. learning about the things which led the satin to run
away as satin is the source that injects the riya into the heart of a person. So with
the remembrance of Allah we can surely get rid of it. As mentioned in hadith:
“when a person gives azan, the satin runs away to the point where he cannot hear
the voice of muezzin.” (Bukhari)

5) By supplications: i.e. by asking Allah swt the strength and power to get
protection against riya. Prophet Pbuh said that: “O you people! Fear from Allah
swt about this shirk, which is agile than the walking of an ant. They asked O
Prophet of Allah, how could we protect ourselves from it? He Pbuh said: Say O
Allah!

‫استا غْ ِف ُر اك لِ اما َلا أا ْعلا ُم‬ ‫ك أا ْن أُ ْش ِر اك بِ ا‬

ْ ‫ وأ‬،‫ك اوأا اَّن أا ْعلا ُم‬ ‫اعوذُ بِ ا‬
ُ ‫اللَّ ُه َّم إِِين أ‬
“We seek refuge of yours from shirk we know and ask forgiveness from those we
don't know.” (Musnad Ahmed)

3.6 Fulfillment of Promise

Lexically in Arabic it is pronounced as “al-’ahd” or “misaq” i.e. “keeping something

safe”, literally it means “fulfillment of agreements or contracts what you agreed upon”.
Fulfillment of Promise is an essential part of a Muslim’s Conduct. When a Muslim
undertakes a thing, he should respect the undertaking. When he enters into any contract
he should honor it till the last. This is the demand of the faith that when a man talks of
any enterprise, he should have the intention of taking it to completion, like the water
which does not rest till it flows down to the lower level. He should be known among the
people as a man of reliable promises, and there should be no fear of any breach of
promises or of any dubious dealings from him.

Fulfillment of the promise is necessary. Similarly when an oath is taken, it should be

redeemed. But this fulfillment of promise or the redeeming of the oath and pledges is
necessary when the dealing is legitimate and concerns truth, otherwise honoring the
promise in connection with something sinful and disobedience to Allah has no value, and
there is no importance of oath in sin. Allah’s Messenger has said: "If someone has taken
an oath, but saw an aspect of goodness in another thing, he may break his oath and pay
compensation (atonement), and should perform the act which is better and has goodness."
(Muslim)

It is not proper for a man to insist on redeeming the oath. On such occasions it is better to
break the oath. In a hadith it is stated: "It is sinful for a man among you to go to his wife
with his oath (unredeemed) compared to his paying the compensation (atoning) which He

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has fixed for breaking the oath." (Bukhari) For this reasons no promise and covenant is
proper and correct except in rightful matters. When a man has promised to do a certain
good thing, then he should try his best to fulfill it, as long as it appears good to him. He
should very well know that he should stick to manly talk, faith and belief. There is no
room in this for breach of promises or doubts and hesitation.

Anas bin Malik says that his uncle Anas bin Nadar could not take part in the battle of
Badr, and he said to the Prophet: "O Messenger of Allah! In the first battle that you
fought with the polytheists I could not take part. If Allah kept me with the Prophet then
they will definitely see my achievements in the second battle against the polytheists."
When in the battle of Uhad, there was fierce fighting and the Muslims were retreating. He
prayed to Allah: "O Allah! I ask your pardon for the mistake that they have committed,
and I declare myself innocent of the transgression of the polytheists". Saying this he
rushed into the battle. In the way he met Sa’ad bin Ma’az whom he said: "O Sa’ad bin
Ma’az! By the God of Nadar, Proceed towards Paradise. I smell its fragrance, in the
valley of Uhad." Sa’ad said: "O Messenger of Allah! The love for rnartyrdom, which he
showed, cannot be expressed. Then he advanced." Anas say that we found more than
eighty wounds on his body, which were caused by swords, the points of lances and the
shower of arrows. The polytheists had disfigured his body and it was difficult to identify
him. With great difficulty his sister identified him with the help of a mole on his fingers.
Anas say that he thinks that the following verses were revealed about him or about
persons like him:

‫ضى اَْنباهُ اوِمنْ ُه ْم ام ْن يانْ تا ِظ ُر اواما با َّدلُوا تا ْب ِد ايال‬

‫اَّللا اعلا ْي ِه فا ِمنْ ُه ْم ام ْن قا ا‬
َّ ‫اه ُدوا‬
‫ص ادقُوا اما اع ا‬
‫ال ا‬
ِ ِ
‫م ان ال ُْم ْؤمنِ ا‬
ٌ ‫ني ِر اج‬

“Among the believers are men who have been true to their covenant with Allah of them
some have completed their vow to (the extreme), and some (still) wait; but they have
never changed (their determination) in the least.” (Sura Ahzab, v. 23)
Status in Quran and Sunnah: It is farz to fulfill the promise. As Allah swt ordered us to
stay true in your promises, as mentioned in Quran:

‫اوأ ْاوفُوا ِِبل اْع ْه ِد إِ َّن ال اْع ْه اد اكا ان ام ْسةُ ا‬

‫وَل‬
“And honor your pledge, because the pledge involves responsibility”. (Al-Isra, 34)

And those who do not fulfill their promise, Allah swt will not look at them with mercy, as
mentioned in Quran:

َّ ‫ك اَل اخ اال اق اِلُ ْم ِِف ْادآل ِخ ارةِ اواَل يُ اكلِ ُم ُه ُم‬

‫اَّللُ اواَل يا ْنظُُر إِل ْاي ِه ْم يا ْوام ال ِْقيا اام ِة اواَل يُ ازكِي ِه ْم اواِلُ ْم‬ َِّ ‫إِ َّن الَّ ِذين ي ْشت رو ان بِع ْه ِد‬
‫اَّلل اوأ ْاميااهنِِ ْم َثااناا قالِ ايال أُولاةِ ا‬ ‫ا ا اُ ا‬
‫يم‬ِ ‫ع اذ‬
ٌ ‫اب أال‬
ٌ ‫ا‬
“Those who exchange the covenant of God and their vows for a small price will have no
share in the Hereafter, and God will not speak to them, nor He will look at them on the

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Day of Judgment, nor will He purify them. They will have a painful punishment. (Al-
Imran, 77)

Moreover, Prophet Pbuh counted the oath breakers among the act of hypocrisy, as he
said: Three signs is of a hypocrite; if he speaks; lies, if he promises; breaks it, and if
entrusted fidelity; deceit. (Bukhari)

Abu Rafey, a slave, came to Medina as an ambassador of the Quresh. When he saw the
Holy Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh), the truth of Islam dawned on him and he said, “O
Messenger of God (Pbuh)! I shall never go back to the unbelievers.” The Holy Prophet
Muhammad (Pbuh) said, “I can neither breach the contract, nor keep the ambassadors
with me. If you feel the same way when you go there, you can come back.” He went back
and embraced Islam.

In the treaty of Hudaibiyah, one of the conditions was that if any Muslim went to Medina
from Mecca, he would be returned on demand. When the Treaty was being written, Abu
Jandal escaped from the prison of the Meccan in chains. All the Muslims were shocked to
see him in this condition, but the Holy Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) said to him, “O Abu
Jandal! Be patient, we cannot break the promise. God will very soon find a way for you.”
He was returned to the people of Mecca.

Two companions of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh), were Hazifa bin al-Yaman and
Abu Husail, while coming from Mecca, were caught by the unbelievers. The Meccans
insisted that they should not go to Muhammad but the two companions refused. At last
they were released on the condition that they would not participate in the battle (of Badr)
on behalf of the Muslims. They came to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) and told
him the whole story. It was a severe test of their truthfulness. The Muslims were very few
and needed more men to fight against the unbelievers. The addition of two men would
have made a lot of difference to them but the Holy Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) said,
“Both of you must go back; we will keep the promise under all circumstances. We need
only the help of God.”

Prophet (SAW) always kept his promises and contracts at all costs even with his enemies,
and never broke his word. He preached the Quran and practiced what he taught to other
people in obedience to the Commandment of God.

Abdullah ibn Abdul Hamsa (RA) reported that he bought something from Allah’s
Messenger before he received his prophetic commission, and as there was something still
due to Muhammad (Pbuh), he promised that he would bring it to his place. But Hamsa
forgot about it and remembered three days later. He went to that place and found Allah’s
Messenger (PBUH) there waiting for him. The Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh) said, “You
have caused me great trouble and inconvenience. I have been here three days waiting for
you.”

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Types of covenants: There are basic two types of covenant:

1. Covenants between Allah swt and Human: this includes oaths (qasam) and
vows (nazar or mannat) which a person takes it by the name of Allah in his life, it
is obligatory to fulfill them otherwise he has to pay atonement (kaffara) on it.

2. Covenants between human beings: this includes all sort of agreements between
male and male or male and female (includes nikah, divorce, khul’a, zihar, eela in
case of spouses), loans, business dealings, general meetings with time obligation,
etc.

Characteristics regarding promises:

1. Fulfillment of Promise-An essential part of a Muslim's Conduct: When a
Muslim undertakes a thing, he should respect the undertaking. When he enters
into any contract he should honor it till the last. E.g. if two person agreed to meet
at certain place, then they should follow the time what they agreed upon. But by
any reason if they couldn’t reach in time with his full intention and effort then
there will be no sin on him as mentioned by Prophet Pbuh: “If a person promises
to meet at some time and his intention was to reach in time, but accidently he
couldn’t then there will be no sin on him.” (Tirmazi)

2. Oath should be for the good: Allah's Messenger has said: "If someone has taken
an oath but saw an aspect of goodness in another thing, he may break his oath and
pay compensation (atonement) and should perform the act which is better and has
goodness." (Muslim)

3. Forgetting the Past is a kind of Breach of Promise: Fulfillment of

promises depends on two factors, i.e. memory and determination. With these two
elements if are strong enough, helps in fulfilling one’s promises effortlessly.
Allah had taken a promise from Adam that he would not go near the forbidden
tree, but Adam forgot the promise within a few days. He became a prey to
weakness and broke his promise, as mentioned:
‫آم ام ِم ْن قا بْ ُل فا نا ِس اي اواملْ اِجن ْد لاهُ اع ْزاما‬
‫اولا اق ْد اع ِه ْد اَّن إِ اَل ا‬
"We had already beforehand taken the covenant of Adam, but he forgot, and We
found on his part no firm will-power." (Sura Taha: v. 115)
It shows that deficiency in memory and weakness of determination are two
obstructions, which come in the way of performance of duty. And this is a strange
thing that man, being overwhelmed by the hardships of the times, various
difficulties and different pressing problems forgets the open and clear realities. To
him the clear figures appear blurred, and the realities which are as striking as the
light of the sun disappear from his sight. There the necessity of a reminder
becomes very pressing, to overcome the negligence and forgetfulness, and to keep

115
 this important thing before men’s eyes. There are a number of verses of the Quran
which were revealed for safeguarding the memory, as mentioned:
‫اء قالِ ايال اما تا اذَّك ُرو ان‬ ِ ِِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ
‫اتَّب ُعوا اما أُنْ ِز ال إِل ْاي ُك ْم م ْن ارب ُك ْم اواَل تا تَّب ُعوا م ْن ُمونه أ ْاوليا ا‬
“Follow the revelation given to you from your Lord, and follow not as friends or
protectors other than Him. Little it is you remembers of admonition.” (A’raf, v. 3)
‫ت لِ اق ْوٍم يا َّذَّك ُرو ان‬
ِ ‫صلْناا ْادآلَي‬
‫ا‬ َّ ‫يما قا ْد فا‬ ِ ‫ط اربِ ا‬
‫ك ُم ْستاق ا‬
ِ ‫و اه اذا‬
ُ ‫ص ارا‬ ‫ا‬
“This is the way of your Lord, leading straight; We have detailed the signs for
those who receive admonition.” (Sura Ana’am: 126)
Alive and wakeful memory and remembrance is essential for fulfilling promises.
A man who forgets his promises and covenants, how can he fulfill them? If a man
has a strong memory in respect of fulfilling his promise, it is also necessary that
he should have a determination to do so, a determination which should not have
any laxity or slackness in this matter a determination which should be able to
overcome all the rebellious desires, and which should lighten the coming burden
of difficulties. It should be a determination which should be able to cross all the
difficult valleys and blocks and should be able to set an example of selfless
sacrifice for others.

The praiseworthy quality of the fulfilling of promise also demands that a man
should always remember his past, so that he may take a lesson from it for his
present and future. If he was poor and Allah has made him rich or he was sick and
now Allah has given him good health, then it is not proper for him to erect a
strong wall between his past and present and should not think that he was never
poor nor was he ever-sick, and should not build up his present on the basis of this
pride. Such a behaviour is open ingratitude and immoral. And Allah has the
capability of taking back such things in no time if you start becoming arrogant. As
mentioned in Quran:
ْ ‫شاءُ بِيا ِد اك‬
‫اْلاْي ُر إِنَّ ا‬
‫ك اعلاى‬ ‫شاءُ اوتُ ِذ ُّل ام ْن تا ا‬ ‫ْك ِِمَّ ْن تا ا‬
‫شاءُ اوتُ ِع ُّز ام ْن تا ا‬ ‫ِع ال ُْمل ا‬
ُ ‫شاءُ اوتا ْنز‬ ِ ‫ك الْمل‬
‫ْك تُ ْؤِيت ال ُْمل ا‬
‫ْك ام ْن تا ا‬ ِ
ُ ‫قُ ِل اللَّ ُه َّم امال ا‬
‫ُك ِل اش ْي ٍء قا ِد ٌير‬
“Say O Allah! Lord of power, Thou gives power to whom thou pleases and thou
stripes off power from whom thou pleases: Thou endues with honour whom Thou
pleased and Thou brings low whom thou pleases: in Thy hand is all good. Verily
over all things thou hast power.” (Sura Al-Imran, 26)
4. Breaking promises creates enmity: Islam forced us to fulfill our promises
because breaking promises or not keeping it creates hatred and enmity among the
people which distorts the society and uplift the trust among the people. Moreover,
no society can live longer without trust as no one would go under any kind of
contract with each other which leads to the violation of Human rights as no one’s
property would be safe and as a result everyone will become enemy of each other.

116
Chapter 4: Islamic Civilization – Prominent Features
The meaning of the term “civilization” has changed several times during its history and
even today it is used in several ways. It is commonly used to describe human societies
with a high level of cultural and technological development. Etymologically, the word
civilization relates to the Latin term civitas, or ”city”, which is why it sometimes refers to
urban state-level societies, setting aside the nomadic people who lack a permanent
settlement or do not have a state-level organization. Sometimes it can be used as a label
for human societies which have attained a specific degree of complexity.

A civilization is any complex society characterized by urban development, social

stratification, symbolic communication forms and a perceived separation from and
domination over the natural environment by cultural elite.

Islam is a religion for all people from whatever race or background they might be. That is
why Islamic civilization is based on a unity which stands completely against any racial or
ethnic discrimination. Such major racial and ethnic groups as the Arabs, Persians, Turks,
Africans, Indians, Chinese and Malays in addition to numerous smaller units embraced
Islam and contributed to the building of Islamic civilization. Moreover, Islam was not
opposed to learning from the earlier civilizations and incorporating their science,
learning, and culture into its own world view, as long as they did not oppose the
principles of Islam. Each ethnic and racial group which embraced Islam made its
contribution to the one Islamic civilization to which everyone belonged. The sense of
brotherhood and sisterhood was so much emphasized that it overcame all local
attachments to a particular tribe, race, or language--all of which became subservient to
the universal Brotherhood and sisterhood of Islam.

The global civilization thus created by Islam permitted people of diverse ethnic
backgrounds to work together in cultivating various arts and sciences. Although the
civilization was profoundly Islamic, even non-Muslim "people of the book" participated
in the intellectual activity whose fruits belonged to everyone. The scientific climate was
reminiscent of the present situation in America where scientists and men and women of
learning from all over the world are active in the advancement of knowledge which
belongs to everyone.

The global civilization created by Islam also succeeded in activating the mind and
thought of the people who entered its fold. As a result of Islam, the nomadic Arabs
became torch-bearers of science and learning. The Persians who had created a great
civilization before the rise of Islam nevertheless produced much more science and
learning in the Islamic period than before. The same can be said of the Turks and other
peoples who embraced Islam. The religion of Islam was itself responsible not only for the
creation of a world civilization in which people of many different ethnic backgrounds
participated, but it played a central role in developing intellectual and cultural life on a

117
scale not seen before. For some eight hundred years Arabic remained the major
intellectual and scientific language of the world. During the centuries following the rise
of Islam, Muslim dynasties ruling in various parts of the Islamic world bore witness to
the flowering of Islamic culture and thought. In fact this tradition of intellectual activity
was eclipsed only at the beginning of modern times as a result of the weakening of faith
among Muslims combined with external domination. And today this activity has begun a
new in many parts of the Islamic world now that the Muslims have regained their
political independence.

4.1 Islamic Culture

Culture has been defined as “the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts,
beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought characteristic of a
community or a population. It is the set of shared beliefs, attitudes, values, and behavioral
patterns of a group or organization.” Religion on the other hand is “the expression of
man's belief in and reverence for God who created the Universe and govern it.”

It is as naive to think that any religion encompasses the totality of culture as it is to think
that any culture is solely the product of a religion. Islam like many other religions claims
to be universal accommodating within its fold the cultures of all its adherents provided
that the bounds of the religious laws are not transgressed. Islam has broad parameters of
rules and regulations and within these parameters an African can remain as much a
Muslim as a Pakistani or a Bangladeshi or an English-man or Scots-man or an American
or Chinese or any individual from any country anywhere in the world.

Nevertheless there is a difference of opinion on whether Islam has its own distinct
culture. Scholars are divided on whether there is a central cultural theme in Islam. Some
vehemently argue that there is such a central theme. Others maintain that because of the
universality of Islam it is wrong to insist upon a common cultural theme. This latter
school of thought argue that culture is an historical heritage of a nation, people or society
in the fields of art, architecture, dress, cuisine, language, literature and other cultural
norms and pursuits. Islam, on the other hand, consists of beliefs, acts of worship, a code
of conduct and jurisprudence. So long as the culture of a society lies within the
parameters of Islamic beliefs, acts of worship, code of conduct and the shariah, that
culture would be acceptable in Islam. Many an artist, architect, poet, author and chef has
upon acceptance of Islam, adjusted himself/herself so as conform to the Islamic
requirements.

Overall culture is the name of the development of the human capabilities and human
behavior and their expression in the environment. Art and literature are not culture; rather
those are the instrumentalities of the culture. In Islamic Culture there is reflection of the
Islamic values. In the name of art and culture, Islam does not encourage open or hidden
obscenity/exorbitant (‫)فحاشي‬. Rather, it declares obscenity of all kinds as clearly unlawful

118
(haram/‫)حرام‬. Likewise, Islam does not permit the doing of any action which is against
human development and dignity.

Islam has its own values according to which it molds the human character. Any culture
which is anti-Islamic will be anti-culture. A culture evolved upon the Islamic basis takes
a human being to the high station of crown creation while common concept of culture
which is vehemently propagated nowadays degrades a human being to the level of
animals. The reason is that the components of such culture are those which are found to
the maximum in the animals. Hence those cannot be the cause of an honor for a human
being. The basis of Muslim Culture is Islam and any interpretation of Culture cannot be
acceptable which is against the basic concepts of Muslims. Muslim Culture is fully
constructive, full of peace, full of excellence, and based on welfare and well-wishing of
the people. By its expression purity, modesty and sincerity prevails in the atmosphere.
Silent features of Islamic Culture:

• It is based on the Islamic faith or Islamic doctrine. It is monotheistic, so on

that bases Islamic civilization does not rely on the extraction remnants of previous
civilization. That includes the belief on oneness of the Almighty Allah, the
Creator of this universe and other fundamental principles of Islam. It is
characterized by submission to the will of God and service to humankind, which
has indeed contributed immensely to the rise and richness of this civilization.

• A universal dimension: It is not associated with a particular geographic region,

race or historical era. It is predicated on the idea that man has precedence over the
rest of the creatures of Allah. All human activities should lead to the happiness
and welfare of man. Any action intended to serve this goal is a God-blessed action
indeed.

• Universal brotherhood: Islamic Civilization is based on brotherhood, as Allah

says in the Quran:

‫اَّللا ل ااعلَّ ُك ْم تُ ْر اَحُو ان‬

َّ ‫ني أا اخ اويْ ُك ْم اواتَّ ُقوا‬ ِ ‫إََِّّناا الْم ْؤِمنُو ان إِ ْخوةٌ فاأ‬
‫اصل ُحوا با ْا‬
ْ ‫ا‬ ُ
“The believers are but brethren, therefor make peace between your brethren and
be careful of (your duty to) Allah swt that mercy may be had on you.” (Sura al-
Hujurat, v. 10)

Moreover, Prophet Pbuh said: “You will observe the believers in their mutual
passion, love and affection like the body, when one organ sick the whole of body
complains for it with insomnia and fever.”

• It is a well-balanced civilization. It insists on equilibrium between the material

and the spiritual dimensions of life. As Prophet Pbuh said: “There is no room for
monasticism in Islam”. In fact, this moderation is the essence of Islamic thought

119
 and civilization. It permits of no excess, no neglect, no extremism and no
recklessness—that moderation is based on a “golden mean”. That’s why Allah
swt says in Quran:
‫اواك اذلِ ا‬
)341 ‫ك اج اعلْناا ُك ْم أ َُّمةا او اسطاا (البقرة‬
“Thus We have made you a middle nation.” (Sura al-Bakarah, 143) Middle nation
means a perfect balance society i.e. a role model for the people.

• Cleanliness: Another feature of Islamic civilization is of cleanliness. Islam put

forward so much stress on this cleanliness that it has been made the rank of half of
faith, as mentioned by the Prophet Pbuh: cleanliness is half of faith”. (Bukhari)
And Islam does not only emphasize to get cleanliness but said to stay clean every
time and obligation of Ibadat leads a person to stay clean.
• Justice: This is another major characteristic of Islamic civilization. This is one
word that captures the essence of all Islamic laws and Islamic teachings. This
includes distribution of all rights among all the people regardless of their status
and races.
• Jihad: Islam not only emphasis or urges its followers to make an ideal society but
also forces to maintain its peace and prosperity. That’s why Islam made the
obligation of Jihad for the protection of people. And it doesn’t means to fight a
war but to stop the evil that could harm the society. An mentioned in Quran:
ِ ‫َّاس اَتْمرو ان ِِبلْمعر‬
‫وف اوتا ْن اه ْو ان اع ِن ال ُْم ْن اك ِر‬ ِ ْ ‫ُك ْن تم اخي ر أ َُّم ٍة أُ ْخ ِرج‬
ُْ ‫ا‬ ُ ُ ِ ‫ت للن‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ُْ ْا‬
“You are the best community that has been raised up for people. You enjoin what
is right and forbid what is wrong.” (Al-Imran, v. 110)

Prophet Pbuh said: Whosoever among you observes something evil, he/she stops
him by hand, if it is not possible for him then by his/her tongue, and if it is also
impossible for him then he/she should do it with his/her heart as this is the
weakest form of faith. (Muslim)

• Islamic Education: Islam put a great amount of stress on education which is the
key feature of it as this religion starts with the word “to read”. And the Prophet
Pbuh was sent as a teacher and mentor for the people. As mentioned in Quran:

‫ْمةا اوإِ ْن اكانُوا ِم ْن قا ْب ُل ل ِافي ا‬

‫ض اال ٍل‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِِ ‫وَل ِم ْن هم ي ْت لُو اعلاي ِهم‬
‫آَيته اويُ ازكي ِه ْم اويُ اعل ُم ُه ُم الْكتا ا‬
‫اب اوا ْحلك ا‬ ‫ْ ْ ا‬
ِ ‫ُه او الَّ ِذي با اع ا‬
‫ث ِِف ْاألُميِ ا‬
‫ني ار ُس ا ُ ْ ا‬
…‫ني‬ ٍ ِ‫ُمب‬

“He it is Who raised among the inhabitants of Mecca an Apostle from among
themselves, who recites to them His communications and purifies them, and
teaches them the Book and the Wisdom, although they were before certainly in
clear error.” (Sura Juma, v. 2)
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4.2 Education and Science in Islam

Unfortunately most Western historians ignore or downplay this historic Islamic period.
On the contrary, the current media promotes and general public holds the view that
Muslims have nothing to give except terrorism. The colleges and universities here teach
that the greatness of the West has its intellectual roots in Greece and Rome, and that after
a thousand-year sleep in the Dark Ages, Europe miraculously reawakened to its Greco-
Roman heritage. And it was this re-discovery which led them to Enlightenment and
Renaissance, and the subsequent scientific and industrial revolutions.

If there is any mention of the Muslim world, it is only as a footnote that they merely
saved the heritage of Greek philosophers to pass it on to the West. However, it is
gratifying to know that in this post 9/11 climate of prejudice and negative stereotyping of
Islam and Muslims, there are a quite few courageous writers to tell the true story of
Muslim accomplishments. Among these is Michael Morgan of the National Geographic
who wrote "Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers and
Artists." He named his book Lost History because this period of history is as if it is lost
and not acknowledged by the Western historians. However, Morgan was astonished that
it is not only Westerners but also Muslims, including the American Muslims who do not
know this part of history.

Islam put a great amount of stress on education which is the key feature of it as this
religion starts with the word “to read”. And the Prophet Pbuh was sent as a teacher and
mentor for the people. As mentioned in Quran:

‫ْمةا اوإِ ْن اكانُوا ِم ْن قا ْب ُل ل ِافي ا‬

ٍ ِ‫ض اال ٍل ُمب‬
‫ني‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِِ ‫وَل ِمنْ هم ي ْت لُو اعلاي ِهم‬
‫آَيته اويُ ازكي ِه ْم اويُ اعل ُم ُه ُم الْكتا ا‬
‫اب اوا ْحلك ا‬ ‫ْ ْ ا‬
ِ ‫ُه او الَّ ِذي با اع ا‬
‫ث ِِف ْاألُميِ ا‬
‫ني ار ُس ا ُ ْ ا‬

“He it is Who raised among the inhabitants of Mecca an Apostle from among themselves,
who recites to them His communications and purifies them, and teaches them the Book
and the Wisdom, although they were before certainly in clear error.” (Sura Jumu’a, v. 2)

‫الدي ِن اولِيُ ْن ِذ ُروا قا ْوام ُه ْم إِذاا ار اج ُعوا إِلايْ ِه ْم لا اعلَّ ُه ْم اْحي اذ ُرو ان‬
ِ ‫وما اكا ان الْم ْؤِمنُو ان لِي ْن ِفروا اكافَّةا فالاواَل نا افر ِمن ُك ِل ِفرقا ٍة ِم ْن هم طاائِافةٌ لِي ت اف َّقهوا ِِف‬
ُ ‫اا‬ ُْ ْ ْ ‫ْ ا‬ ُ ‫ا‬ ُ ‫اا‬

“It is mandatory for the Muslim Ummah that from every segment of it, a group should
dedicatedly seek Religious knowledge to guide them and keep them on the right path.”
(Sura al-Tauba, v. 122)

Also it is mentioned in Quran:

ِ ‫ين اَل يا ْعلا ُمو ان إََِّّناا ياتا اذَّكر أُولُو ْاألالْبا‬ ِ َّ ِ َّ
‫اب‬ ُ ‫قُ ْل اه ْل يا ْستا ِوي الذ ا‬
‫ين يا ْعلا ُمو ان اوالذ ا‬
“Are those who know equal with those who know not? But only men of understanding
will pay heed”. (Sura Zumur, v. 9)
Prophet Pbuh said: “The superiority of Alim over ‘Abid is the superiority of Me over the
lowest one among you”. Also He Pbuh said: “Certainly Allah and His angels and those

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are in the heavens and in earth and even the ants in their holes and fish pray for the
teacher who teaches the people what is good for them.”

As the Prophet Pbuh was well aware of the importance of spreading knowledge through
education, He Pbuh established the foundation of first school in Mecca, in the house of
His companion Arqam later called as “Dar-e-Arqam”. In Medina he laid the foundation
of school in masjid-e-Nabavi and also he made the ransom of the captives of Badr for
those who knew how to read and write, to teach 10 Muslim children each.

As Allah swt had awarded the Arabs of the time of Prophet Pbuh with outstanding
memory, later on they utilized it in order to preserve the Islamic knowledge as paper were
very rare at that time. The critical analysis of every single part of Islamic field like Quran,
Hadith, fiqh, etc. in order to preserve the true Islamic heritage, they served their whole
lives in that, travelling thousands of miles in order to collect the true hadith and in a result
even non-Muslims compelled to say that: the Islamic heritage Quran and Hadith was
preserved, no other field of knowledge has been preserved in that way.

Some Significant Muslim Achievements

In this article, we will go over some of the significant achievements of prominent
Muslims of this Golden era that we should all know and be proud of.

Hygiene: The fact is that Europeans learnt the very basics of hygiene and cleanliness
from Muslims. Because of the cold weather bathing was a rarity even among the royalty
in Europe and the stench of European cities was unbearable. Cleanliness is incumbent on
Muslims, and the five daily obligatory prayers cannot be said without washing and being
clean. And an Andalusian, Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Nafi introduced underarm deodorants
and improved detergents for washing clothes.
Wheal and Water Pump: The Persian wheal and water pump are both Muslim
inventions. Water-drawn flowing through canals for irrigation and other uses was
introduced in Al-Andalus, the present day Spain, by Muslims. As well as the hamams,
bathrooms with hot and cold running water for washing and taking baths.

Food Antiquate: A talented Musician, Ibn Nafi turned out to be quite a social dynamo.
He reformed the Andalusian cuisine and suggested covering of tables with washable
clothes. And chose an order for food to be served - first the soup and sauces, next the
meats and last the deserts. This multi-course serving became the standard not only in
Islamic Spain but in the entire West. He even replaced the ostentatious gold and silver
goblets with crystal glasses, thus teaching Europeans how to live with style and elegance.

Education: Aside from such essential trivia, as you know learning and pursuing
education are an integral part of Islam. Complying with the revelations of Qur'an, which
started with the word Iqra - read or recite, the Prophet Pbuh made it compulsory for

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Muslims to get educated. Thus alongside masajid, Muslims established madrassas to
teach children and grown-ups alike. And learning and teaching became so widespread
among Muslims that they became its torch-bearers for the rest of world.

Great centers of learning were founded in Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and Cordoba. This
academia later on served as models for the European universities. Baghdad was founded
by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur in 762 and in 790 it became a center of learning under
Caliph Haroon al-Rashid. He invited persons from different countries with various
backgrounds for dialog and learning from each other. His son, al-Mamoon founded Bayt
al-Hikma or House of Wisdom which was devoted to translating philosophical and
scientific works from the Greek and other languages and served as public library.

It needs to be pointed out that bayt al-Hikma did not only serve to keep the Greek
originals from extinction, as is generally acknowledged, but also as the meeting place for
scholarly dialogue, interactions, and discourses. Many original publications in a variety
of areas came out from Bayt al-Hikma. And it continued to serve as such until sacked by
Mongols in 1258. Throughout the Golden era Arabic became the language of science,
and advancement. For example, Maimonides the great Jewish scholar, a student of the
famous Andalusian al-Rushd, wrote his most significant work in the Arabic language.

The first and one of the greatest universities was Al-Zaytuna in Tunis, Tunisia, and many
Muslim scholars graduated from it. It was the earliest university in the world built around
703. The Islamic party Al-Nahda is currently engaged in reviving its world status. In 859,
Princess Fatima al-Firhi, daughter of a wealthy businessman founded the first degree
university in Fez, Morocco, and her sister Miriam founded the adjacent mosque. The
complex became known as the al-Qarawiyyin mosque and university.

Another great intellectual center, the Al-Azhar was founded in 970 in Cairo. It started as
a mosque and became the largest academe in the Islamic world. It is named after Fatima,
the daughter of Prophet Pbuh. She was also called as al-Zahra -the luminous. So Al-
Azhar means the illuminated one, a deserving name for this great institution.

Hospitals: Another priority of Muslims was establishing hospitals to take care of the sick
and needy. These hospitals were several centuries in advance of the Europeans.
Europeans took their cue from these institutions and their teaching methods as standard
for students in medical schools. Even adopted practices such as taking students on ward
rounds in hospitals attached to schools. These Muslim hospitals provided free treatment
and care to anyone in need, a quality that is sorely missing in the United States. The
policy was based on the Muslim tradition of caring for the sick and needy.

Pharmacology: In pharmacology also Muslim physicians made their lasting

contributions. They not only discovered many herbal medicines but also perfected
techniques of chemical extractions that are employed today. The first official pharmacy

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was established in Baghdad by Haroon al-Rashid and by the times of al-Mamoon it
employed highly qualified pharmacists who were licensed and inspected by the state.

Medicine: There were many illustrious Muslim physicians. The foremost among these
are such famous personalities as Al-Razi and Abu Ali Sina. The Europeans knew them by
their Latinized names Razes and Avicenna respectively. Both wrote masterpieces that
were considered authority in medical universities in Europe until the 18th century.
Muhammad Al-Razi's al-Judari wal Hasba, on smallpox, measles and chickenpox
represented the first accurate clinical study of infectious diseases. His other book, called
al-Hawi or the Comprehensive Book, included all that was known in medicine along with
accounts of his own experiments and observations.

Abu Ali Sina is called the prince of physicians, since he authored the most influential
medical text book called al-Qanun fi al-Tib or the Canon of Medicine that summed up all
existing medical knowledge. In it, he introduced the contagious nature of infectious
diseases, the use of quarantine to curb spread of infections, neuropsychiatric conditions
such as epilepsy, stroke and dementia, and complications of diabetes. He suggested that
all new medicines should be tested for their efficacy on animals and humans in clinical
trials to determine any harmful side effects before they are widely used, as the US Food
and Drug Administration does now. The French honor Al-Razi and Abu Ali Sina by
commemorating them at the University of Paris.

It was around 1,000 AC that Qasim al-Zahrawi published his renowned 1,500 page
illustrated encyclopedia of surgery. It was used as a reference in Europe for the next 500
years. He is credited for developing new treatment methods ranging from dentistry to
childbirth. Among his inventions was use of the dissolving cat gut to stich wounds. He
also performed the first caesarian operation. He surgical tools such as scalpels, bone
saws, and forceps are still used in hospitals.

Modern Sciences: Qur'an constantly tells us to observe and reflect. Following this
injunction, Muslims laid down the foundations of modern sciences - based on
experimentation rather than mere speculation. For example, Aristotle who is much
admired in the West wrongly concluded that women have fewer ribs than men. He came
up with this conclusion from his methodology of deduction in noting that women have
shorter statures than men - instead of actual observation.

Chemistry: Jabir ibn Hayyan initiated the science of chemistry. He invented most of the
chemical processes which are still used in science laboratories such as purification of
substances, oxidization, sublimation, liquefaction and crystallization. He also introduced
improved laboratory equipment such as water baths, furnaces, and systems for filtration
and distillation.

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Astronomy: It was al-Mamoon who built first modern astronomical observatories in
Baghdad and Palmyra (Syria) in 829. The Muslim astronomers discovered many stars as
shown by their Arabic names such as Algol, Aldebaran and others. Other observatories
were built by Muslim pioneers as well as the relevant instruments such as the quadrant
and astrolabe used in astronomy and ocean navigation.

Mathematics: A great mathematician Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi joined the Bayt al-

Hikma in the early 9th century, and is known as the most influential mathematician of all
times. His book Hisab al-Jabar wal Muqabala, Calculation of Integration and Equation
changed mathematics forever. Algebra takes its name from the title of the book. It
became a standard text in Europe for 400 years. He also invented algorithm, a branch of
mathematics that derives its name from his home town of Khwarizm.

He wrote several mathematical works that were soon adopted throughout the Muslim
world. For a long time European were using the cumbersome Roman numbering system.
They learnt their current numbering called Arabic numerals from Muslims. The most
astounding of his findings is Sifr or Zero which is not a number but the lack of it. It
helped solve many problems in mathematics. At a meeting of her executives arranged just
after 9/11, Carly Fiorina, CEO of Hewlett Packard rightly informed them that IT
technology would not have been possible without these contributions. Among others,
Morgan quoted above also reminds us of this, and other Muslim achievements.

Optics: Yet another Muslim genius, al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham founded the science of
vision and optics and wrote Kitab al-Manazir, or Book of Optics. Against speculations of
Euclid and Ptolemy that light was emitted from the eye, he concluded that light came
from the objects that were capable of producing illumination, and distinguished primary
from secondary emissions. He did countless experiments to support a number of his
theories on refraction and the nature of shadows. He did the first study of camera obscura
to explain how the eye sees images upright due to connection between the optic nerve
and brain. He discovered the principle of inertia centuries before Newton.

Engineering: Among other Muslim inventions is crankshaft, invented by Al-Razzaz al-

Jazari to convert rotary to linear motion, which enabled lifting of heavy objects easily. It
led to a variety of other inventions that range from bicycles to internal combustion
engines. He also invented first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, as well as
water pump to lift water. Among his 50 inventions is the combination lock.

Aviation: Muslims during this period even tried aviation. In 852 Armen Firman jumped
off a tower in Cordoba with attachment of wings and landed by parachute. Abbas ibn
Firnas constructed the first glider and launched himself from a mountain. The idea was
pursued by Jawahari and Hadari Ahmed Shalabi.

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4.3: Islam and contemporary world

Traditional Islam: Studies of Islam in the contemporary world usually concentrate on

various types of modernism or so-called fundamentalism, whereas the majority of
Muslims continue to live in the world of tradition despite all the attacks on the traditional
point of view in modern times. To understand Islam today, it is first of all important to
realize that the histories of different religions do not all follow the same trajectory.
Christianity had the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century and aggiornamento
in the Catholic Church in the 1960s. Judaism has also witnessed the rise of both the
Reform and the Conservative schools, at least in the West.

Islam, however, has not undergone, nor is it likely to undergo in any appreciable degree,
the same kinds of transformation either juridical or theologically. Its religious life and
thought remain for the most part within the framework of orthodoxy and tradition. The
modernism and so-called fundamentalism that are evident in certain sectors of Islamic
society and in certain lands have caused traditional Islamic life to wither, but have been
unable to create any significant theological worldview that could challenge the traditional
one. The vast majority of Muslims still practice the traditional rites described earlier and
the rhythm of their lives is punctuated by events related to Islam as traditionally
understood.

Moreover, the traditional Islamic sciences of Quranic commentary, Hadith,

jurisprudence, and the like continue as they have done over the centuries despite the
devastations brought on the traditional Islamic education system in many lands. The
‘ulamā,’ or religious scholars, continue to wield their authority in the realm of religion
and in some lands over political life as well. Likewise, despite being forbidden or
circumscribed in certain areas, the Sufi orders prosper in many parts of the Islamic world.
During the thirteenth/nineteenth century, when certain elements of Islamic society were
emphasizing the importance of modernism, it was primarily the Sufis who opposed
modernism avidly. And the events of the past century have only confirmed their appraisal
of the nature of the modern world. If anything, Sufism is stronger now than it was at the
beginning of the twentieth century, especially among the educated in many lands, such as
Egypt. And today it opposes extremism and so-called fundamentalism as it has opposed
secularist modernism.

Until a few decades ago, however, the various contemporary strands of traditional
Islam—ranging from law to theology, philosophy to art, and literature to Sufism—
continued to be expressed in a traditional manner, which became less and less
comprehensible to those Muslims who were products of Western educational institutions
either within the Islamic world or in the West itself. Western scholarship almost
completely neglected contemporary traditional Islamic modes of thought, concentrating
its studies on the so-called reformers and modernists. In recent decades, however, the

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scene has begun to change. Traditional Islam has begun to express itself not only in the
contemporary medium of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and other Islamic languages—to be
more accessible to the modern educated classes—but also in European languages,
especially English and French, which have become the main languages of intellectual
discourse for many Muslims themselves from lands such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, and
North Africa, lands that had experienced a long period of colonial rule. Western scholars
have also begun to pay greater attention to traditional Islam despite the still prevalent
confusion in the West between traditional Islam and what Westerners have come to call
“Islamic fundamentalism.”

Traditional Islam is like the mountain on whose slopes various geological processes, such
as weathering and sedimentation created by streams, take place. It is these processes that
can be compared to modernism, “fundamentalism,” and the like and that are usually
studied by scholars accustomed to the study of change and oblivious to the vast,
permanent mountain on whose slopes these changes are taking place. To understand
Islam fully in the contemporary world, it is first necessary to comprehend the living
nature of traditional Islam, to consider the powerful hold of the worldview of the Quran
on the souls and minds of the vast majority of Muslims, and to grasp the truth that the
vast majority still believe in the immutability of the Quran as the Word of God, in the
reality of the perfect model of the Prophet to be emulated in one’s life, in the validity of
the Sharī‘ah, and, for those who follow the path of inwardness, in the efficacy of the
permanent and ever renewed teachings of the Tarīqah, or Sufism.

Moreover, in many domains, ranging from law to the natural sciences and from abstract
philosophical and theological thought to art and architecture, there is an attempt
throughout the Islamic world to revive and resuscitate the traditional teachings, to live
and think more fully Islamic rather than emulate foreign models. This deep yearning also
manifests itself on the sociopolitical level and relates traditional Islam in this domain to
certain forms of revivalism and so-called fundamentalism, although traditional Islam
never condones the use of foreign ideological means to bring about such an end or to
reduce religion to ideology. Traditional Islam, while remaining the central religious
reality within the Islamic world, is in fact engaged in a battle not only against modernism,
but also against those forms of revivalism that employ completely non-Islamic categories
of thought and action in the name of Islam and make use of distinctly non-Islamic means
to justify what they consider to be Islamic ends.

Revivalism: The past few years have also witnessed a great upsurge of Islam on the
political plane, which can be seen nearly everywhere in the Islamic world, including in
the Iranian Revolution of 1979; the rise of Islamic activism in Lebanon and among the
Palestinians; the strengthening of revivalist movements in Egypt and Algeria; the
increase of power of Islamic parties in Pakistan, Malaysia, and Indonesia; the rise and

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later defeat of the Taliban in Afghanistan; and the ever increasing strength of Islamic
forces even in the outwardly secular state that is Turkey.

Due to a great misunderstanding of these movements in the West, they have usually been
grouped together under the name of “fundamentalism,” a word originally taken from an
American Protestant context and then applied to Islam and other religions. As far as
Islam is concerned, there are many varying types of religious activity, with very different
natures, that, unfortunately, are usually clustered together under the category bearing the
now vilified name of “fundamentalism.” There exists in the Islamic world the widely
prevalent desire, shared by the great majority of Muslims, to preserve their religious and
cultural identity, to reapply the Divine Law that was replaced by European legal codes
during the colonial period in many Islamic lands, to draw the various parts of the Islamic
world and the Islamic people (al-ummah) closer together, and to reassert the intellectual,
cultural, and artistic traditions of Islam. These widely held wishes and the impulse to
implement them must not be identified purely and simply as “fundamentalism.” Rather,
most people who share these ideals are traditional Muslims.

Then there is an older puritanical and often rationalistic reform movement, or rather set
of movements, that seeks to return to a strict application of the Sharī‘ah while opposing
both Western encroachment and the intellectual, artistic, and mystical traditions of Islam
itself in the name of an early puritan Islam considered to have been lost by later
generations. To this category belong the Wahhābī movement, which in alliance with the
Saudi family, finally captured Arabia during the early twentieth century and which
remains dominant in that land today. Such movements as the Salafiyyah of Syria and
Egypt and the Muhammadiyyah of Indonesia are related to some extent in their
perspectives to Wahhābism and need to be mentioned here although they also differ from
Wahhābism in basic ways.

One can also include in the category of “fundamentalism” the Ikhwān al-muslimīn,
founded in Egypt in the 1920s by Hasan al- Bannā’, a movement that is still strong in
many Islamic countries, especially Egypt and the Sudan, and the Jamā‘at-Islāmī of
Pakistan, founded by Mawlānā Mawdūdī after the partition of the Indian Subcontinent.
The latter continues to be a strong religio-political force to be reckoned with in Pakistan
as well as through its offshoots in Bangladesh and among the Muslims of India. All of
these movements share in their desire to re-Islamize society and to apply the Sharī‘ah
fully and have usually been peaceful in their methods of achieving this, except in the case
of Wahhābism, especially during its earlier history, when it came to power as a result of
its political union with the Saudi family in the Najd, and more recently when some who
claim a Wahhābī background have been carrying out extremist activities.

Another type of “fundamentalism” of a somewhat different nature, which has come to the
fore during the past two or three decades and especially since the Iranian Revolution of

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1979, is more activist, revolutionary, and radical than the type associated with Jamā‘at-i
islāmī or the Ikhwān almuslimīn movements. This type of revolutionary movement, with
which the very notion of “fundamentalism” is mostly associated in the West today, is
seen not only in Iran, where it came to power through the revolution guided by Ayatollah
Khomeini, but also among various Islamic groups in Lebanon and among Palestinians, in
certain radical circles in Egypt, in the Sudan, in Afghanistan under the Taliban, and in
small circles in many other Islamic countries. There are, however, major differences
between such movements. For example, the Taliban were inspired by Wahhābism and
therefore strongly opposed to Shī‘ism and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Although firmly
opposed to the West, most of this type of “fundamentalism” often incorporates certain
theses of nineteenth-and twentieth-century European political thought, including the very
notion of revolution. It politicizes Islam, not in the traditional sense, but in a way that is
an innovation in Islamic history.

Also, in contrast to the earlier forms of “fundamentalism,” which were opposed not only
to the imitation of Western culture but also to blind acceptance of Western technology,
this more revolutionary “fundamentalism” favors the wholesale adoption of Western
science and technology and seeks to gain access to power by whatever means possible,
including violence and in some cases even terrorism. Fed by resentment of the situation
of Palestine, Kashmir, Chechnya, etc., as well as Western domination over most areas of
the Islamic world, which continues in the economic and cultural fields despite the
nominal political independence of Islamic countries, this type of “fundamentalism” hopes
to provide a solution for the problems of Islamic society by a return to Islamic norms and
practices. In doing so, however, it often adopts certain modern theses and value
judgments against which it has rebelled. Its power is a reality in the Islamic world, but it
is not as great as portrayed in most Western media, where all attempts to retain or return
to Islamic principles and teachings are banded together as revolutionary and violent
“fundamentalism.” Since the tragic events of September 11, 2001, the attempt to identify
the whole of the Islamic world with the violent nature of extremism in certain Islamic
countries has intensified in the Western media and the reality of the situation has been
veiled because of either ignorance or political expediency and therefore the willful
dissemination of disinformation. It must never be forgotten that this kind of
“fundamentalism” is the other side of the coin of modernism and could not exist without
it.

Modernist Tendencies: Nearly every activity in the Islamic world during the past
century and a half that has had a modernizing character has also possessed a religious
implication. These range from the introduction of Western-inspired nationalism to the
adoption of Western technology and the introduction of the Western type of education
into various Islamic countries. It is not possible to deal with such subjects here, but their

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religious implications must not be forgotten. Here, only a few words may be said about
modernist tendencies directly related to Islam as a religion.

As early as the thirteenth/nineteenth century, when the impact of European domination

began to be felt in the heartland of the Islamic world, there appeared those who believed
that the survival of Islam depended on its modernization. In the Ottoman Empire, edicts
were passed to modernize the Islamic Law of the land, and similar measures soon took
place in Persia as well as in areas under European colonial rule. In such a central land as
Egypt; a number of thinkers such as Muhammad ‘Abduh sought to modernize Islamic
theology through greater introduction of the use of reason, while ‘Abduh’s teacher, Jamāl
al-Dīn Astrābādī (known as al-Afghānī), fought against existing traditional Islamic
political institutions in an attempt to unify the Islamic world politically.

In India, the project to modernize Islamic education was begun by Sayyid Ahmad Khān,
and in Persia European political ideas finally led to the Constitutional Revolution of
1323/1906 and the establishment of the first parliament in the Islamic world that had the
power to pass laws but, at least in principle, with the consent of the religious authorities,
or ‘ulamā’. During the twentieth century the modernist tendencies continued along lines
established in the thirteenth/nineteenth century, but with many new developments. In
Turkey, Zia Gökalp became the intellectual defender of the secularism proposed by
Ataturk when he put an end to the Ottoman caliphate in 1922. In Muslim India,
Muhammad Iqbāl, perhaps the most gifted of the so-called Islamic reformers of the past
century, not only proposed the foundation of an Islamic homeland leading to the
formation of Pakistan but also espoused the cause of Islamic revival through his moving
poetry, written mostly in Persian, but also in Urdu. His prose works, however, reveal
much more than his poetry how deeply he was influenced by Western philosophy,
especially nineteenth-century German thought.

After World War II, a number of modernists in the Islamic world, particularly in Persia
and the Arab world turned to Marxism. Both Islamic and Arab socialism came into vogue
and continued until the downfall of the Soviet Union. Also, a number of Muslim scholars
who had studied in the West fell under the sway of Western orientalism and began to
criticize traditional Islamic scholarship in the areas of Quranic commentary, the Hadīth,
the Sharī‘ah, and other basic Islamic disciplines. Movements grew up in such countries as
Pakistan to repudiate the authenticity of the Hadīth and in the Sudan to reinterpret Islam
according to only the Meccan period of revelation. A number of Muslim modernists also
sought to criticize traditional Islamic thought on the basis of structuralism, existentialism,
and other prevalent schools of Western thought, whereas others even attempted to
“synthesize” Islam with Marxism.

Although these modern tendencies were once strong and continue to be present despite
their relative eclipse during the past few years, they have not had any appreciable impact

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on Islamic religious thought as such and have not brought about the “protestant”
movement within Islam that so many Western scholars had predicted and wished for. The
modernist impact on the Islamic world has come much more through the introduction of
modern modes of everyday living and thinking, which penetrate the Islamic world
through a thousand channels, from modern educational institutions to films. Modernist
tendencies have been confronted during the past few decades not only by so-called
fundamentalism, which often seems to have less intellectual substance than the thought
processes and works of the modernists, but also by the revival of traditional Islamic
thought by those who are as well versed with the modern world as the modernists
themselves. Islam in the contemporary world presents, therefore, a picture of a powerful
living faith with its still living intellectual and spiritual tradition confronted with
challenges of a materially more powerful secular world, which inhabits not only the land
outside its borders but also part of its own living space.

Various forces are at play in a living Islamic society that is not at all monolithic but that
is still dominated, in all of its schools and tendencies, by the message of revelation and
religion to a far greater degree than is the case in the contemporary West. Islam today is a
living reality faced with multiple problems and challenges, but still deeply anchored in
the Islamic tradition and the truths that have guided its destiny since the descent of the
Quranic revelation more than fourteen centuries ago. At the heart of this revelation stands
the doctrine of the Oneness of God and the necessity for human beings to bear witness to
this Oneness in this earthly life. The vast majority of Muslims remain fully aware of this
truth today, as they have since the dawn of the religion, and their goal is to struggle to
preserve the message revealed to them, to live according to its tenets, and to fulfill the
end for which men and women were created despite all the obstacles that a powerful
world living in the forgetfulness of God has placed before them today.

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Chapter 5: Islam in our Times

5.1 The Islamic world view

A worldview is the set of beliefs about fundamental aspects of Reality that ground, and
influence all one's perceiving, thinking, knowing, and doing. It is a study of the world; a
view of life; literally, a perception of the world; a particular philosophy of life; a concept
of the world held by an individual or a group. Moreover, Worldview refers to a general
conception of the nature of the world, particularly as containing or implying a system of
value-principles.
According to these definitions, such a system of value-principles may be inspired by
religious tenets or by moral philosophy independent of religion. And also, the distinctive
spiritual and material aspect of the society and individual lives in often end to shape their
worldview. Therefore, in making a choice, it is vital to look at the worldview dynamics
from the perspective of different social systems. Individuals in a society can have their
own principles or variations, but their standard behavior would be inclined to the norms
that have been socially agreed.
To put this more concisely, and consistently with the definitions considered above, A
worldview is the set of beliefs about fundamental aspects of Reality that ground and
influence all one's perceiving, thinking, knowing, and doing. One's worldview is also
referred to as one's philosophy, philosophy of life, mindset, and outlook on life, formula
for life, ideology, faith, or even religion. Worldview can be considered as evolutionary
and architectonic – relating to the classification of knowledge used in metaphysics –
rather than contextual. Social phenomena are vibrant and because of the interaction
between the changing realities of life and the social worldview perception, the latter
invariably has a temporal dimension. Thus, worldview remains in a process of change
and reconstruction over time around some unalterable elements, because it is coming
from humans, it then also starts to think about religious worldview, such as Islamic
worldview.
The Islamic Worldview is basically a theistic and ethical worldview which contrasts
sharply with the secularist or atheistic alternatives. The key to the Muslim world view is
the word "Islam" itself. It is an Arabic word, a kind of verbal noun which means
"submission" (similarly, "Muslim" means "one who submits"). Its importance lies in the
fact that it defines how Muslims understand the relationship that God intends should exist
between Himself and man. The verb form is typically used of a person laying down his
arms in defeat; he "makes peace" or "submits." This same idea comes out in the principal
synonyms for God and man used in the Qur'an: Rabb ("Lord") and 'abd ("slave"). Five
times a day Muslims must address God in prayer as "Lord of the worlds," in the words of
the first Sura of the Qur'an, and prostrate themselves to the earth as His "slaves."
This worldview emanates from the fundamental concept or belief about the creation of
the world. Scientist believes that creation of this world is the result of a very huge

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explosion that all planets were the part of sun but got separated and dispersed into the
universe later called big-bang theory. Islamic point of view is that this universe and
whatever inside in it is created by Allah swt. There was nothing before but the smoke that
covered every space in the universe. As mentioned in the Quran:

‫َّر فِ ايها‬ ِ ِ ِ ِ ِ ‫ني اواجتْ اعلُو ان لاهُ أانْ ادا اما اذلِ ا‬ ِ
‫ني او اج اع ال ف ايها اراواس اي م ْن فا ْوق اها اواِب ار اك ف ايها اوقاد ا‬ ‫ب ال اْعال ِام ا‬ُّ ‫ك ار‬ ِ ْ ‫ض ِِف يا ْوام‬‫قُ ْل أائِنَّ ُك ْم لاتا ْك ُف ُرو ان ِِبلَّذي اخلا اق ْاأل ْار ا‬
‫اه َّن‬
ُ‫ض‬ ‫ني فا اق ا‬ ِ
‫ض ائْتِياا طا ْو اعا أ ْاو اك ْراها قاالاتاا أاتا ْي ناا طاائِع ا‬ ‫الس ام ِاء او ِه اي ُم اخا ٌن فا اق ا‬
ِ ‫ال اِلاا اولِ ْْل ْار‬ َّ ‫استا اوى إِ اَل‬ ْ َّ‫ني ُُث‬
ِ َّ ِ‫أاقْواتاها ِِف أارب ع ِة أ َّاَيٍم سواء ل‬
‫لسائِل ا‬ ‫اا ا‬ ‫ْا ا‬ ‫ا ا‬
ٍ
‫يح او ِح ْفظاا اذلِ ا‬
‫ك تا ْق ِد ُير ال اْع ِزي ِز ال اْعلِي ِم‬ ‫صاب ا‬
ِ ‫السماء الدُّنْياا ِِبا ا‬
‫ني اوأ ْاو احى ِِف ُك ِل اْسااء أ ْام اراها اوازيَّنَّا َّ ا ا‬ِ ْ ‫ات ِِف يا ْوام‬ٍ ‫س ْبع اْسااو‬
‫ا ا ا‬
“Say is it that ye deny Him who created the earth in two days and do ye join equals with
Him He is the Lord of all the worlds. He set on the Earth, Mountains standing firm, high
above it and bestowed blessings on the earth and measure therein all things to give them
nourishment in de proportion in four days in accordance with those who seek. Moreover
He comprehends in His design the sky and it had been as smoke: He said to it and to the
earth “come ye together, willingly or unwillingly”. They said: “We do come together, in
willing obedience. He completed them as seven firmament in two days and He assigned
to each heaven its duty and command. And we adorned the lower heave with lights and
provided it with guard. Such is the Decree of Him the exalted in might, full of
knowledge.” (Sura Fusulat, v. 12)
Moreover, life and existence in this world came into being as a result of the will, desire
and design of the One and Only Creator. He swt created everything with water as
declared in the Noble Quran:

‫اُهاا او اج اعلْناا ِم ان ال اْم ِاء ُك َّل اش ْي ٍء اح ٍي أافا اال يُ ْؤِمنُو ان‬

ُ ‫ض اكاناتاا ارتْ اقا فا افتا ْقنا‬ ِ ‫السماو‬
‫ات او ْاأل ْار ا‬ َّ ‫ين اك اف ُروا أ‬
‫ان َّ ا ا‬
ِ َّ
‫أ ااواملْ يا ار الذ ا‬
“Do not the unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together before we
clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then
believe?” (Sura al-Anbia, v. 33)
Islam holds that mankind's present separation from God is due to God's transcendence,
not human sinfulness. God is "Wholly other" and essentially unknowable; He does not
"reveal Himself" to human beings. In other words, our present condition is normal.
People are essentially "good" and "pure," albeit "weak" and "forgetful" (in the garden
Adam simply "forgot" God's command). Human beings do sin, but they have the moral
power not to sin, and to do the Good. All they need is "guidance." And God has provided
that guidance in the Qur'an and the Muslim Traditions held to be the very "Law of God."
The objective in all this was the creation of a new social order, one based on Divine Law.
To Muslims, this new order came into existence in 622 A.D., when Muhammad founded
the first Muslim community.
The Islamic World-View is a comprehensive conception of the universe and man’s
relation to it from the Islamic perspective, thereby serving as a basis for one’s philosophy
or outlook of life. The vision of reality and truth that appears before our mind’s eye
revealing what existence is all about; for it is the world of existence in its totality that

133
Islam is projecting.The Islamic Weltanschauung is based on the two primary sources: the
Qur’ân, which Muslims believe to be the direct word of God and the Sunnah, which
incorporates the traditions concerning the life example of the Prophet Muhammad Pbuh.
However, the nucleus of both is the principle of Tawhȋd which provides motivation to all
that there is in Islamic religious thought.
Other ingredients of the Islamic Worldview are: Divine Revelation is the ultimate source
of guidance. However, reason, as a gift of God, is an essential tool to understand what
God expects of Muslims. Hence, blind acceptance of ideas is not to be encouraged.
Human beings should share peace and harmony to meet the expectation of God. Life is
temporary, Death is certain and there is afterlifewhere, on the Day of Judgment, one will
account for the period of life on earth. Religion must have Public Image not just to
display spirituality for the sake of it, but to enable the individual and society as a whole to
seek inspiration for day to day life. Thus, the Islamic World-View guides man as a
vicegerent of Allah to the correct belief system, i.e. sharȋ‘ah and the ethical system.
Fundamental Principles of Islamic World-View
The Islamic worldview is simple and easy to understand and rationalize. It is based on
three fundamental principles which are: tawhȋd (theism), khilâfah (Vicegerency), and
'adâlah (Justice). These principles not only frame the Islamic worldview, but they also
constitute the fountainhead of the maqasid (objectives) and the strategy of Man’s life in
this world. Thus there is no question of a patchwork or an after-thought in response to the
conflicting demands of pluralist groups or social classes.
1. Tawhȋd (Theism)
Islamic worldview reveres Allah, as the one and only God, the only creator and Supreme
Lord of the universe. He is Omnipotent, Omnipresent, and Sustainer of the world and
mankind. He is the Creator of the Heavens and the earth, and the Cosmic Objects, the one
who gives rain and gives life to the parched land. This concept can also be seen in the
primary declaration of Islamic faith: “There is no god but (one) God and Muhammad
(PBUH) is the messenger of God.”
Muslims also hold that this God is the same one worshipped by Christians and Jews.
Under this pillar all other obligations are subsumed, for to believe in God and
Muhammad (PBUH) as His prophet is to obey their teachings and the example of
Muhammad’s life. Unity of Allah sums up the Islamic way of life and presents it in a
nutshell, the essence of Islamic civilization. It is the one term which describes the process
of the Islamic transformation of an individual or a society. The Principle of Tawhīd lays
the foundation of Islamic social order, which teaches man that his socio-economic
activities must be guided by the principles from a single common source, Allah (swt).
This single common source reveals its principles through Holy Qur'ān, which are
elaborated by Sunnah. The Qur’ânic teaching of Tawhȋd and the explanation it offers on
the concept of God and His attributes are meant to enable humans to break free from the
shackles of ignorance and enduring custom and tradition which would not ensure eternal

134
salvation. It is this teaching that the Quran offers humankind so that they are guided
absolutely a right.
2. khilâfah (Vicegerent)
Islamic worldview uses the term 'Vicegerency' (Khilāfah) instead of sovereignty, in view
of the fact that sovereignty belongs to Allah alone. Anyone who holds power and rules in
accordance with the laws of Allah would undoubtedly be the vicegerent of the Supreme
Ruler and would not be authorized to exercise any powers other than those delegated to
him. Another point stated in al-Qur'ān verse is that the power to rule over the earth has
been promised to the whole community of believers; it has not been said that any
particular person or class among them will be raised to that position. From this it follows
that all believers are repositories of the Caliphate (Khilāfah).
The Caliphate granted by Allah to man is popular vicegerent and not a limited one. There
is no reservation in favor of any family, class or race. No individual is inferior to other.
Every believer is a Caliph of Allah in his individual capacity. By virtue of this position,
he is individually responsible to Allah. In the words of Prophet Muhammad (Pbuh):
“Every one of you is a ruler and everyone is answerable for his subjects.” Thus, one
individual is in no way inferior to another. The preceding argument explicates that Man is
the vicegerent of Allah on this earth, and all the resources of this world are at his disposal
as a trust. This concept is pertinent to every Muslim individual. Attainment of such
conceptual maturity will undoubtedly create a just and caring society. Vicegerency of
Man in an Islamic worldview can be noticed in the following points, which are adapted
from Qur’ân and Sunnah:
 Man and all other creations owe their existence, to Allah alone.
 The universe is created and administered in accordance with the regulations set by
Almighty Allah, known as “Laws of Nature” with negation of the mechanical
concept of universe which claims that it is a product of an accident.
 Whole universe is subservient to Man for his use and benefit.
 Life of the humankind in this world is a place of trial, on which depends his life of
the Hereafter.
 Allah alone is the Sovereign; this concept of sovereignty gives birth to the
concept of human unity and human equality. It slashes the roots of rule of man
over man, and negates the concept of kingship, dictatorship, priesthood.
 Everyone is equal according to Islam. All humans enjoy equal rights and can seek
remedy, if wronged, through a court of law. Everyone has protection of his life,
property, and honor.
 The philosophy of Qur’ân is based on Wahī (revelation), which demand a believer
to adopt a balance between the requirements of body and soul and function for the
larger interest of human good.

135
  This Philosophy is not against morality. It believes in eternal moral values,
through which nations rise and fall.
 Fundamentals of Islamic philosophy come from Qur’ân and Sunnah. The Qur’ân
condemns every innovation, for which there is no proof in the fundamentals.
However, it gives a golden tenet of Ijtihâd, an instrument, for use in all places and
times of need.
 Regarding the reason of truth, the Qur’ân prescribes that where there is valid
evidence for another point of view, it should be accepted with humbleness.
However, where the evidence is fake or lacking in truth, the Qur’ânic philosophy
feels obligated to expose that discrepancy. The truth is exclusive and should be
accepted without compromise. The good value is recognition of Allah as the
source of all truth.
 Qur’ân repetitively invites and encourages humankind for judicious thinking
about every phenomena.

3. 'Adâlah (Justice)
Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, religion, or
equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics; justice is the act of being
just and/or fair. According to most contemporary theories of justice, justice is
overwhelmingly important: John Rawls claims that “Justice is the first virtue of social
institutions, as truth is of systems of thought.” Justice can be thought of as distinct from
and more fundamental than benevolence, charity, mercy, generosity or compassion.
Justice has traditionally been associated with concepts of fate, reincarnation or Divine
Providence, i.e. with a life in accordance with the cosmic plan. The association of justice
with fairness has thus been historically and culturally rare and is perhaps chiefly a
modern innovation in western societies.
In the Islamic worldview, justice denotes placing things in their rightful place. It also
means giving others equal treatment. In Islam, justice is also a moral virtue and an
attribute of human personality. Justice is close to equality in the sense that it creates a
state of equilibrium in the distribution of rights and duties, but they are not identical.
Sometimes, justice is achieved through inequality, like in unequal distribution of wealth.
The Prophet of Islam declared: “There are seven categories of people whom God will
shelter under His shade on the Day when there will be no shade except His. [One is] the
just leader.”
God spoke to His Messenger in this manner: “O My slaves, I have forbidden injustice for
Myself and forbade it also for you. So avoid being unjust to one another.” Thus, justice
represents moral rectitude and fairness, since it means things should be where they
belong. Al-Qur’ân, considers justice to be a supreme virtue. It is a basic objective of
Islam to the degree that it stands next in order of priority to belief in God’s exclusive
right to worship (Tawhȋd) and the truth of Muhammad’s prophet hood. God declares in

136
the Quran: “God commands justice and fair dealing...” And in another passage: “O you
who believe, be upright for God, and (be) bearers of witness with justice! ...” Therefore,
one may conclude that justice is an obligation of Islam and injustice is forbidden.
4. The Principle of Realism
The laws and injunctions brought by the Prophet of Allah Pbuh are based upon a realistic
view of things, not upon the whims and fancies of men. That is to say that man must
perform that action which is really and truly in his best interest even if it is against his
fancy; and he must avoid those actions which he feels good in performing but are not in
conformity with his real interests.In the language of the Holy Qur’an the action which is
in conformity with reality or in man’s best interest called as "The Truth" (al-Haqq). It is
the single goal towards which man must direct his endeavor and after which he must
strive.

‫ض اوام ْن فِي ِه َّن‬

ُ ‫ات او ْاأل ْار‬
ُ ‫الس ام ااو‬
َّ ‫ت‬ِ ‫ولا ِو اتَّبع ا ْحل ُّق أا ْهواء ُهم لاافس اد‬
‫ا اا ا ا ا ْ ا‬
"And if the Truth had followed their desires, verily the heavens and the earth and
whosoever is therein had been corrupted" (al-Mu’minoon, v: 71).
5. The Principle of equilibrium between the Material and the Spiritual
Another important principle of Islam is that it maintains a balance between the
materialistic and spiritual world. It chooses a middle way without any extremism. This is
in contrast to Judaism, which, as can be observed in its Holy Book, the Torah, is not
concerned with spiritual matters, and with Christianity, which on the contrary-according
to the explicit sayings of Jesus-is not concerned with the material life of this world. Other
religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism and even Zoroastrianism, Manicheanism and
Sabeanism, which to one degree or another are concerned with spiritual things, have
separated the spiritual way from material life, to the extent that the connection between
the two has been totally severed.
Moreover, Islam make our attention towards the matter that this worldly life is of very
short period of time and due with the connection of here after that we have to be prepared
for it as we have to answer about every action we do in this life, in front of Allah swt.
Quran explicitly mentions that:

ٌ ‫اج ُرهُ ِع ْن اد اربِ ِه اواَل اخ ْو‬

‫ف اعلاْي ِه ْم اواَل ُه ْم اْحي ازنُو ان‬ ِ ِِ
ْ ‫اسلا ام او ْج اههُ ََّّلل او ُه او َُْمس ٌن فا لاهُ أ‬
ْ ‫بالاى ام ْن أ‬
“Whoever submits His whole self to Allah and is a doer of good, - He will get his reward
with his Lord; on such shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.” (Sura al-Bakarah, v. 112)

‫اح ادا‬
‫كأا‬‫اض ارا اواَل ياظْلِ ُم اربُّ ا‬
ِ ‫اها ووج ُدوا ما اع ِملُوا ح‬
‫ا‬ ‫ص ا اا ا ا‬ ْ ‫ريةا إََِّل أ‬
‫اح ا‬ ِ
‫ريةا اواَل اكب ا‬
ِ ‫امر‬
‫صغ ا‬
ِ ِ ‫ال ه اذا ال‬
ِ ‫ْكتا‬
‫اب اَل يُغا ُ ا‬ ‫اويا ُقولُو ان اَي اويْلاتا ناا ام ِ ا‬
“The will say, Woe to us! What sort of Book is this that leave neither a small thing nor a
big thing, but has recorded it with numbers, and they will find all that they did, placed
before them and your Lord treats no one with injustice.” (Sura Kahf, v. 49)

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5.2 The World Religions – A Historical context

Religious traditions fall into super-groups in comparative religion, arranged by historical

origin and mutual influence. Abrahamic religions originate in West Asia, Indian religions
in the Indian subcontinent (South Asia) and East Asian religions in East Asia. Another
group with supra-regional influence is Afro-American religion, which have their origins
in Central and West Africa.

Abrahamic religions are the largest group, and these consist mainly of Judaism,
Christianity, Islam, and the Bahá'í Faith. They are named for the patriarch Abraham, and
are unified by the practice of monotheism. Today, at least 3.8 billion people are followers
of Abrahamic religions and are spread widely around the world apart from the regions
around East and Southeast Asia. Several Abrahamic organizations are vigorous
proselytizers.

Indian religions, originated in Greater India and partly of Indo-European origins, they
tend to share a number of key concepts, such as dharma, karma, reincarnation among
others. They are of the most influence across the Indian subcontinent, East Asia,
Southeast Asia, as well as isolated parts of Russia. The main Indian religions are
Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.

East Asian religions consist of several East Asian religions which make use of the
concept of Tao (in Chinese) or Dō (in Japanese or Korean). They include many Chinese
folk religions, Taoism and Confucianism, as well as Korean and Japanese religion
influenced by Chinese thought.

The religions of the tribal peoples of Sub-Saharan Africa, but excluding ancient Egyptian
religion, which is considered to belong to the ancient Middle East; African diasporic
religions practiced in the Americas, imported as a result of the Atlantic slave trade of the
16th to 18th centuries, building on traditional religions of Central and West Africa.
Indigenous ethnic religions, found on every continent, now marginalized by the major
organized faiths in many parts of the world or persisting as undercurrents (folk religions)
of major religions. Includes; traditional African religions, Asian shamanism, Native
American religions, Austronesian and Australian Aboriginal traditions, Chinese folk
religions, and postwar Shinto. Under more traditional listings, this has been referred to as
"paganism" along with historical polytheism. New religious movement is the term
applied to any religious faith which has emerged since the 19th century, often
syncretizing, re-interpreting or reviving aspects of older traditions such as Ayyavazhi,
Mormonism, Ahmadiyya, Pentecostalism, polytheistic reconstruction-ism, and so forth.

Major Religions of the world:

Judaism: Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenant
that God established with the Children of Israel. Judaism encompasses a wide corpus of

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texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. The Torah is part of the
larger text known as the Tanakh or the Hebrew Bible, and supplemental oral tradition
represented by later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud. With between 14.5 and
17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth largest religion in the world.

Within Judaism there are a variety of movements, most of which emerged from Rabbinic
Judaism, which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount
Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah. Historically, this assertion was
challenged by various groups such as the Sadducees and Hellenistic Judaism during the
Second Temple period; the Karaites and Sabbateans during the early and later medieval
period; and among segments of the modern non-Orthodox denominations. Modern
branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic.

Christianity: It is an Abrahamic monotheist religious group based on the life and

teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, also known by Christians as the Christ. It is the world's
largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, making
up a majority of the population in about two-thirds of the countries in the world. Its
believers affirm that Jesus is the Son of God, the Logos, and the savior of humanity,
who’s coming as the Messiah (Christ) was prophesied in the Old Testament of the Bible,
and chronicled in the New Testament. Christianity and its ethics have played a prominent
role in the shaping of Western civilization. Early statements of essential beliefs were the
Apostles Creed and Nicene Creed.
Christianity grew out of Judaism and began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-
1st century in the Roman province of Judea. Jesus' apostles, and their successors the
Apostolic Fathers, spread it around Syria, Europe, Anatolia, Mesopotamia,
Transcaucasia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Asia, despite initial persecution. Emperor
Constantine the Great, converted to Christianity and decriminalized it in the Edict of
Milan (313), later convening the First Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity
was consolidated into what would become the state religion of the Roman Empire (380).
The council formulated the Nicene Creed (325), and the Church Fathers supervised the
compilation of the Christian Bible (5th century). The period of the first seven ecumenical
councils is sometimes referred to as the Great Church, the united communion of the
Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and Oriental Orthodoxy before their schisms.
Oriental Orthodoxy split after the Council of Chalcedon (451) over differences in
Christology, while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the
East–West Schism (1054), especially over the authority of the Pope. Similarly,
Protestantism split in numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the
Protestant Reformation (16th century) over theological and ecclesiological disputes.

Hinduism: Hinduism is an Indian religion and dharma, or a way of life, widely practiced
in the Indian subcontinent and parts of Southeast Asia. Hinduism has been called the
oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana

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Dharma, “the eternal tradition”, or the "eternal way", beyond human history. Scholars
regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with
diverse roots and no founder. This “Hindu synthesis” started to develop between 500
BCE and 300 CE, after the end of the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE), and
flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India.

Although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared

concepts, recognizable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to
sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Śruti (heard) and Smṛti (remembered). These
texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and
temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads,
the Bhagavad Gita, and the Agamas. Sources of authority and eternal truths in its texts
play an important role, but there is also a strong Hindu tradition of questioning authority
in order to deepen the understanding of these truths and to further develop the tradition.
Jainism: Traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. Followers of
Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Sanskrit word jina (victory) and
connoting the path of victory in crossing over life's stream of rebirths through an ethical
and spiritual life. Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty-four victorious
saviors and teachers known as tirthankaras, with the first being Rishabhanatha, who
according to tradition lived millions of years ago, and twenty-fourth being the Mahāvīra
around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras
guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology.

The main religious premises of Jainism are ahiṃsā ("non-violence"), anekāntavāda

("many-sidedness"), aparigraha ("non-attachment") and asceticism. Jain monastics,
renunciants, and devout householders take five main vows known as vratas, outlined in
their oldest surviving text, the AcarangaSūtra: ahiṃsā ("nonviolence"), satya ("truth"),
asteya ("notstealing"), brahmacharya("celibacy or chastity"), and aparigraha ("non-
attachment"). These principles have impacted Jain culture in many ways, such as leading
to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle that avoids harm to animals and their life cycles.
Parasparopagraho Jīvānām ("the function of souls is to help one another") is the motto of
Jainism. Ṇamōkāra mantra is the most common and basic prayer in Jainism.

Buddhism: It is the world's fourth-largest religion with over 520 million followers, or
over 7% of the global population, known as Buddhists. An Indian religion, Buddhism
encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on
original teachings attributed to the Buddha and resulting interpreted philosophies.
Buddhism originated in ancient India as a Sramana tradition sometime between the 6th
and 4th centuries BCE, spreading through much of Asia. Two major extant branches of
Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: Theravada (Pali: "The School of the
Elders") and Mahayana (Sanskrit: "The Great Vehicle").

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All Buddhist traditions share the goal of overcoming suffering and the cycle of death and
rebirth, either by the attainment of Nirvana or through the path of Buddhahood. Buddhist
schools vary in their interpretation of the path to liberation, the relative importance and
canonicity assigned to the various Buddhist texts, and their specific teachings and
practices. Widely observed practices include taking refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma
and the Sangha, observance of moral precepts, monasticism, meditation, and the
cultivation of the Paramitas (virtues).

Sikhism: Sikhism is from Sikh, meaning a "disciple", or a "learner", is a monotheistic

religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent about the end of
the 15th century. It is one of the youngest of the major world religions, and the world's
fifth-largest organized religion. The fundamental beliefs of Sikhism, articulated in the
sacred scripture Guru Granth Sahib, include faith and meditation on the name of the one
creator, divine unity and equality of all humankind, engaging in selfless service, striving
for justice for the benefit and prosperity of all, and honest conduct and livelihood while
living a householder's life. In the early 21st century there were nearly 25 million Sikhs
worldwide, the great majority of them living in Punjab, according to the Encyclopedia
Britannica.

Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru (1469–1539),
and the nine Sikh gurus that succeeded him. The Tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, named
the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib as his successor, terminating the line of human
Gurus and making the scripture the eternal, religious spiritual guide for Sikhs. Sikhism
rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on Absolute Truth.

5.3 Islamic sciences

The Ancient Sciences and the Arabs: At the beginning of the 7th century CE, very few
Arabs could read, write or calculate. However, an elite group of traders who travelled
from such towns as Mecca, Medina, Khyber and from Yemen to the centers of ancient
civilizations, including Syria, Mesopotamia (i.e. the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river
system, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, the eastern parts
of Syria, and regions along the Turkish-Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders) and Egypt, were
open to outside influences. A handful of traders were familiar with reading and writing of
one sort or another. Among them were members of the Qureshi tribe and it was they who
brought foreign influences into Arabian trading centers. Nevertheless, most of the
population of Arabia was pastoralists who often quarreled among themselves. It was only
during the pilgrimage season to Mecca that fighting was abandoned by common consent.
On the whole the Arabian environment did not encourage the growth of civilized values.
It is hard to see how such a primitive people could emerge from centuries of
backwardness to a level of culture.

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The march of the Arabs from darkness to light is one of the conundrums of history and
few historians have adequately explained the phenomena. By harnessing their latent
physical and spiritual power, the Arabs somehow reconstructed their own lives. Having
begun with atabula rasa (refers to the epistemological idea that individuals are born
without built-in mental content and that therefore all knowledge comes from experience
or perception), they achieved an astonishing advancement in their social, political and
intellectual life within a very short time. How did they do this? Incredible though it may
seem to any uninitiated student of history, these Arabs not only changed their way of
thinking but also their view of the world and their role in it. Hardly had they time to
imbibe the teachings of a visionary like the Prophet Muhammad Pbuh than they became a
powerful conquering force that had won an empire within fifty years of their mentor's
death. How could such a people have made any contribution towards the progress of any
science, be it natural, physical or social?

If we proceed from these preliminaries to a proper discussion of the rise of Islamic

sciences, we must take a broader view of world history.The origins of Islamic sciences
can be traced back partly to the scientific heritage of Sumer, Babylon, Egypt, Greece,
Persia and India, partly to the inspiration derived from the Qur'an and the Prophetic
words of the Prophet Muhammad Pbuh(hadith), and also partly to the intellectual and
creative genius of Muslim scientists, thinkers and philosophers during that extraordinary
five hundred years of Islamic history (7th-11th centuries CE). It would seem that we need
a satisfactory explanation to make sense of the development of Islamic science and the
intellectual roots of Islamic civilization.

In trying to approach such a subject we require a good deal of research and perseverance.
Three essential factors need to be analyzed:
(1) The origins of the sciences and their effect on the Arabs
(2) The inspiration that the Muslims derived from the teachings of the Qur'an and Hadith

(3) The achievements of the Muslim scientists and thinkers in various branches of
knowledge.

We may refer to these three essential sources of Islamic science one after another. In
doing so, one could not ignore the relevance of Islamic sciences to medieval Europe.

Mesopotamia: Let us recall the heritage of science and technology that preceded the
advent of Islam in the 7th century CE and what might have been inherited by the Arabs
along with the rest of mankind. It is thought by some that civilization had its earliest
manifestations in the Tigris-Euphrates valley (Mesopotamia), where the cities that
emerged at Sumer, included Ur (founded 4000 BCE), Uruk, and Babylon, which in 600
BCE was the largest city on earth under King Nebuchadnezzar II. Sailing ships were
known as early as 5000 BCE; the wheel, which was invented in Mesopotamia, was used

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by potters, and by armies for transportation. Standard weights were used in commerce
(based on the shekel of 8.36 gr. = 129 grains); measures of shekel and mina were used in
the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, and records were kept on baked clay tablets; bricks
were fired in kilns in the 4th millennium BCE, and the monumental architecture of the
Ziggurat featured columns, domes, arches and vaults. The same Mesopotamian
civilization of Sumer, Assyria and Babylon also gave rise to the Law Code of King
Hammurabi (ca 1750 BCE). The Sumerians, who were advanced in astronomy, made star
catalogues in the 2nd millennium BCE, identified the Zodiac, and used a 12-month solar
calendar along with a 354 day lunar calendar; but in the 3rd millennium BCE regularly
used a 360-day calendar, which had been adopted, in a modified form, by Jews and
Muslims.

Ancient Egypt: The Egyptian civilization (3000 BCE to 300 CE), which developed after
the Mesopotamian, has been credited with instituting a 365-day solar calendar (2773
BCE). Egyptian medicine, practiced by the priests in the 2nd millennium BCE, was the
most sophisticated in ancient times, and some carvings of about 2500 BCE depict a
surgical operation in progress. Imhotep, an Egyptian (d. 2950 BCE), became the architect
of Memphis. An early form of hieroglyph (i.e. writing system), the use of papyrus as a
writing material, and a number system came into use around 3000 BCE, as did the
employment of scribes by the ancient Pharaohs, the process of embalming and
mummifying, and the art of the Pyramids. The Giza Pyramids were built between 2700
and 2200 BCE. The paintings and reliefs on the walls of ancient palaces and inside the
Pyramids, elegant furniture and the use of bronze for utensils were also among the
achievements of the ancient Egyptians, the Pyramids being the high point. Many of these
objectsare preserved in Egypt and in collections around the world. Knowledge of these
ancient civilizations was spread through stories told by Arab sages.

The Greek legacy: The Greeks also made a significant contribution to science and
technology. The Greek civilization, which flourished during 600 BCE-529 CE, was in a
chronological sense, a successor to the Middle Eastern civilizations of Mesopotamia and
Egypt, but its impact on the Arabs did not occur until two centuries after the advent of
Islam. Historians of science admits: “Although Greek science may have been a
continuation of ideas and practices developed by the Egyptians and Babylonians, the
Greeks were the first to look for general principles beyond observations”. Science before
the Greeks, as practiced in Babylon and Egypt, consisted mainly of the collection of
observations and recipes for practical applications.

Science defined as ‘an organized body of thought’ and an interpretation of the universe
was said to have originated in about 600 BCE with the Ionian school of Greek
philosophers, and continued until the early 6th century CE. According to one source,
what was achieved before the Greeks was treated as only advances in technology rather
than theoretical science. In the brief summary of Greek science and philosophy that

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follows, philosophy will be excluded. Greek philosophers studied science out of
curiosity, as an effort to know and understand things. They were not inspired by religion
or mythology nor were they interested in the application of science. They introduced
scientific methods based on reason and observation. They built institutions, such as the
Academy, the Lyceum and the Museum. With the closure of the Academy and Lyceum in
529 CE, followed by the Museum, the Greek epoch in the history of science ended.
However, their influence spread far and wide for at least another millennium.

Various influences in Pre-Islamic Arabia: Some of the ancient buildings of

Mada'inSalih in Arabia and the Dam of M’arib in Yemen are reminders of how the
influence of ancient technology reached Arabia. In the 7th century, the Arabs already had
a calendar with twelve months named in Arabic (e.g. Muharram, Safar, Rabi‘ al-Awwal,
Rabi‘ al-Thani, Jumada 'l-Ula, Jumada al-Akhir, Rajab, Sha‘ban, Ramadan, Shawwal,
Dhu'l-Qa‘dah, and Dhu'l-Hijjah) which might have originated in ancient Mesopotamia.
The Arabs had no schools or educational institutions in the pre-Islamic era, but these
existed in Alexandria, Antioch, Edessa and Harran in Mesopotamia and Persia where
some of them were employed at the medical school of Jundishapur (in south-west Persia)
during the 6th and 7th centuries.

In Syria, Byzantine (Eastern Roman) and Persian influence mingled. From here, Greek
science and learning spread to the East and the West. Among the Syrians were two
Christian sects. The Nestorians taught Greek science and philosophy in their schools and
translated Greek books into the Syriac language and these were translated into Arabic
during the Islamic period. Nestorians held theological views contrary to those of the
patriarch of Constantinople and consequently they were banned in 481 C.E. Nestorians
and his followers fled Byzantium for Syria, but on being persecuted there some of them
escaped to Mesopotamia, and few of them were employed at the medical school of
Jundishapur (which was founded by the Sassanian King Khusraw Anushirwan in the mid-
6th century CE). The school at Jundishapur survived until the early ‘Abbasid period (9th
century CE). Thus education in one form or another was available in Egypt, Syria,
Mesopotamia and Persia at the time of the advent of Islam in the 7th century, though the
inhabitants of Arabia, on the edge of civilization, remained in ignorance of them.

The Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula lived close to the Near Eastern civilizations of
antiquity. Knowledge of ancient arts, sciences and technology was transmitted to them
from their wise men (hukama') and elders in the form of folklore, tales and myths, and
was passed on from generation to generation, although it is hard to determine exactly
how much information was transmitted to the Arabs before the rise of Islam. The Arabs
called the ancient sciences ‘ulum al-awa'il (literally, "sciences of the ancients") and on
becoming civilized under Islam acknowledged that the ancient knowledge belonged to
the category the awa'il (first occurrences, antiquity).

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Islam as a Source of Inspiration for Science and Knowledge ('Ilm): The 7th century
witnessed the intellectual and cultural transformation of the Arab people principally as a
result of some unique events that occurred in Arabia. The preaching of Islam (da‘wah) by
the Prophet Muhammad Pbuh to his fellow tribesmen, and their reluctant but gradual
conversion to the new faith through a process of persuasion and political struggle,
influenced the behavior and outlook of the Arabians, who became imbued with a new
sense of purpose. For the first time they were exposed to a set of new ideas on the
creation, the Supreme Creator, the purpose of life on Earth and in the Hereafter, the need
for a code of ethics in private and public life, the obligation to worship the one and only
Lord Almighty of the Universe (Allah), through ritual prayers on a regular basis and
sessions of remembrance (dhikr, plural adhkar) or meditation, and to pay homage to a
religious and political head as personified by the Prophet Muhammad Pbuh and, to his
Successors or Caliphs (Khalifah, pl. Khulafa') as leaders of the new community (ummah).
All this was new to the Arabs. The whole package of Islamic teachings was propagated
by the Prophet and accepted by his fellow Arabs within a generation (610-632 CE).

The Prophet Pbuh taught the peoples of Arabia a great deal. Before the advent of Prophet
Pbuh, the Arabs had no books and no sacred scriptures. The Qur'an was the first Arabic
book and the first scripture in the Arabic language. Its chapters and verse were unique in
style and substance in purest Arabic. The Arabs who, from time immemorial, had
memorized poems and proverbs, found it easy to learn a part or the whole of the Qur'an
for ritual prayer. For the Arabs, the Qur'an, it would seem, was a substitute for old Arabic
poetry. The difference was that poetry was recited at home and in the market, whereas the
Qur'an was recited only after ablution and reverential devotion. Incidentally, the word
"al-Qur'an" means ‘the recitation' or the reading. It is essentially a book of revelation
from God, embodying Islamic law and ethical code.

Through an understanding of the Qur'an, the Arabs began to think and behave differently
from their polytheistic ancestors (mushrikun), becoming more like Jews and Christians in
their monotheism. Thus they had begun to reflect on the mysteries of the universe and the
importance of being imbued with a sense of brotherhood. For the first time, their lives
were regulated by a book of revelation and were turned around by it. The Qur'an was to
Muslims what the Bible was to the Christians and the Torah to the Jews; and they were
more affected by the Qur'an than Christians and Jews were by their Scriptures.

When the Islamic education was introduced to his disciples by the Prophet through the
process of da‘wah (‘call to Islam'), it was as though a whole people went to school to
read, write and memorize their first primer, al-Qur'an. Among the celebrated teachers of
the Qur'an in early Islam, was ‘Ubadahibn al-Samit, Mus‘abibn ‘Umayr,
Mu‘adhibnJabal, ‘AmribnHazm, and Tamim al-Dari. These teachers were sent to various
parts of Arabia and beyond. Islamic education begins with the lessons of the Qur'an. It is
a religious duty and an obligation for every Muslim to preach and teach to his fellow

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Muslims and non-Muslim acquaintances what he knows of the Qur'an and the Traditions.
Such a process of informal mass education and Islamisation began in the Arabian
Peninsula during the Prophet's last years and the process was carried forward under His
successors. These early Muslims also became familiar with the life style of the Prophet
(Sunnah). Everything the Prophet said became the source of inspiration for Muslims and
the Sunnah (custom or Islamic way of life) for the Muslim community. The Qur'an
describes Muhammad Pbuh as the unlettered/illiterate Prophet (al-Nabi al-Ummi), which
was true at the time of his receiving the first revelation from God through the angel
Gabriel (Jibril) at the age of 40, when he was ordered to ‘Read in the Name of God who
creates, creates man from congealed clot; Read and your Lord is most gracious, Who
teaches by the pen; (He) teaches what man (kind) does not know'.

To Archangel Gabriel's command, Muhammad replied that he was unable to read, a clear
indication of his illiteracy, his knowledge of Jewish and Christian religions being based
on what Gabriel communicated to him directly. However, according to an authority on
Muhammad, after he received the divine order to ‘read' (Iqra'), ‘he could - and did - learn
how to read and write, at least a bit'. This explains how letters he dictated to his
amanuenses were signed by him. Therefore, by the end of his life Muhammad Pbuh was
literate. The collection of Muhammad's words and thoughts and his tacit approval is
known as hadith (plural ahadith). This hadith became one of the basic sources of Islam.

The Islamic Background to Intellectual Activity

The question that now arises is: ‘what is the relevance of the Qur'an and Hadith to
Islamic science?' To begin with, everything Islamic is influenced by these two sources.
The learning process of the Arabs began with the Qur'an and everything else followed
accordingly. The Prophet told his disciples: "Wisdom (Hikmah) is the object for the
believers". Thus Muhammad created an incentive to pursue all kinds of knowledge,
including science and philosophy.The questions that we should ask and to which we
should find answers are: ‘does Islam encourage or stifle knowledge in a broad sense and
secular sciences in particular? Is there any conflict between reason (‘aql) and revelation
(wahy) in Islam?'

The Arabic term ‘ilm, literally means science and knowledge in the broadest sense. It is
derived from the Arabic verb ‘alima, to know, to learn. Therefore, ‘ilm implies learning
in a general sense. The Prophet Muhammad, like all the Semitic Prophets before him,
was an educator and spiritual mentor. He contended that the pursuit of knowledge (‘ilm)
is a duty (fardh) for every Muslim. This statement unmistakably attaches the highest
priority to knowledge and encourages Muslims to be educated. Another statement praises
religious knowledge even more highly, maintaining that it is a key to various benefits and
blessings and that those who teach the Qur'an and Hadith have inherited the role of the
ancient Prophets. In a separate statement, Muhammad Pbuh said that the scholars of

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religion (‘ulama') are the trustees of the Messengers (of God) (umana' al-Rusul). In
praise of knowledge, the Prophet also said that the pursuit of knowledge is superior to
ritual prayer (Salah), fasting (during Ramadan), pilgrimage (Hajj) and the struggle for
Islam (Jihad) in promoting the cause of God. This last Tradition is often misinterpreted
by some Muslims who think (quite mistakenly) that religious learning and the pursuit of
science exempts them from prayer, fasting, pilgrimage and Jihad. This is not at all the
intention of the statement. What it emphasizes is that religious education is no less
important than the time and efforts devoted to Salah, Sawm, Hajj and Jihad. Thus
learning gets priority over those usual duties of a believer.

The concept of science and knowledge was also widely diffused in the Prophet's
Traditions and in Arabic belle’sletters (adab). It only proves the point that Islam inspires
its adherents to think of science or knowledge not only for its spiritual and utilitarian
value, but also as an act of worship. Some of the sayings attributed to the Prophet Pbuh
elevated the pursuit of knowledge as an act of worship. The discourse on knowledge in
Arabic sources, frequently use two terms, ‘ilm and ‘aql. The former applies to sacred
knowledge as well as profane science, and ‘aql connotes intellect or intelligence.

Unity of Knowledge: Religious, Rational and Experimental

The first subjects that began to take shape among Muslim scholars after the spread of
Islam were related to the commentary on the Qur'an (tafsir), Traditions (Hadith) and
Asma' al-Rijal (biographies of Hadith scholars), Sirah (Biography of the Prophet) and
Maghazi (Battles of the Prophet), Usul al-Din (theology), Fiqh (Jurisprudence) and Usul
al-Fiqh (methodology/principles of Jurisprudence). The Arabic language was classified
by IbnKhaldun as an auxiliary science to explain the terminology of the Qur'an. It would
therefore appear that during the 1st and 2nd Hijri centuries a number of new subjects
were gradually developed to explain the Qur'an, the Traditions and Islamic history. On
the whole the study of basic religious sciences was given priority over other subjects.

The Islamic scholar Muhammad ibnIdris al-Shafi'i (d. 204/820) classified science into
two broad categories, science of the bodies (‘ilm al-abdan) and science of the religions
(‘ilm al-adyan). In the hierarchy of science, Islamic scholars placed religious subjects at
the top of their list, although secular sciences, such as mathematics, physics, chemistry,
astronomy and philosophy were recognized as useful branches of knowledge. From the
‘Abbasid period onwards, Muslims were avid readers of religion, science and philosophy.
In fact, religious and philosophical sciences developed in parallel. Although some
religious scholars (the ‘ulama' and fuqaha') undervalued philosophical sciences, such
secular subjects were however, widely tolerated, allowed to flourish in Islamic society
and were accommodated in the educational curriculum. The critical attitude of the
‘ulama' towards the philosophical sciences has belatedly attracted severe criticism from
some Orientalists. More often than not, it seems quite clear that there was no clear

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division between sacred and profane sciences. Usually, scholars of the caliber of
IbnKhuldun divided science into two classes, namely the traditional sciences
(‘ulumnaqliyah) and the philosophical sciences (‘ulum 'aqliyah).

Many outstanding scholars emphasized the unity of knowledge. Thus scientists of the
calibre of Jabir ibnHayyan, al-Kindi, al-Khwarizmi, al-Razi, al-Biruni, al-Farabi and
IbnSina were as adept in the religious (sacred) sciences as in the profane sciences of
medicine, philosophy, astronomy or mathematics. They were conscious of the various
dimensions of science.The Prophet Pbuh was credited with a number of statements
regarding cleanliness, health and medicine. These were collected together and became
known to Muslims as the Prophetic medicine (al-tibb al-nabawi). A number of books
bear this title, including one written by Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah and another by al-
Suyuti. These books contain some authentic statements of the Prophet and include herbal
medicine and natural cures. Drinking honey and reciting the Qur'an are recommended as
a panacea for all kinds of ailments. One such Tradition asserts that every disease has a
cure. In other words, God has provided cures for all kinds of disease. Commenting on this
and other Traditions, Muhammad Asad says that when his followers read the Prophet's
saying: "God sends down no disease without sending down a cure for it as well". They
understood from this statement that by searching for cures they would contribute to the
fulfillment of God's will. So, medical research became invested with the holiness of a
religious duty. It is generally believed by Muslims that no contradiction exists between
religion and science.

Maurice Bucaille's: The relevance of science to scripture has been examined by a

French scholar, Maurice Bucaille, whose study The Bible, the Qur'an and Science (an
English version of his La Bible, le Coran et la science) is relevant to our discussion.
Bucaille, aware of the fact that Judaism, Christianity and Islam are Abrahamic religions,
makes the following observations.Bucaille asks: “Why should we be surprised at this
when we know that for Islam, religion and science have always been considered the twin
sisters? From the very beginning Islam directed people to cultivate science; the
application of this precept brought with it the prodigious strides in science taken during
the great era of Islamic civilization, from which, before the Renaissance, the West itself
benefited.”

According to Bucaille, some verses of the Qur'an have puzzled interpreters until the
discoveries of modern science attested to the truth. The creation of the heaven and earth
and everything in them happened in six days. The term six "days" is interpreted by
modern exegetes of the Qur'an as six "periods" or "stages". The Qur'an also refers to a
day as being equivalent to a thousand earthly years. In another context, a day is described
as being equivalent to 50,000 years.

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Thus Maurice Bucaille, after considering all the scientific data in the Qur'an concluded as
follows: “In view of the level of knowledge in Muhammad's day, it is inconceivable that
many of the statements in the Qur'an which are connected with science could have been
the work of a man. It is, moreover, perfectly legitimate, not only to regard the Qur'an as
the expression of a Revelation, but also to award it a very special place, on account of the
guarantee of authenticity it provides and the presence in it of scientific statements which,
when studied today, appear as a challenge to explanation in human terms.”

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Chapter 6: Islam and state – A Historical Perspective

State: A state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that

maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain geographical
territory.
Islamic state: An Islamic state is a type of government primarily based on the
application of Shari'a, dispensation of justice, maintenance of law and order in which
Allah swt is the supreme authority. He swt grant His creation some authority in this world
to rule according to His teachings as vicegerent and to practice the laws of Islam. Quran
explicitly explains this concept vicegerent as:

…‫ض اخلِي افةا‬ ِ ‫ك لِلْم االئِ اك ِة إِِين ج‬

ِ ‫اع ٌل ِِف ْاأل ْار‬ ‫اوإِ ْذ قا ا‬
‫ا‬ ‫ال اربُّ ا ا‬
“And when your Lord said to the angels: Lo! I am about to place a viceroy in the earth,”
(Al-Bakarah, v. 30)
The main objective of establishing a state is to successfully implement the laws so that
everyone living in a state is getting his/her rights without any implications. Quran
elucidates the purpose of state is to establish Justice. Allah swt advises His Prophet
Dawood a.s as:
َِّ ‫يل‬ِ ِ‫ضلُّو ان اع ْن اسب‬ َِّ ‫يل‬
ِ ‫اَّلل إِ َّن الَّ ِذين ي‬ ِ ِ‫ك اع ْن اسب‬ ِ ‫َّاس ِِب ْحل ِق واَل تا تَّبِ ِع ا ِْلاوى فا ي‬
‫ضلَّ ا‬ ِ ‫اك اخلِي افةا ِِف ْاألا ْر‬
‫وم إِ ََّّن اج اعلْنا ا‬
‫اَّلل اِلُ ْم‬ ‫اا‬ ُ ‫ا‬ ‫ني الن ِ ا ا‬ ‫اح ُك ْم با ْا‬
ْ ‫ض فا‬ ُ ‫اَي ام ُاو‬
ِ ‫اب اش ِدي ٌد ِِباا ناسوا يا ْوام ا ْحلِس‬
‫اب‬ ٌ ‫اع اذ‬
‫ا‬ ُ
“O David, We made you a ruler in the land, so judge between the people with justice and
do not follow the desire. Lest it should lead you astray from the path of Allah, as for
those who go astray from the path of Allah, they shall surely have a severe punishment
because they forgot the day of reckoning” (Saad, 26)
Moreover, this state is actually a kind of fidelity by Allah swt to humans, not a personal
estate. He swt made him as vicegerent and official duty of a vicegerent always to fulfill
and to establish the orders of his master whatever he says to him. Allah swt provided us
with the constitution in the form of Quran and Sunnah. Allah warns us if we do not
follow the exact order then He swt has the full authority to take it back what He swt has
granted as He is the supreme authority. As mentioned in Quran:

‫ك اعلاى ُك ِل اش ْي ٍء قا ِد ٌير‬
‫شاءُ بِيا ِد اك ا ْْلاْي ُر إِنَّ ا‬
‫شاءُ اوتُ ِذ ُّل ام ْن تا ا‬ ‫ْك ِِمَّ ْن تا ا‬
‫شاءُ اوتُ ِع ُّز ام ْن تا ا‬ ‫ِع ال ُْمل ا‬
ُ ‫شاءُ اوتا نْز‬
‫ْك ام ْن تا ا‬ ِ ‫ك الْمل‬
‫ْك تُ ْؤِيت ال ُْمل ا‬ ِ
ُ ‫قُ ِل اللَّ ُه َّم امال ا‬

“Say O Allah! Master of the kingdom, You give the kingdom whomsoever you please
and take away the kingdom whomsoever you will and You exalt whom You will and
abase whom You will; In Your Hand is the Good, surely You have Power over all
things”. (Sura al-Imran, v. 26)

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6.1 Ideology of Religion and state

Ideology is a collection of doctrines or beliefs shared by members of a group or a society.

It can be described as a set of conscious and unconscious ideas which make up one's
beliefs, goals, expectations, and motivations. An ideology is a comprehensive normative
vision that are followed by people, governments, or other groups that is considered the
correct way by the majority of the population, as argued in several philosophical
tendencies.
So Islamic ideology solemnly based on the Islamic doctrine which is believing on
oneness of Allah as whole of the sovereignty belongs to him and His Prophets as a
mentors in this life and here after, Quran as the legislation and so on.
Some other features of Islamic Ideology:
Firstly, the Islamic concept of ideology does not restricted with geographic limitations, a
person can move anywhere he wanted in this world because the whole world is of Allah’s
property.
Secondly, Islamic ideology doesn’t rely only on the Muslims; anyone from any religion
can enjoy living in Islamic state without any limitations.
Thirdly, Islamic state ideology is based on the practical implementation of laws in a
specific piece of land.
The term Islamic state is composed of two words; “Islam” and “State”, but much
confusion remains in defining parameters.
1) Does a majority Muslim population state called an Islamic state regardless of the
laws, system and Islamic constitution imposed?
2) Does Partial implementation of some aspects of Islamic laws called Islamic state?

3) Naming the state as Islamic republic or having name of Allah on the state flag
suffice to consider a state as Islamic state?

4) Does the existence of Islamic movements in positions of authorities constitute an

Islamic state?

Even a state possesses all of the above elements, wouldn’t be considered as an Islamic
state because Islamic state ideology revolves around the practical implementation Quran
and Sunnah not around the Muslims. Islamic state is the name of a state where practice of
Quran and Sunnah is done by its followers.

151
6.2 Islam and the state during caliphate

Political status of Arab before Islam: In order to understand the Islamic state, we need
to follow the time line of political statuses of pre Islamic time.
1. Town dwellers: These people didn’t have any private property or land on
permanent basis to live, as their lives was based on basic necessities of life like of
water and food, where they found it start residing there and when these source
vanishes, start looking for another appropriate place where they found basic need
of life, for that they did not possess any standard law or constitution of life.

2. Native tribes: On the other hand, Pre-Islamic native Arabs had known by
predominantly a tribal society which did not have any concept about a state or a
civil society. There was no written law more or less called as constitution, no
governing authorities either hereditary or elected. Only a system called mala’ that
if any decision had to be taken, it was taken in the conference in which tribal
leaders was summoned and after the agreement, was enforced on every tribesman
and those who disagree had to leave that area. There was no concept of defense
system. Every tribe followed their own customs and traditions.

Political status in the Reign of Prophet and Caliphates

Islam originated in Mecca and Medina at the start of the 7th century, approximately 600
years after the foundation of Christianity. Muslims however, believe that it did not start
with Muhammad Pbuh, but that it was the original faith of others whom they regard as
prophets, such as Jesus, David, Moses, Abraham, Noah and Adam.
In 610 CE, Muhammad Pbuh began receiving divine revelations. Muhammad's Pbuh
message won over a handful of followers and was met with increasing opposition from
Meccan notables. In 618, after he lost protection with the death of his influential uncle
Abu Talib, He Pbuh migrated to the city of Yathrib (now known as Medina). With
Muhammad's Pbuh death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as
leader of the Muslim community which was eventually resurrected leading to the First
Fitna. The dispute would intensify greatly after the Battle of Karbala, in which
Muhammad's Pbuh grandson Hussein ibn Ali r.a was martyred by the ruling Umayyad
Caliph Yazid I, and the outcry for revenge divided the early Islamic community.
After Prophet Muhammad's Pbuh death, Hazrat Abu Bakr r.a, one of his closest
associates, was chosen as the first Khalifa. Although the office of caliph retained an aura
of religious authority, it laid no claim to prophecy. A number of tribal leaders refused to
extend agreements made with Muhammad Pbuh to Abu Bakr, ceasing payments of the
alms levy and in some cases claiming to be prophets in their own right. Abu Bakr
asserted his authority in a successful military campaign known as the Ridda wars, whose
momentum was carried into the lands of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires. By the end
of the reign of the second caliph Umar bin khatab r.a, Arab armies whose battle-hardened

152
ranks were now swelled by the defeated rebels and former imperial auxiliary troops,
conquered the Byzantine provinces of Syria and Egypt, while the Sassanids lost their
western territories, with the rest to follow soon afterwards.
Umar r.a improved administration of the fledgling empire, ordering improvement of
irrigation networks and playing a role in foundation of cities like Basra. To be close to
the poor, he lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every
evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar r.a established the Bayt al-mal, a welfare
institution for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and
the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Caliphate in the 7th
century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar
r.a also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly. When he
felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the
required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position. The expansion
was partially halted between 638–639 during the years of great famine and plague in
Arabia, but by the end of Umar's reign, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and much of Persia
were incorporated into the Islamic State.
Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, who lived as religious minorities
and were taxed (while Muslims paid "Zakat") to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars,
often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting
in exceptionally speedy conquests. As new areas were conquered, they also benefited
from free trade with other areas of the growing Islamic state, where to encourage
commerce; taxes were applied to wealth rather than trade. The Muslims paid Zakat on
their wealth for the benefit of the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina, drafted by the
Prophet Muhammad Pbuh, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws
and had their own judges. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and
the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower
than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.
In 639, Muawiyah r.a was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor
died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from
the sea during the Arab–Byzantine wars, in 649 Muawiyah r.a set up a first navy army,
manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and
Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655,
opening up the Mediterranean to Muslim ships.
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar r.a feared
that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury, moving away from the worship of God,
accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. Staying in these encampments away
from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the local populations which could
remain autonomous. Some of these encampments later grew into cities like Basra and
Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.

153
When Umar r.a was assassinated in 644, Uthman ibn Affan r.a became the next caliph of
the Muslims. As the Arabic language is written without vowels, speakers of different
Arabic dialects and other languages recited the Quran with phonetic variations that could
alter the meaning of the text. When Uthman ibn Affan r.a became aware of this, he
ordered a standard copy of the Quran to be prepared. Begun during his reign, the
compilation of the Quran was finished sometime between 650 and 656, and copies were
sent out to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire.
The Quran and Muhammad Pbuh discussed justice (notably in Muhammad's Pbuh
Farewell Sermon), discouraging tribal and nationalistic differences. However, after
Prophet's Pbuh death, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface.
Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep-rooted
differences between Iraq (formerly under the Persian Sassanid Empire) and Syria
(formerly under the Byzantine Empire) also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly
established Islamic State to be in their area. As Uthman ibn Affan became very old,
Marwan a relative of Muawiyah r.a, slipped into the vacuum, becoming his secretary and
slowly assuming more control. When Uthman r.a was assassinated in 656, Ali ibn Abi
Talib r.a, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad Pbuh, assumed the position of caliph
and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah r.a, the governor of Syria, and Marwan
demanded arrest of the culprits who assassinated Uthman r.a. Marwan manipulated every
one and created conflict, which resulted in the first civil war (the "First Fitna") between
Ali r.a and banu Umayya. Later on this confliction was settled down.
In 661, Ali r.a was assassinated by Kharijites. Six months later in 661, in the interest of
peace, Ali's son Hasan r.a, made a peace treaty with Muawiyahr.a. In the Hasan–
Muawiya r.a treaty, Hasan ibn Ali r.a handed over power to Muawiya r.a on the condition
that he would be just to the people and not establish a dynasty after his death. Muawiyah
r.a subsequently broke the conditions of the agreement and established the Umayyad
dynasty, with a capital in Damascus. Husayn ibn Ali r.a, by then Muhammad's Pbuh only
living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to the Umayyads. He was martyred in the
Battle of Karbala the same year. Unrest, called the Second Fitna continued, but Muslim
rule was extended under Muawiyahr.a Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and
expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul, and in 665 pushed into
the Maghreb.
Characteristics of an Islamic Khilafa:
1. Sovereignty of Allah: It means that laws or constitution to be made according to
the Quran and the Sunnah. Prophet Pbuh said: “I am leaving behind two things, if
you grab them firmly, you will never astray from right path, book of Allah
(Quran) and Sunnah of Prophet (Hadith).” (Mishkat)

2. Justice: It’s the core element in the Islamic Khilafa that differ him from being an
ordinary ruler or king. Moreover, Prophet Pbuh said: “Previous nations has been
destroyed due to injustice as when a lower ranked person committed crime they

154
 punished him, and when a high ranked person committed crime they forgave him,
and keep in mind if my daughter Fatima (r.a) would commit a sin, she would be
punished.” (Bukhari)

3. Responsibility of Ruler and its accountability: Prophet Pbuh said: “any person
if hold the duty of governess and didn’t put his effort to fulfill his duty and not
stayed sincere in his responsibility, then he will not enter into the paradise.”
(Muslim)

4. Enjoying good and abstaining form bad: This is one of the duty that Allah swt
made obligatory for this nation as no Prophet will come after Prophet Pbuh. For
that this duty fell upon the khalifa to establish a system of da’wa to educate his
nation and ends all the mal-practices among them. Allah says in Quran: “And co-
operate with one another in virtuous conduct and do not cooperate with one
another in sin and hostility.” (Al-Maidah, v. 2)
5. Chosen leadership: i.e. the leadership is chosen by the people not on the basis of
heredity. Prophet Pbuh saidJabir bin samurar.a: “Do not ask for leadership,
because if you ask for it then it will be burdened upon you and will not be helped
by Allah swt. But if you have been given the leadership without your will, then
Allah swt will help you in settling the matters.” (Bukhari)

6. Shura: Shura system is not only meant for selecting the leadership for Muslims
but also one of the greatest principle in settling the affairs and matters of ummah.
The core thing in the shura system is the consultation which is done by the leader
in the present of the parliamentarians consist of most wise and pious people. As
Allah says in Quran: “And consult them in the conduct of affairs.” (Al-Imran,
159).Umar r.a said: “There is no khilafa except with the consultation (shura).

7. Truthfulness in treasury: A khalifa always consider the treasury as fidelity and

never utilize even a single penny for its personal means beside its rights. And this
is one of the main difference between khalifa and the monarchist that the khalifa
consider treasury as fidelity while monarchist consider it as his own property.
Umar r.a once asked Suleman farsir.a, am I khalifa or monarchist? He replied: if
you get even a single penny unjustly then you are a king not khalifa.
8. Equitably of law: A khalifa is no more than a common man. The laws and
regulation will apply on him the same way as it is applied on a common man. He
has no exception or superiority in the sight of law.

9. Free from prejudice: There is no tribalism in Islamic khilafa. No tribesmen are

better than other tribe members. All people are equal in the sight of government
regardless of nobility of a tribe.

155
6.3 Islam and the state in subsequent periods

The Umayyad Dynasty:

The Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-
grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad
family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the capital. After the death of
Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666, Muawiyah r.a consolidated his power. He moved
his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to profound changes in the empire. In
the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad
marked the accession of a new family to power.
As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the
Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly,
orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased. The Umayyads asked the new converts
(mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury
also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Prophet Muhammad Pbuh. All
this increased discontent. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-
Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads
and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid
dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to Baghdad. A branch of the Ummayad family
fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba,
which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of al-Andalus. The Bayt al-mal, the
Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles
(13,000,000 km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen, and the
fifth largest contiguous empire ever. Muawiyahr.a beautified Damascus, and developed a
court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching
the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he
was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. One of Muawiyah's most controversial and
enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor.
In 682, Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles
against the Berbers and Byzantines. From there Uqba marched thousands of miles
westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched
eastwards through the Atlas Mountains. With about 300 cavalrymen, he proceeded
towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all
his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from North Africa for a
period. Weakened by the civil wars, the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to
abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete. Under the rule of Yazid, some Muslims in Kufa
began to think that if Husayn ibn Ali r.a the descendent of Muhammad Pbuh was their
ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and
martyred. Imam Husain's son, Imam Ali ibn Husain, was imprisoned along with Husain's

156
sister and other ladies left in Karbala war. Due to opposition by public they were later
released and allowed to go to their native place Medina.
One Imam after another continued in the generation of Imam Husain but they were
opposed by the Caliphs of the day as their rivals, till Imam Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah
came in power as first Caliph of Fatimid in North Africa when Caliphate and Imamate
came to same person again after Imam Ali r.a. These Imams were recognized by Shia
Islam taking Imam Ali as first Caliph/ Imam and the same is institutionalized by the
Safavids and many similar institutions named now as Ismaili, Twelver etc.
The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease
in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the
many political problems that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into
Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with
the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor.
The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large
contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the
Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated
Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular
postal service.
Al-Walid bin Abdul Malik began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the
early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the
Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa.
Muslim armies under Tariq ibnZiyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer
the Iberian Peninsula using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of the Iberian
Peninsula were defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. The Iberian Peninsula
was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of
Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the
Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula
to India. Al-Hajjajibn Yusuf played a crucial role in the organization and selection of
military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized
military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. This tactic was crucial for the
expansion to the Iberian Peninsula. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic
power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed
Yazidibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and
execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutayba
ibn Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than
Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah
renounced allegiance to Suleiman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They
killed him and sent his head to Suleiman. Suleiman did not move to Damascus on
becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. Suleiman sent Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik to
attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on

157
the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Suleiman died
suddenly in 717.
Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II (Umar bin Abdul Aziz). Yazid fought the
Kharijites, with whom Umar II had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader
Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire. Yazid
expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the
caliphate from his brother, HishamibnAbd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems.
He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad Empire to
continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced
by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In
North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce the Berber
Revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zaydibn Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts.
The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not
strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by
eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the
final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty. Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin
Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the BanuQays Arabs
against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the
Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will). Walid was shortly thereafter
deposed in a coup. Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph.
He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid
reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident
movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his
brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled
from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from
Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed
governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent,
especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as
caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad Empire together. His
death signaled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of
Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for
the talented prince Abd al-Rahman who escaped to the Iberian Peninsula and founded a
dynasty there.
The Abbasid Dynasty:
The Abbasid Caliphate, which ruled the Islamic world, oversaw the golden age ofIslamic
culture. The dynasty ruled the Islamic Caliphate from 750 to 1258 AD, making itone of
the longest and most influential Islamic dynasties. For most of its early history, itwas the
largest empire in the world, and this meant that it had contact with distantneighbors such
as the Chinese and Indians in the East, and the Byzantines in the West, allowing it to
adopt and synthesize ideas from these cultures.

158
The Abbasid Revolution: The Abbasid Dynasty overthrew the preceding Umayyad
Dynasty, which wasbased in Damascus, Syria. The Umayyads had become increasingly
unpopular, especially in the eastern territories of the caliphate. The Umayyads favored
Syrian Arabs over other Muslims and treated mawali, newly converted Muslims, as
second class citizens. The most numerous group of mawali were the Persians, who lived
sideby-side with Arabs in the east who were angry at the favor shown to Syrian Arabs.
Together, they were ripe for rebellion. Other Muslims were angry with the Umayyads for
turning the caliphate into a hereditary dynasty. Some believed that a single family should
not hold power, while Shiites believed that true authority belonged to the family of the
Prophet Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali, and the Umayyads were not part of
Muhammad’s family. All these various groups who were angry with the Umayyads
united under the Abbasids, who began a rebellion against the Umayyads in Persia. The
Abbasids built a coalition of Persian mawali, Eastern Arabs, and Shiites. The Abbasids
were able to gain Shiite support because they claimed descent from Muhammad through
Muhammad’s uncle Abbas. Their descent from Muhammad was not through Ali, as
Shiites would have preferred, but Shiites still considered the Abbasids better than the
Umayyads.
A Persian general, Abu Muslim, who supported Abbasid claims to power, led the
Abbasid armies. His victories allowed the Abbasid leader Abul `Abbas al-Saffah to enter
the Shiite-dominated city of Kufa in 748 and declare himself caliph. In 750, the army of
Abu Muslim and al-Saffah faced the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II at the Battle of the Zab
near the Tigris River. Marwan II was defeated, fled, and was killed. As-Saffah captured
Damascus and slaughtered the remaining members of the Umayyad family (except for
one, Abd al-Rahman, who escaped to Spain and continued the Umayyad Dynasty there).
The Abbasids were the new rulers of the caliphate.
The Early Abbasids: The Abbasids had led a revolution against the unpopular policies
of the Umayyads, but those who expected major change were disappointed. Under the
second Abbasid Caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754–775), it became clear that much of the
Umayyad past would be continued. The Abbasids maintained the hereditary control of
the caliphate, forming a new dynasty. The alliance with the Shiites was short lived, and
the Abbasids became champions of Sunni orthodoxy, upholding the authority of their
family over that of Ali, and continuing the subjugation of the Shiites. Even Abu Muslim,
the brilliant Persian general who engineered the rise of the Abbasids, was deemed a threat
and executed. However, the Abbasids did prove loyal to their Persian mawaliallies. In
fact, Abbasid culture would come to be dominated by the legacy of Persian civilization.
The Abbasid court was heavily influenced by Persian customs, and members of the
powerful Persian Barmakid family acted as the advisers of the caliphs and rivaled them in
wealth and power.
One of the earliest, and most important, changes the Abbasids made was to move the
capital of the Islamic empire from the old Umayyad power base of Damascus to a new
city—Baghdad. Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur on the banks of the Tigris

159
River. The city was round in shape, and designed from the beginning to be a great capital
and the center of the Islamic world. It was built not far from the Old Persian capital of
Ctesiphon, and its location reveals the desire of the dynasty to connect itself to Persian
culture. Baghdad grew quickly with encouragement from the Abbasid state, and it was
soon the largest city in the world. At Baghdad, the Persian culture that the Umayyads had
attempted to suppress was now allowed to thrive. Art, poetry, and science flourished. The
Abbasids learned from the Chinese (allegedly from Chinese soldiers captured in battle)
the art of making paper. Cheap and durable, paper became an important material for
spreading literature and knowledge.
Islamic Golden Age: The fifth caliph of the Abbasid dynasty, Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–
809), is remembered as one of history’s greatest patrons of the arts and sciences. Under
his rule, Baghdad became the world’s most important center for science, philosophy,
medicine, and education. The massive size of the caliphate meant that it had contact and
shared borders with many distant empires, so scholars at Baghdad could collect, translate,
and expand upon the knowledge of other civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Persians,
Indians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. The successors of Harun al-Rashid,
especially his son al-Ma’mun (r. 813–833), continued his policies of supporting artists,
scientists, and scholars. Al-Ma’mun founded the Bayt al-Hikma, the House of Wisdom,
in Baghdad. A library, an institute for translators, and in many ways an early form of
university, the House of Wisdom hosted Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who sought to
translate and gather the cumulative knowledge of human history in one place, and in one
language—Arabic.
At the House of Wisdom, important ideas from around the world came together. The
introduction of Indian numerals, which have become standard in the Islamic and Western
worlds, greatly aided in mathematics and scientific discovery. Scholars such as Al-Kindi
revolutionized mathematics and synthesized Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. Al-
Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur - among many other scholars - made important
contributions to geometry and astronomy. Al-Khwarizmi, expanding upon Greek
mathematical concepts, developed Algebra (the word “algorithm” is a corruption of his
name). Ibn al-Haytham made important contributions to the field of optics, and is
generally held to have developed the concept of the scientific method.
A number of very practical innovations took place, especially in the field of agriculture.
Improved methods of irrigation allowed more land to be cultivated, and new types of
mills and turbines were used to reduce the need for labor (though slavery was still very
common in both the countryside and cities). Crops and farming techniques were adopted
from far-flung neighboring cultures. Rice, cotton, and sugar were taken from India, citrus
fruits from China, and sorghum from Africa. Thanks to Islamic famers, these crops
eventually made their way to the West. Such Islamic innovation would continue, even as
the Abbasid government fell into chaos.
A Long and Slow Decline: Due to several very capable caliphs and their advisers, the
Abbasid Caliphate thrived through the early ninth century, despite the major challenges

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of ruling a massive and multiethnic empire. Besides being a great patron of the arts and
sciences, Harun al-Rashid also brought the Abbasid Caliphate to its high point. Still, he
had to deal with revolts in Persia and North Africa, and he removed from power the
Persian Barmakid family, the source of many great advisers (supposedly after the adviser
Ja’far impregnated the caliph’s sister, though probably because al-Rashid feared their
power would eclipse his own). Al-Rashid’s son, Caliph al-Ma’mun not only continued
his father’s patronage by establishing the House of Wisdom, but he made a number of
important independent innovations.
Al-Ma’mun adopted the radical Mu'tazili theology, which was influenced by Greek
philosophy and held that God could be understood through rational inquiry, and that
belief and practice should be subject to reason. He established the mihna, an inquisition
in which the adherence of scholars and officials to Mu'tazili theology was tested, and they
could be imprisoned or even killed if they did not follow the theology. As a result, al-
Ma’mun’s reign saw a growing division between the Islamic sovereign and the Islamic
people. This division was exacerbated by his creation of an army of Central Asian
soldiers loyal only to him. During al-Ma’mun’s reign, the provincial governors, called
emirs, became increasingly independent. The governors of Persia setup his own dynasty
and ruled as a king, though he continued to recognize the Abbasid caliph. This trend of
impendent governors would continue, causing major problems for the caliphate.
After the caliphate of al-Ma’mun, Abbasid power began to noticeably decline. The cost
of running a massive empire and maintaining a large bureaucracy required steady
revenues, and as the authority of the caliphate diminished it was able to collect fewer
taxes. In order to stabilize the state finances, the caliphs granted tax-farms to governors
and military commanders. These governors, with their own troops and revenue bases,
soon proved independent-minded and disloyal.
The caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 833–842) furthered the gap between the caliph and his people.
Expanding on al-Ma’mun’s new army, he created his own military force of slave soldiers
called ghilman (later known as “Mamluks”). As the elite guard of the caliph, these slaves
began acting superior to the people of Baghdad, which inspired anger and led to riots.
Instead of trying to diffuse the situation, al-Mu’tasim simply moved the capital away
from Baghdad and settled in Samarra, 60 miles to the north. Away from the bulk of their
subjects who lived in Baghdad, the caliphs became insulated from the problems of their
empire.
Increasingly, the caliph’s soldiers controlled Samaria, turning the caliph into little more
than a puppet. When a caliph was not pliant, they simply killed him. Al-Muwaffaq, the
brother of caliph al-Mu`tamid (r. 870–892), tried to change it. Acting as his brother’s
regent, he had the caliph move the capital back to Baghdad, and from there al Muwaffaq
guided the caliphate to new prosperity and defeated the Zanj Rebellion, an uprising of
African slaves that posed a major threat to the caliphate. Thanks to al-Muwaffaq,
Abbasid power gained a new lease on life. However, decline began anew under the reign
of al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932), who was raised to the throne at the age of thirteen by

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members of the court who knew they could control him. For al-Muqtadir’s long, twenty-
five-year reign, he was too weak to do anything but act as a tool of various court factions.
Under his caliphate, territory after territory broke free of Abbasid rule. By the end,
Abbasid authority extended hardly beyond Baghdad. Al-Muqtadir was eventually killed
by city guards after he bankrupted the state to the point where he could not even pay their
salaries.
Al-Muqtadir’s son, al-Radi (r. 934–940) is often considered the last caliph to exercise any
real authority. He tried to raise a powerful governor of Iraq who would hold power over
all the other independent emirs. Thus, al-Radi created the title amir-alumara, “emir of
emirs,” for the governor of Iraq. This plan back fired; however, because the title
effectively invested supreme authority in its holder, leaving the caliph simply as a
figurehead. The Shiite Buyids soon took the title and held it as a hereditary position,
becoming the de facto rulers of Iraq. From this point on, the Abbasid caliphs became
little more than religious figureheads. In the mid-11th century, the Buyids were ousted by
the Sunni Seljuq Turks, who conquered Iran, Iraq, Syria, and most of Asia Minor,
forming a new and vibrant Islamic Empire. The Seljuqs continued to keep the Abbasid
caliph as the titular ruler while exercising true authority over the empire as sultans.
The End of the Abbasids: When the Seljuq sultanate collapsed in the twelfth century, an
opportunity presented itself for Caliph al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225) to attempt to restore
Abbasid power in Iraq. His long reign of forty-seven years allowed him ample time to
reconquering Mesopotamia and further develops Baghdad as a center of learning. His
chief rival was the Sultanate of Khwarezm, which ruled Persia. Supposedly, al-Nasir
appealed to the Mongols, an expanding central-Asian nomad empire, for help against
Khwarezm. Under al-Nasir’s less competent successors, this backfired disastrously. The
Mongols completely over ran Khwarizmi and then turned their attention to Baghdad. The
Mongols seem to have wanted to rule, as the Buyids and Seljuqs before them, by holding
real military power but allowing the Abbasid caliph symbolic authority.
Caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 1242–1258), however, refused to acknowledge their authority and
offered these non-Muslims only insults and threats. Faced with Mongol invasion, he did
little to prepare, and the Mongol hordes soon surrounded Baghdad. They captured the
city in 1258 and sacked it. They trampled the caliph to death, and completely destroyed
the city. They killed somewhere between 100,000 and a million people, destroyed all the
books of the House of Wisdom and other libraries, burned down all the great monuments
of the city, and left Baghdad a smoldering ruin. This marks the end of the Abbasid
caliphate of Baghdad, and the abrupt end of the Islamic golden age. The Abbasid line was
reestablished in 1261, in Egypt. The sultans of Egypt appointed an Abbasid caliph in
Cairo, but these Egyptian caliphs were even more symbolic than the late caliphs had been
in Baghdad, and were simply used to legitimize the power of the sultans. The authority of
these caliphs extended strictly to religious matters. Still, the Egypt-based period of the
Abbasid dynasty lasted over 250 years.

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In 1517, the Ottoman Empire conquered Egypt. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Mutawakkil
III, was forced to surrender all his authority to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I. This was the
end of seven-and-a-half centuries of Abbasid history. However, under the Ottoman rulers
the caliphate was once again wedded to a powerful Islamic Empire, which exercised true
authority in the Muslim world.
End of Ottoman dynasty:
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined. The decision to back
Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in that war. The
defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists led by the victorious
general of the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as
Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the treaty of
Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern
Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne
(1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that
emphasized economic development and secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to
reflect European laws, adopted Arabic numerals, the Latin script, separated the religious
establishment from the state, and emancipated woman—even giving them the right to
vote in parallel with women's suffrage in the west.
Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia
Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. During the
war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their
assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of
"protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the
French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation
of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret
intelligence agent T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of Arabia." Ottoman
successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt,
Greece, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey,
Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism
began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized
their governments and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other
places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve
age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims. Some Muslim
countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular
government.

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Chapter 7: Geopolitical Dynamics of the world and Muslim Ummah

Geopolitics is the study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on politics and
international relations. While geopolitics usually refers to countries and relations between
them, it may also focus on two other kinds of states: de facto independent states with
limited international recognition and; relations between sub-national geopolitical entities,
such as the federated states that make up a federation, confederation or a quasi-federal
system. At the level of international relations, geopolitics is a method of studying foreign
policy to understand, explain and predict international political behavior through
geographical variables. These include area studies, climate, topography, demography,
natural resources, and applied science of the region being evaluated.

Geopolitics focuses on political power linked to geographic space. In particular,

territorial waters and land territory in correlation with diplomatic history. Outside
academia, a variety of groups offer geopolitical analysis, including non-profit groups and
for-profit private institutions (such as brokerage houses and consulting companies).
Topics of geopolitics include relations between the interests of international political
actors and interests focused within an area, a space, or a geographical element; relations
which create a geopolitical system. “Critical geopolitics” deconstructs classical
geopolitical theories, by showing their political/ideological functions for great powers.

Most of the Islamic countries, geographically, are located on the earth’s middle latitudes
including ‘the heat belt’ from Indonesia in South-east Asia to Morocco in North-east
Africa. Approximately one-fourth of the world’s total population practice Islam. This
comprises about 1.57 billion people who are living in more than two hundred countries
across the globe. About 95% of the total number of Muslims in the world are living in
Asia (with 60%), the Middle East and North Africa (with 20%), and Sub-Saharan Africa
(with 15%) while about 3.4% of them in Europe and the Americas. It is interesting to
note that although the highest percentage of Muslim majority states are located in the
region of the Middle East and North Africa, this region comprises only 20% of the
world’s total Muslim population. On the other hand, about one-fifth of total world’s
Muslims (more than 300 million) live in non-Muslim majority countries. In this respect,
India, with more than 161 million Muslims has the third-largest Muslim population in the
world; Russia’s Muslim population is more than the combined Muslim populations of
Libya and Jordan, and China’s Muslims outnumber those of Syria.

Geo-strategically, it is significant to note that three main poles of the Islamic world in
south East Asia, the Middle East and North Africa include the most strategic channels
and straits, which are the Straits of Malacca between Malaysia and Indonesia, the
Hormuz Strait in the midst of the middle-eastern Islamic countries, and the Bab al-
Mandeb and Suez Canal in North-east and horn of Africa area, as well as the Dardanelles
and Bosporus straits which are strategic international waterways in Turkey. The strategic

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role of these marine routes in pursuing strategic goals, international transportation and
transfer of goods, as well as crude oil has been so critical that all great powers during the
modern world systems have stressed the need to control these points. Basically, it has
been noted that controlling marine routes has played a vital role in gaining a dominant
position in global systems within long cycles of world politics. These states are those
great powers which have been introduced as world leaders. This happened also in the
long cycle of the United States which started in 1945 after the Second World War and has
continued to date. Among these regions the Middle East and the Persian Gulf area have
always been defined as the vital interests of the US, as was noted in 1980 by the US
President that; An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region
will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and
such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force. This is
also because of the massive oil and gas reservoirs in this area which holds about 60% of
the total world reserves. Furthermore, this region also is the center of the Islam religion
and from where Islam has been circulated around the world.
Geo-politics of World in present time:
Our Earth is divided into seven continents includes:
 North & South America.
 Europe.
 Asia.
 Australia.
 Central America and the Antilles.
 Antarctica.
 Africa.
Asia: Asia is the world’s largest and most populated country in world with an area of
44,579,000 square kilometers (17,212,000 sq mi), about 30 percent of Earth's total land
area and 8.7 percent of the Earth's total surface area and 60 percent of world’s population.
It has been home for majority of population and also site for first civilization. Asia is
divided into 48 countries including Turkey, Pakistan, India, Russia, Kazakhstan and
more. Its main regions are:
 Central Asia
 West Asia (Middle East or Near East)
 Southeast Asia (Indo-china and East Indies)
 East Asia (Far East)
 North Asia (Siberia)
 South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
Asia has the largest continental economy and is the fastest growing economy in the
world. As of 2011 census, the largest economies in Asia are Japan, India, China, South
Korea and Indonesia. Most of the Asian countries are rich in Minerals these include Iran,

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Iraq, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Bahrain, Oman, UAE,
Saudi Arab, Qatar, Kuwait and Brunei. Indus valley Civilization also lies in Asia which
is the most ancient Civilization. Asian countries because of their land rich in soil and
minerals benefit people by exporting Natural Resources to other countries. Some of these
countries are rich just because of their Natural Resources. These Natural Resources
benefitted them by improving their lifestyle.
Be that as it may, in a few sections of Asia circumstance is basic, with threats in parts of
Asia, for example, the proceeding with strains over South China oceans, Kashmir,
Taiwan, Tibet, North Korea and in addition financial aggressiveness between China and
India. China and India don't have a peace arrangement, Japan and Russia or South Korea
and North Korea. Notwithstanding, there are additionally moves towards more
noteworthy co-activity and correspondence inside the district with Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) a remarkable model.

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Europe: Europe covers around 10,180,000 square kilometers, or 2 percent of the Earth's
surface or 6.8 percent of land zone. Politically, Europe is divided into around fifty
sovereign conditions of which the Russian Federation is the biggest and most crowded,
reaching 39 percent of the landmass and involving 15 percent of population. Europe had
population of around 741 million or around 11 percent of the total population starting at
2016. Europe has the most elevated drift to arrive proportion than some other landmass.
Its sea comprise of the Atlantic Ocean toward the west, the Arctic Ocean toward the
north, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas toward the southern side.

Europe is well-known for its Climate and lovely places to visits. Their significant
wellspring of pay is Tourism. Access to streams, the Mediterranean, and the North
Atlantic has enabled the European Peninsula to manufacture exchange courses and wind
up one of the wealthiest and most created puts on earth. Due to its remarkable
topography, the European Peninsula likewise became exceedingly assorted and
fragmented. Its outskirts are the consequence of hundreds of years of wars, bargains, and
now and again forced settlements that keep on forming Europe's monetary and political
substances

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Africa: World’s second biggest and most-crowded mainland is Africa. At around 30.3
million square kilometer including adjoining islands, it covers 6 percent of Earth's surface
region and 20 percent of its property region. With 1.2 billion individuals, it represents
around 16 percent of the world's human population. The landmass is surrounded by the
Indian Ocean toward the southeast, Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea toward the upper
east, Mediterranean Sea toward the north, and the Atlantic Ocean toward the west. The
mainland includes Madagascar and different dry land areas. It contains fifty four
completely recognized sovereign states, nine domains and two accepted states with no
acknowledgment. Most of the landmass and its nations are in the Northern Hemisphere,
and number of different nations in the Southern Hemisphere.

Africa has limitless normal resources still Africa remains the world's poorest and most
youthful country, the main reason for that is incorporate degenerate governments that
have regularly violated genuine human rights, failed central arrangements, large amount
of illiteracy rate, absence of access to capital, and continuous tension between
government and military clash (extending from guerrilla fighting to destruction).
Destitution, illiteracy, lack of food and insufficient water supply and proper sanitation,
and also weakness due to lack of food, affects a substantial extent of the general
population who live in the African Land. In 2008, the World Bank declared updated
worldwide neediness gauges which said that African earns 1.25$ every day. 80.5 percent
of the Sub-Saharan Africa population was living on under 2.50$ every day in 2005.

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Australia: Australia has an aggregate land zone of 8.56 million square kilometers, the
Australian mainland is the littlest, and second-most minimal human occupied landmass
on Earth. The mainland rack interfacing the islands, half of which is under than 50 meters
down, covers somewhere in the range of 2.5 million square kilometers, including the
Sahul Shelf and Bass Strait. As the nation of Australia is for the most part on a solitary
landmass, and involves the vast majority of the mainland, it is now and again casually
alluded to as an island landmass, encompassed by seas.

Australia is an island, a landmass and a country at the same time. Australia is without
inviting, and a long way from geopolitically troublesome, neighbors to its north and
south. Secluded from outside dangers by water, Australia, similar to the United States,
has the alternative and now and again shows an affinity to turn internal, dismissing the
ocean and the naval force. Australia is occupies a blessed geographical position but still
this is a complex and demanding position for inhabitants of Australia.

America: The America includes the Area of South and North America. Together they
make up an Area of western hemi-sphere and contain New World.

Alongside their related islands, America covers 8 percent of Earth's total surface territory
and 28.4 percent of its property region. The geography is ruled by the American
Cordillera. The compliment eastern side of the Americas (North and South America) is
commanded by expansive stream bowls, for example, the St. Lawrence River Amazon,
Mississippi, and La Plata. Since the Americas stretch out 14,000 kilometers from north to
south, the environmental and biology change generally, from the ice tundra of Greenland,
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Northern Canada, and Alaska, to the tropical rain backwoods in South America and
Central America.
America's interesting geology has very influenced its economy, too. Its geographic
detachment added to dependence on additional territorial fares. Testing territory made
oceanic exchange and the advancement of ports basic for American countries. Frontier
powers needed crude material fares expeditiously delivered to Europe. Right up 'til the
present time, numerous nations in South America depend intensely on the fare of crude
materials by means of ports for income.

7.1 Islamic Political sociology in the modern age

Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of social relationships, social

interaction, and culture of everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of
empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social
order, acceptance, and change or social evolution. Many sociologists aim to conduct
research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus
primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter

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ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro
level of systems and the social structure.

Political sociology is concerned with the sociological analysis of political phenomena

ranging from the State, to civil society, to the family, investigating topics such as
citizenship, social movements, and the sources of social power. In other words, political
sociology was traditionally concerned with how social trends, dynamics, and structures of
domination affect formal political processes, as well as exploring how various social
forces work together to change political policies.

Moreover, Islamic political sociology is based on the thought that it was brought to us by
the last of the Prophets, Muhammad (Pbuh) consists of the sacred teachings, embodied in
the Holy Quran and Hadith. Islamic political sociology will, therefore, have to be defined
as the pattern of societies and multi-cultural development through ages of Prophet-hood,
internet of social relations, political and philosophical mentalities of multifarious
civilizational spectrum. The most interesting aspect of Islamic political sociology is its
flexible nature in dealing with the basic challenges of political modernization. The main
aim of this dissertation was to undertake a thorough study of the potentialities of the basic
sources of Muslim political thought namely the; The Holy Quran, The Sunnah, Ijmah
(consensus) and Qiyas (intellectual instinct) along with the sociological connotations of
Islam in the modern age. This also deals with the traditional approaches and modern
schools of thought (Islamic and non-Islamic) which could enlighten the theme and give
us a complete understanding of emerging socio-political parameters regarding evaluation
of an Islamic society.

Evolution of Islam is based upon the balance between society and politics according to
the fundamentals of the Holy Quran. Both these elements; providing strong co-
relationship between Islamic political system and Islamic sociological patterns. After this
evolutionary period Holy Prophet became the center of community as the source of
divine guidance and an example of Islamic societal and governmental ethics. Holy
Prophet left behind him two elements: (I) his community; as a dynamic force behind
Islamic political sociology. (II) Holy Quranic precepts for individual and societal conduct
of community; providing a strong inspiration and mobility for the socio-political grounds
provided through Holy Prophet (Pbuh). These factors played a vital role in shaping the
early Islamic State.

After the Prophet, a new phase begins in which community became conscious of its new
psyche and social unity. This incubation period is marked by the auspicious leadership of
Pious Caliph Abu Bakar Siddiq, Omar Bin Khattab, Uthman Bin Affan and Ali Bin Abi
Talib (R.A), who endeavored to enforce the Holy Quranic Laws in the community. This
period constitute the beginning of socio-political consciousness of Muslims as start
thinking in terms of organized political authority. They elect from themselves someone

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who is competent to enforce the Holy Quranic precepts and preserve the socio-political
cohesion of the community under the institution of caliphate. The Caliphal contract was a
form of governmental contract through which the Ummah was politically as well as
socially organized into a state. In this regard Muslim philosophers and political thinkers
especially Ibn-e-Khuldun, Al-Ghazali, Al-Mawardi and Al-Farabi contributed their
sociological and political theories towards the establishment of an Islamic state which
according to them should be a role model for the emerging state of the world and
especially for the Muslim Ummah.

In this age of universalization and globalization contemporary Islamic state is seriously

facing the problems regarding social status of and Islamic state and reasons behind the
decline of their political institutions. In reconstructing these concepts, the main principle
has been to attain the resolution of the conflict between Islamic political thinkers and
modern political thinkers. When viewing the concept of Islamic sociology, it’s important
to realize that Islam does not distinguish between social institutions and the state. Rather,
Islam is a comprehensive reality—the state is to be as much Islamic as is the local
mosque. Islam is a religion; but Islam is also a government.

The Muslim world today is divided between those who favor nation-states (with laws,
constitutions, and boundaries distinct from other nations) and those who favor pan-Islam
(the vision that the Muslim community should be united, with diminished or non-existent
national boundaries). Those who favor nation-states sometimes produce Muslim nations
where the population is predominantly Muslim but where the law of the land is either not
Shari’ah or not purely so. For example, Turkey is a Muslim nation whose constitution is
not based on Shari’ah law. Although most of its population is Muslim, Turkey itself is a
secular nation. Muslims who favor a pan-Islamic community are troubled by this and
tend to respond with various expressions of disapproval. Sometimes this disapproval
takes the form of verbal denouncement of the nation. Sometimes it takes the form of
individuals within the government seeking to reform it. The media, however, most often
focuses on those who engage in armed protest and terrorist activities, such as often
happens in Turkey and Egypt.

Modern social behavior through changing patterns of politics is influencing upon intra-
societal variables and extra-societal variables in the present Islamic State. The changing
pattern of world politics through globalization has taken roots in the present era. There is
going to be a rapid change in the behavioral as well as political patterns throughout the
world; thus posing a direct challenge to Muslim Ummah whose unity is far from
monolithic. In this regard the first and foremost task before Muslim Ummah is the
dynamic framework of a positive evaluation of the world politics at the start of a new
century and millennium, the Islamic view of universal community of believers seems to
be logical as well as rational. The only need is to provide a link between theory and
practice. The only dynamic force behind all the Quranic precepts is its flexible nature.

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And this dynamism of Islam will inspire all to work on the theme of Islamic Political
sociology.

7.2 Ideological mobilization in the Muslim world

Religion as the basis of political ideology should be carefully distinguished from religion
as a marker of identity that may in turn be the basis of political action. Islam’s vision has
from the outset been a universal one, and its aspiration as well as the scope of its early
history a transnational one. The Muslim world is targeted not because it is Muslim, but
because it is weak. National political movements professedly based on Islam are
predominantly political and only secondarily religious. In the Muslim world secularism is
equated with despotic regimes under western sponsorship. In the welter of dialogues
between Islam and the west, exercises of the present kind have distinct value by virtue of
discussing practical issues of governance and contemporary dialogues bring together
westerners with a role in policy making Muslims who are purely intellectuals.
Colonialism destroyed indigenous institutions of social cohesion in Muslim societies, and
even in the post-colonial era the lack of authentically Islamic social and cultural
institutions left an opening for armies and bureaucracies. Muslim societies should make
their own judgments about the nature of the threat and the optimal response to it, rather
than being dictated to by the west.

The concept that the Muslim World is not a unified, monolithic, single minded group of
people and that it comprises diverse ethnic, linguistic, sectarian, cultural and ideological
entities can hardly be over emphasized. However, it is also a fact that the basic tenets of
Islamic teachings encompassing the individual and collective life (society and State)
provide the Muslim World a common Identity. It is, therefore, imperative to understand
the areas, factors, elements and causes of deviations and divergences from the basic
Islamic fundamentals; to analyze the efforts that are and have been made in this regard;
and to find solutions to the problems of the contemporary Muslim World. It is also
essential to examine and investigate the similarities and divergences between the basic
Islamic principles and modern structures of governance, as well as to scrutinize the
current structures of government as an experiment in the Muslim world. While analyzing
the problems and bringing up solutions, it is also essential to understand that ideological
and political mobilization varies in orientation, approach, capacity, and magnitude
according to the social, economic, political and strategic situation of the region, country
or peoples.

It is necessary to have a dispassionate and empirical approach to the understanding of

developments in political ideology in the Muslim world. There is a widespread sense that
the West is engaged in a “blame game”, that this reflects blindness to its own violent role
in the Muslim world, and that it leads to a failure of understanding, with detrimental

173
effects on the stability and freedom of Muslim societies and on the standing of the United
States in the Muslim world.

The West has focused too much on cultural and ideological developments in the Muslim
world, and insufficiently on the political, economic and social determinants of instability
and conflict. Many of the latter are perceived as having originated in the US’ invasions of
Muslim countries, support for illegitimate regimes in Muslim countries, or support for
governments such as Israel’s. US policy should focus on reform and the rule of law in the
Muslim world with the same degree of commitment that characterizes its counter-
terrorism efforts. In the course of the global war on terror, lawlessness and political
exclusion has increased in societies where there was relative order and inclusion. This
reflects a general lawlessness and corruption spawned by autocratic practices, as well as
the lack of transparency, that the war on terror has legitimized. If terrorism means resort
to violence against innocent civilians, then all forms of terrorism, individual, group and
state should be equally condemned. The issue of legitimacy and justness of the objectives
as well as of the means used to counter terrorism are equally important and relevant. The
lack of legal protection suffered by Muslim minorities in countries such as India and the
Philippines is seen as having been emboldened by the pervasive denigration of Islam and
Muslims.

The global counter-terrorist agenda is seen as a fig leaf for the political and economic
goals of the West. There is a clear sense that terrorism is not the only form of violence,
and that the focus on it to the exclusion of other issues obscures the extent to which
pervasive violence is found in Western societies and the extent to which Western states
and private interests perpetrate violence in the Muslim world. The whole area of causes
and factors responsible for promoting terrorism is central to any strategy to make the
world safe from terrorism. Indeed, Muslim societies appear to be more self-critical of the
violence within than is the West. There is a chasm between reality and Western
perception: the fact is that more than 20% of Americans polled consider the use of force
against civilians legitimate, whereas fewer than 10% of Muslims do so.

There is recognition that terrorism must be fought by Muslim societies too, because the
cultural, social and traditional integrity of Muslim societies is threatened by the
revolutionary changes to social order that it triggers. However, there is a clear sense that
Muslim societies should make their own judgments about the nature of the threat and the
optimal response to it, rather than being dictated to by the West.

Violence where it occurs in the Muslim world is seen as the pursuit of political, not
religious or Islamic objectives. The Western view of violence in the Muslim world and in
Islamic thought is a historical and normative, and thus obscures the political, economic
and social roots of anti-state violence. Traditions of violent resistance are seen as rooted

174
in anti-colonial struggles, or in resistance to indigenous oppression, and the extent to
which violence is accepted as legitimate in contemporary Muslim societies depends on
the perceived commonality of current conflicts with those. There is some attempt to deny
that justification of violence is found in authoritative Islamic sources, but also a frank
acknowledgement that it is, followed by the observation that the same may be said of
Western religious traditions. It is noted that the term jihad has been used in the Quran on
scores of occasions, with different shade of meaning all related to effort in the cause of
Allah, but violence that falls in the category of terrorism is not one of them. Other terms
are used there for violence, but these are not to be found in contemporary Islamic
political discourse.

Factors needed for mobilization: No society can advance only utilizing wealth and
resources. To peruse development of a society, the important aspect is to visualize the
need for such a development. Ideas are therefore the driving force behind any change.
This needs planning and appropriate actions to implement the ideas. Ideological and
political mobilization therefore is important to bring about the required changes in the
Muslim society and for its onward march for progress and advancement. Whenever we
talk about any Islamic mobilization in Muslim world two set of people would come
forward for this intellectual change in society: the nationalist secularist on the one hand
and the Islamist on the other. There always be a debate on the national issues which leads
them to a point of confliction.

Another main factor to discuss that whenever we talk about the mobilization in Muslim
world, we start thinking and relate the efforts to the concept of Jihad. No doubt Jihad is
one of the part of Muslim mobilization. And there are many factors on which jihad
implies on it. Jihad in the political sense, aims at redeeming mankind from any sort of
slavery, exploitation, cult of personality, materialism, tribalism, dictatorship, anarchism,
to save people from intellectual stagnation that will lead to resorting superstition of any
sort, abandoning that which stops human beings from advancement and progress. Jihad in
its original sense is a movement towards the freedom of man. This meaning of Jihad has
been described in Quran in various verses:

)31-‫ري (سورة األنفال‬ِ

ٌ ‫سا ٌم اكب‬
‫ض اوفا ا‬ ٍ ‫ض ُه ْم أ ْاولِيااءُ با ْع‬
ِ ‫ض إََِّل تا ْف اعلُوهُ تا ُك ْن فِتْ ناةٌ ِِف ْاأل ْار‬ ُ ‫ين اك اف ُروا با ْع‬ ِ َّ
‫اوالذ ا‬

“The unbelievers are protectors of one another; unless you do this, there would be tumult
and oppression on earth and great mischief.”

In this verse it is clearly stated that struggle to obtain the freedom is the responsibility of
all Muslims until freedom has been obtained. There have been many attempts at
mobilizing Muslims for jihad in modern times, beginning with the invasion into Muslim
lands by European colonial powers. However, the most successful mobilization is

175
arguably the one carried out to counter the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan from 1980 to
1990.

The factors which contributed to the success of the mobilization against the Soviet
Union’s invasion of Afghanistan can be categorized into two: ideological factors rooted
to the vision of Islamic revivalism and the notion of jihad in Islam against non-Muslim
domination on Muslim countries, and structural factors that contributed to the appeal and
spread of the ideas behind the mobilization. While acknowledging that ideas were indeed
responsible in creating the mobilization, the structural factors are only touched upon here.
They include: 1) a precipitant event that provided justification for a rallying call or
frames of collective action and context for a mobilization, and 2) powerful allies in the
form of political elites, major powers and existing religious institutions that had provided
assistance to jihad mobilization efforts, directly or indirectly.

Precipitant Event: The precipitant or dramatic event in this case refers to the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The invasion became a major source of grievance
among Muslims. Its resulting impact on Afghan Muslims provided an opportunity for
active mobilization of Muslims all over the world. The Soviet invasion also generated
international support for the Afghan jihad from the US and its allies who viewed it from a
strategic viewpoint as a means to contain and defeat the Soviet Union during the Cold
War period. Validation of the relationship between the success of the mobilization and
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan is found across many studies in the field of political
violence. Tore Bjørgo’s conclusion on the root causes of terrorism is particularly
instructive. He wrote in Root Causes of Terrorism that “Repression by foreign forces or
occupation by colonial powers has given rise to a great many national liberation
movements that have sought recourse in terrorist tactics, guerrilla warfare, and other
political means. Despite their use of terrorist methods, some liberation movements enjoy
considerable support and legitimacy among their own constituencies, and sometimes also
from segments of international public opinion.”

Similarly, other scholars have sought to highlight the importance of historical context on
the emergence of political violence. Frances F. Piven and Richard A. Cloward in Poor
People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail noted that “Popular insurgency
does not proceed from someone else’s rules or hopes: it has its own logic and direction. It
flows from historically specific circumstances: it is a reaction against those
circumstances, and it is also limited by those circumstances.” In this case, the Soviet
invasion was as much the context as the precipitant event.

Powerful Allies: Many researchers on the era of the Soviet-Afghan jihad have
highlighted the involvement of the US and its allies in the form of financial, material and
political support as part of their Cold War strategy against the communist bloc. In

176
facilitating the mobilization and training of Muslim fighters and supplying weaponry for
jihad, they contributed to the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 and the fall of its local
collaborators in Kabul in 1992. The assistance was done covertly under the codename of
Operation Cyclone. It was estimated that between 1980 and 1987, the United States spent
US$15–30 million to as high as US$600 million a year on the operation. Although
mujahidin factions tended to downplay the United States’ role in the Afghan jihad by
denying that any assistance reached them, the presence of US support can be inferred
from the writings of `Abdullah `Azzam who was the leading figure in mobilizing
Muslims during the Afghan jihad.

For instance, `Azzam admitted receiving Stinger missiles (portable surface-to-air

missiles) from the US but claimed that the cost of each missile (US$70,000) was borne
by the Saudi government, thus avoiding giving credit to the United States. The denial of
receiving direct assistance from the US is not surprising, however. In fact, it corroborates
research which found that all forms of support from the US during that period were
channeled through a third party, which may have been either the Pakistan or Saudi
Arabian intelligence agencies, before they were distributed to various Afghan militant
groups.

Saudi Arabia, one of the US key allies supporting the Afghan jihad against the Soviet
invasion was noted to have matched dollar-for-dollar the United States’ financial support.
The Saudis also adopted a policy of non-intervention towards jihad mobilization within
their country and `Azzam admitted that Saudi citizens made up the largest group of
foreign volunteers in Afghanistan. Other sources report that the Saudi Arabian national
airline even gave 75% discounts on airfare tickets to Pakistan to support travelers to
Afghanistan who wished to answer the call of mobilization.

Pakistan was another key ally in the Afghan jihad against the Soviet invasion, noted for
being the main conduit of US assistance for the Afghans through its Inter-Services
Intelligence agency. In addition, Pakistan initiated training for the fighters, provided safe
havens, opened borders and mobilized Pakistanis for jihad. `Azzam held the Pakistani
president at the time, Zia ul-Haq, in high regard, and described him as a staunch
supporter willing to sacrifice his own life for the jihad in Afghanistan. It was also known
that `Azzam operated his mobilization network from Peshawar in Pakistan.

All the above accounts point to a significant degree of tolerance, support and facilitation
by the US and its allies towards mobilization efforts which also included the
dissemination of militant ideology. Sageman wrote in Understanding Terror Networks
that “The global salafi jihad is without doubt an indirect consequence of US involvement
in the Afghan-Soviet war. Without the US’ support for the jihad, the Soviets would

177
probably not have withdrawn from Afghanistan. US covert action supported a traditional
jihad, which included foreign Muslim volunteers.”

Resource Mobilization: Recognizing that political/collective action and mobilization

does not occur in a vacuum, scholars of social movements have long acknowledged the
role of structural factors in constraining and facilitating political action and in providing
environments that are conducive (or otherwise) for successful mobilization. Specifically,
many scholars of social movements have recognized the importance and the positive
effects of powerful allies within political elites on the movement’s mobilization process.

Resource mobilization, a theory within the study of social movements, states that the
success of a movement’s mobilization is critically dependent on the availability of
resources and its effective use. One of the resources identified is the existence of
powerful allies like the US and states that sponsor the movement’s mobilization. Another
theory within the study of social movements is political opportunity which holds that the
success of a movement is due to the political opportunities available to it. Among the
many opportunities identified by the theory is the existence of powerful allies among the
political elites that enable and facilitate mobilization.

Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy wrote in Social Movements in an Organizational

Society that “Resource mobilization perspectives have stressed that resources and the
structures of everyday life are important to understanding social movement processes,
and the behavior of religious groups in this regard offer extensive illustrations of the
point. Rather than stressing the role of religious belief in such facilitation, which was
common earlier, [they indicated] how religious institutional structures may affect social
movement trajectories.” This is similar to the role played by existing Islamic groups like
the Muslim World League and religious establishments in Saudi Arabia and other
Muslim countries that significantly helped facilitate mobilization efforts for the Afghan
jihad.

The current mobilization lacks the strong and wide support of powerful allies such as the
US and its allies, and this significantly limits its success due to the fear of terrorism that
is associated with it. Unlike the past, countries all over the world today employ a
repressive policy towards the current mobilization of Muslims for jihad to safeguard their
national security or avoid international sanctions in an era where a norm against the state
support of militant groups that carry out acts of terrorism has become entrenched. The
perception of terrorism and security in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, facilitated by
American efforts has led to various laws, regimes and conventions against terrorism at
the international and state level. As a result, the current mobilization is not experiencing
the same structural support enjoyed during the Soviet-Afghan war which significantly
limits its effect and success.

178
Based on the successful mobilization of Muslims for jihad during Soviet-Afghan war, it
can be concluded that mobilization is not purely the result of ideational factors. The
effects of ideational factors were also compounded due to non-ideational structural
factors that contributed to capture Muslims’ sympathy and create a permissive
environment to effect mobilization for jihad in Afghanistan and the proliferation of
militant jihad. Some of the key consequences of this were the arrival of thousands of non-
Afghan volunteers for jihad who were then exposed to militant ideology, the propagation
of militant ideology to the Muslim masses through public talks at mosques, organizations
and conferences, and the circulation of print, audio and video materials, and lastly the
raising of millions of dollars that were partially used for ideological propagation and
mobilization on a large scale.

Prolonged war in Iraq and Afghanistan with the presence of foreign military forces as
well as civil war in Syria between Syrian government forces and Free Syrian Army
fighters, and the continued existence of structural factors will limit the effect of any
attempt to counter and delegitimize militant ideology that seeks to mobilize Muslims for
jihad. Counter-ideology, despite its importance and centrality in counterterrorism
strategy, is not and cannot be the silver bullet against the current mobilization trend – its
success and effectiveness are dependent on other aspects of state policies, which do not
only pertain to the counterterrorism domain, but also address foreign policy and
international politics.

7.3 Rise and decline of Muslim Ummah

The Twentieth century of the Christian era, presents a decisive turning point in the
history of the Muslim Ummah (community). At the end of the first quarter of the century
the state of the Muslim world had taken a definite turn, and there were some signs of
resuscitation in the moribund body of the Muslim Ummah. If we look at it closely, the
middle half of this century presents an astounding picture. On one hand, the process of
decline and deterioration reached its lowest ebb in the events of 1967 and 1971. On the
other hand, there was also a widespread movement towards revival and the beginning of
a process of renewal. It commenced during the years 1920-1925. For the past fifty years
these concurrent trends of degeneration and revival continued side by side almost in the
manner depicted in the Qur’an.
ِ ‫ٌ اَل ي ْب ِغي‬ ِ ِ
‫ان‬‫ج الْبا ْح اريْ ِن يالْتاقياان با ْي نا ُه اما با ْراز ٌ ا ا‬
‫ام ار ا‬

“He has made the two seas to flow freely so they meet together. Between them is a
barrier which they cannot pass.” (Sura Rehman, 19-20)

In fact, an understanding of our present situation demands that the past glory and
grandeur of the Muslim Ummah should be realized by young Muslims. They should

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know that there was a time when the armies of the Arabs starting from Gibraltar had
reached north-east into the heart of France. At another time the Turkish armies, after
trampling all of Eastern Europe, were knocking at the gates of Vienna. Perhaps in this
way we can recreate in the hearts of our young men a desire to revive the past majesty
and glory of the Muslim civilization.

It should also become clear from this that the decline of this superb culture was due to the
justice of Almighty Allah (SWT), which is above all human considerations, as His laws
are abiding and immutable. The way He dealt with the previous community of faith in
His revelation i.e., the Jews – was repeated in His dealings with us. Our history and their
history are to a remarkable extent analogous. Two periods of severe chastisement were
borne by the Jews, and we have also passed through two periods of chastisement.
Although, due to the vastness of the Ummah of Muhammad (SAW), our periods of
deterioration and degradation were much longer than those of the Jews. During the period
of Jewish control, Jerusalem was devastated twice, and during the period of our control
the sanctity of al-Aqsa Mosque was also violated twice.

In this connection with the historical sketch of the rise and fall of the Muslim Ummah, it
should be understood that the Ummah of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) has two
components. The first consists of those among the descendants of Ismail (AS) –- referred
to in the Qur’an as ‘ummiyeen’ i.e., the unlettered people – who had not received a
previous revelation from Allah (SWT). These Arabs constitute the nucleus of the
Ummah. The other component, ‘akhareen’ includes all other people, whether Kurds,
Turks, Persians, Afghans, Indians, Mughals, Abyssinians, Berbers or any other. They
may live as far as Malaysia and Indonesia in the east and as far as Morocco and
Mauritania in the West.

Secondly, the Islamic world can be divided in three sections geographically. If we focus
our gaze on the Islamic part of the globe, it would look like an eagle that is flying with its
two wings completely outstretched. The first geographical section is in the centre, the
heart of Muslim territory. The two others form wings on either side. The Arabian
Peninsula, Iraq, Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor can be regarded as the main body of the
Islamic world, analogous to the body of the eagle. Asia Minor is its head and beak. The
southern part of the peninsula is its tail with wings stretched out. Its right wing starts
from Iran and Turkey, includes Afghanistan and Indo-Pak sub-continent, and extends up
to Malaysia and Indonesia. Its left wing encompasses the whole of Northern Africa and
had reached into Spain and France.

Now let us look at the historical sketch. The history of the Muslim Ummah starts from
the seventh century of the Christian era as the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) was born in
571 A.D. He started his mission in 610 A.D. and the most correct estimates state that,
after having brought about a complete Islamic revolution throughout the Arabian

180
peninsula, he returned to his Creator in the year 632 A.D. (May the peace, blessings and
grace of Allah (SWT) be showered upon him). During the reign of the first three caliphs,
Abu Bakr, Umer and Usman (R.A) who were all immediate disciples of Muhammad
(SAW), the ‘unlettered’ descendants of Ismail (the Arabs) sallied forth like a flood from
the Arabian Peninsula, with the Qur’an in one hand and a sword in the other. In less than
a quarter of a century they planted the flag of Islam not only in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Palestine
and Egypt, but also upon a considerable portion of North Africa. During the Caliphate of
Ali (R.A) this expansion ceased temporarily, but with the beginning of the Umayyad era
it started again. Within a short span of time, new lands were conquered extending in the
East through Turkistan and Afghanistan up to Sindh, and in the West extending through
the entire area of North Africa and a vast area of Western Europe including Spain. This
was the time when Arab armies, advancing from Spain, had reached the heart of France.
Muslim political domination was at its zenith in the eighth, nineth and tenth centuries of
the Christian era. The dynasties of Umayyads and Abbasids –- two important descendant
clans of ‘ummiyeen’ Arabs –- upheld the banner of the Islamic world. Their civilization
and culture, their religion, their arts and sciences and their supremacy continued to
exercise its hold on the greater portion of the civilized world. But the more their worldly
power and majesty grew, the more their religious sentiments and enthusiasm for their
faith declined. In this way this majestic power structure rotted from inside. The signs of
internal weakness took some time to become evident, but by the tenth century it had
become quite clear that the Arabs had touched utter decadence and senility. In the
eleventh century the decline and deterioration of the unlettered people (the Arabs) had
reached to its last limit, and consequently a power vacuum was created in the heart of the
Islamic world. As a result of this power vacuum, tribes arose from the north-eastern
borders of the Muslim world, and penetrated to the center of the Muslim lands.
Fortunately, they had already embraced Islamic faith. These were the Kurds and the
Seljuk Turks. In the eleventh century they strengthened their hold in Syria, Palestine and
Egypt. In this way, a fresh force was supplied for the safety and protection of the center
of the Islamic world.

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the first of the chastisement with which Allah
(SWT) had threatened the Jews and which He meted out to them overtook the Muslim
Ummah. The following Divine warning was fulfilled exactly:
ِ ‫يد فاجاسوا ِخ اال ال‬
‫الد اَي ِر‬ ٍ ِ ٍ ‫ُوِل ِب‬ ِ
ُ ‫ْس اشد ا‬ ‫اما لاناا أ ِ ا‬
‫با اعثْ ناا اعلايْ ُك ْم عبا ا‬

“We sent against you our servants, given to terrible warfare. They entered the very in
most parts of your homes and towns.” (Bani Israil, 17: 5)

In this connection, large armies of Crusaders swarmed from the West and in 1099, not
only the sanctity of Al-Aqsa Mosque was defiled, there was also a massacre in Jerusalem
on such a vast scale that even the Western historians feel guilty while mentioning it in

181
their accounts. Jerusalem remained in the possession of the Crusaders for eighty-eight
years. This was so because the Abbasid Caliphate was passing through the Pangs of
death, and there was no energy left in the descendants of the originally indomitable
Arabs. Finally, the fiery and fresh blood of ‘akhareen’ i.e., non-Arab Muslim people
under the leadership of the great and famous warrior Salahuddin Ayyubi liberated
Jerusalem from the occupation of the Crusaders in 1187 A.D. and thus turned the tide of
the war between Muslims and the invaders.

Then from the East came the great stormy hordes of Tartars, who first ravaged
Afghanistan and Iran, and in 1258 A.D. devastated Baghdad completely. Millions of
Muslims were savagely murdered. The streets of Baghdad turned into pools of blood and
the famous city of ‘A thousand and one nights’ was literally razed to the ground. This
was repetition of exactly the same situation that had occurred two thousand years before
on the destruction of Solomon’s Temple by the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar.
Consequently with the fall of Malik Mu’tasim, the Muslim Caliph, the flickering lamp of
Abbasid Caliphate was completely extinguished. Thus not only the first threat of Divine
chastisement upon the Muslim Ummah was fulfilled but also as far as the Arabs were
concerned at least the following warning was also fulfilled.

‫اوإِ ْن تا تا اولَّ ْوا يا ْستا ْب ِد ْل قا ْواما غاْي ارُك ْم ُُثَّ اَل يا ُكونُوا أ ْامثاالا ُك ْم‬

“And if ye turn away, He will substitute in your place another people, and then they
would not be like you”. (Sura Muhammad, 47: 38)
They were dismissed from the leadership and authority they had held over the Islamic
world. Two years later, in 1260 A.D. the advance of the Tartars was checked by the non-
Arabs which at least saved the Western wing of the Islamic world from further
destruction. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the heart of the Islamic world
presented a picture similar to the one which had induced the Prophet Uzair (AS), also
known as Ezira or Esdras, to utter these words involuntarily on seeing Jerusalem in ruins
after the Captivity. Then Allah’s grace was shown to the Muslim Ummah as it was to the
Jews. Allah (SWT) says in the Holy Qur’an:
ِ
‫ريا‬ ‫ُُثَّ ار ام ْم اَّن لا ُك ُم الْ اك َّرةا اعلا ْي ِه ْم اوأ ْام اد ْم اَّن ُك ْم ِِب ْام او ٍال اوبانِ ا‬
‫ني او اج اعلْناا ُك ْم أا ْكثا ار ناف ا‬
“Then We established you once again against them, and We aided you with wealth and
children, and We multiplied you in manpower”. (Bani Israil, 17: 6)

There is, however, a difference here. The previous Muslim Ummah, that is the Jews,
involved only one race. Hence their renaissance was obliviously restricted to that race.
But there was no such restriction in the case of the Ummah of the Prophet Muhammad
(SAW). Here the task of renewal and renaissance was not performed by the original
Arabs, but by other people of the Islamic world. Most of the descendants of those Tartars

182
who were the cause of dreadful destruction of the Islamic world, had converted to Islam.
Two other barbaric tribes like them were also fortunate enough to accept the Islamic
faith. One of these tribes, the Taimuri Turks, laid the foundations of a splendid Muslim
rule in India, and thereby enlarged the right wing of Islamic world. A second tribe, the
Usmanian Turks, at first established themselves firmly in Asia Minor, then gradually
raised the magnificent edifice of the Muslim Empire which extended far to the north-
west. It established its supremacy over all Eastern Europe until it reached the borders of
Vienna. On the other side, it took upon itself, the responsibility of leadership and security
of the entire Islamic world, including Northern Africa. It also revived the Caliphate, and
in this way the lost splendor and grandeur of the Islamic world was once again restored.
The important point to note here is that this task was performed by the Turks and not by
the Arabs.
Strange are the ways of Providence! The consolidation of the Usmanian Caliphate
produced a Muslim renaissance in the heart of Islamic world, but at the same time the
deluge of the European colonialism began, and it was soon to become the second and
extremely long period of Divine chastisement of the Muslim Ummah. It eventually
conquered the right and left wings of the Islamic world. It is unquestionably true that the
enlightenment of Europe after the dark ages was the result of Islamic progress. The
Muslims introduced oriental and occidental arts and sciences to Europe. But when
Europe awakened, and its power accumulated, it inflicted a disaster upon the Muslims.
They held both the Eastern and Western extremes of Europe. In Eastern Europe, after the
period of the first chastisement had ended, process of renaissance had begun. The great
Usmanian Empire served as a security guard over the central part of the Islamic territory.

But in the West, the Kingdom of Spain was presenting the picture of a dying nation.
According to an Urdu poetic line ‘Feebleness is a crime which brings the punishment of
death’. Feeble Spain proved the first prey of European colonialism, and in the fifteenth
century this magnificent empire was brought to a sudden and complete end. In 1492
A.D., after the downfall of Granada, similar conditions prevailed in Spain which are
described in the Qur’anic verses in connection with previous nations which had been the
target of Divine retribution. What had been once the lands of Muslims became ‘as though
they had not dwelt there’ (Al-Qur’an 11:68). And presented the scene of ‘nothing was to
be seen but the (ruins) of their houses’ (AlQur’an 46:25).

In 1498 Vasco de Gama discovered a new sea route to India. Soon after this the falcon of
European colonialism swooped down upon the Eastern sectors of the Islamic world, and
soon Indonesia, Malaysia and India were gripped in the tyrannical clutches of European
nations. This process of colonization which started in the sixteenth century reached its
zenith in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. During this period the Usmanian
Caliphate had also passed its peak and had become the ‘sick man’ of Europe. In other
words, eight centuries after the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate the same power vacuum

183
appeared once again in the heart of the Islamic world. Due to Muslims’ weakness the tide
of Western colonialism headed towards it, and the time for the fulfilment of the second
threat of retribution had come.

This second phase of retribution inflicted by Allah (SWT) on the Muslim Ummah
commenced at the beginning of the twentieth century. The sovereignty of the Usmanian
Caliphate after the World War I, was curtailed within the limits of Asia Minor. The entire
Arab world including North Africa, after being fragmented into small nation states, came
directly under the sway of European nations or was indirectly governed by them. Thus
the condition prevailed which the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) had predicted in these
words: “There will come a time in which the nations of the world will invite one another
to invade you in the same manner in which a person who arranges a feast calls upon his
guests to partake of the victuals”.

In this way the second period of Allah’s retribution upon the Muslim Ummah was
completed. In the first quarter of the 20th century almost all Islamic territories were in the
unholy grip of Western colonialism. In 1967, Allah (SWT), by means of one of His
cursed and condemned nations, inflicted upon the Arabs a degrading and shameful defeat.
This represented the completion upon them, the ‘ummiyeen’, of the second threat given
in the Qur’an: “…So when the second of the warnings came to pass (We permitted your
enemies) to disfigure your faces, and to enter your temple, as they had entered before,
and to visit with destruction all that fell in their power” 5 (Al-Qur’an 17: 7)

During the time of Arab trusteeship once again the sanctity of Al-Aqsa Mosque was
trampled, lost and taken by the Jews. And now only Allah (SWT) knows how long it will
remain in their possession. The most regrettable aspect of this story is that Western
colonialism completely smashed the unity of the Muslim Ummah. In the beginning of
this century it planted such seeds of racial and regional prejudices as are still yielding
bitter fruits. At first they instigated the Arabs against the Turks. As a result of this, the
central region of the Islamic word was split into two portions and the essential as well as
symbolic institution of Islamic unity, the Caliphate, was destroyed. Then they fragmented
the Arab world to the extent that, inspite of linguistic unity, the integration and
consolidation of the Arab nations is well-nigh impossible. As a direct consequence of
racial and regional prejudices that existed within the Muslim Ummah, the Ummah had to
suffer the severe retribution described by Almighty Allah (SWT) in the words: ‘He will
fragment you and make you to taste each other’s violence’(Al-Qur’an 6 : 65).

They were divided into group’s ad factions and warred bitterly against each other. In
World War I, Arabs massacred the Turks. In 1971 the Bengali Muslims freely shed the
blood of non-Bengali Muslims and their property, life and honour all were trampled
upon. ‘So learn a lesson, O ye who have eyes’ (Al Qur’an 59: 2)

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In our view, the disgrace of the Arabs in 1967 at the hands of the Jews, and the
degradation in 1971 of an important segment of non-Arab Muslims, can be regarded as
the final limit of the deterioration and degeneration of the Muslim Ummah6. Although
Allah’s warning ‘If ye reverted (to your sin), We shall revert to our punishment’ (Al
Qur’an 17: 8) is always before us, His forgiveness may also be manifest--- ‘It may be that
your Lord will have mercy upon you’ (Al-Qur’an 17 : 8). We hope and pray that no other
scar of dishonour would disfigure the face of the Ummah of the Prophet Muhammad
(SAW). A lot depends upon the Ummah and its wish and determination to sincerely
reform and revitalize itself.

Revivalist effort: As a matter of fact, no period of degradation and degeneration in

Islamic history is without attempt to reform and rejuvenate the Muslim Ummah. In every
epoch and in every country, people of sublime determination were born who performed
the gigantic task of reformation and reconstruction, as their times demanded. But all such
efforts were made before the Twentieth century. In these efforts the real objective was
not the revival of religion, but its defense and protection. The magnificent edifice of
Islam had not yet been demolished. The real spirit of religion might have faded to a
considerable extent, but the social and cultural system that Islam had established in the
world was still intact. Islamic Sharia’ (Divine code of Law) had actually been in practice
in all Muslim countries. Hence the main goal of reform had been to maintain and
preserve the system of Islamic beliefs and practices in their original form, so that external
and foreign influences may not attenuate and distort the faith.

This is the reason why up to the time of Shah Waliullah of Delhi, the great Indian divine,
(d. 1763), the endeavors of all the reformers of the Muslim Ummah remained limited to
the fields of education and theology, and their goal was simply clarification and
rectification of religious doctrines and beliefs. If they stepped forward beyond this
boundary, it was at the most for the purposes of edification of character and conduct,
purification of the soul and spiritual training. Before the Nineteenth century the efforts of
none of the reformers of Islam assumed the shape of a political or armed movement.

This is why some people regard the work of previous reformers as partial, and they are
surprised that during the fourteen centuries of the history of the Muslim Ummah, not a
single radical and full-fledged reformer (‘Mujaddid Kamil’) was born. It is clear,
however, that though the building was crumbling it had not yet been demolished
completely, and hence an altogether new structure was not required. Only partial
restoration was needed. As has been explained in detail, the crumbling mansion of the
Islamic Ummah tumbled down in the beginning of Twentieth century, and Islam and
Muslim Ummah both reached the lowest ebb of deterioration in Muslim history. Though
there are now hundreds of millions of Muslims, in the word of the Prophet Muhammad
(SAW), they are like jetsam on the surface of flood-water with no value or substance.
Our practice of Islam and fidelity and adherence to Qur’an has reached the state predicted

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by the Holy Prophet (SAW) in the following Hadith: “There will come a time, when
nothing will remain in Islam except its name, and nothing will remain of reverence to the
Qur’an except its style of writing”.

Therefore, according to the law of Providence, when our condition became so degraded,
radical attempts to revive Islam were initiated some basic facts should be kept in mind in
connection with this process of revival. Firstly, it is not something simple or
straightforward. It has many facets, and each is being worked upon either by individuals
of high determination or organised groups. Seemingly they are separate from each other
and sometimes even in conflict. In reality, however, they give strength to each other in
the overall process of revival and renaissance. Secondly, the task of Islamic resurgence
and the revitalisation of the Islamic Ummah will not be completed in short span of ten or
twenty years, but will be accomplished gradually after overcoming many difficulties and
obstacles.

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Chapter 8: Muslim and Universal Citizens

8.1 Nature and structure of the Muslim world as Globalized Islam

1. The Ummah - A Global Reach

With a population somewhat more than one billion or some 27 percent of the world’s
population, belief in Islam is spread in every conceivable geographical and political
configuration-ranging from Morocco to the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam (pop.
285,000). No other religion has quite so powerful and impetus for global expansion-
neither Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism nor Christianity. The concept of world-wide
Christian unity, once a powerful force, has been eroded by sectarianism, schism,
nationalism, secularism and by a loss of confidence in what once was regarded as the true
faith. From a Muslim perspective the ecumenical impulse which aims toward a recovery
of Christian unity so trivializes and neutralizes the pristinity and clarity of doctrine that
the Christian zeal for conversion disappears.
The recovery of Islamic identity stimulated by decolonization following World War II
and the oil wealth of the Gulf, particularly that of Saudi Arabia, is statistically and
visually evident t throughout the world. The building of thousands of mosques,
establishment of major Islamic universities (such as at Islamabad ad Kuala Lumpur)),
printing translation (even into Zulu) and distribution of millions of copies of the Qur'an
and, the Herculean enlargement of the mosques at Makkah and Medina including
installation of the world's largest air conditioning system, are suggestive of this
phenomenal growth. Much of the resurgence is due to the financial support of Saudi
Arabia. The rate of conversion to Islam is ominous many. When the encyclical
Redemptoris Missio was issued in 1991, Vatican spokesmen said it "reflected fears that
Catholicism was lagging behind Islamic expansion in Asia, Africa and the Middle East."
2. Solidarity or Fragmentation
A strong sense of fraternal bonding of all Muslims has been both a fantasy and ideal but
seldom a reality in Muslim history following the Prophet's death in 633 AD. This quest
for community is expressed in the concept of ummah (community of believers) and
continues to be given rhetorical expression in contemporary Muslim affairs. The fact that
it is mentioned in the Qur'an and several times gives it a sacred position. It is similar to
the Roman concept of civitas especially in its emphasis on putting the community good
above personal desire and in directing the community towards virtue and away for evil.
Ummah is an architectonic idiom whose purpose ultimately is to embrace all mankind. It
is the external structural manifestation of the soul of Islam. That soul resides in the
Qur'an, the sunnah which is a group of hadith which are sayings and opinions of the
Prophet. These, together with qiyas, opinions of learned Muslims, and ijma, consensus of
Muslim scholars, constitute the core of belief which sustains the ummah.

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The abolition of the caliphate by Kemal Ataturk in Turkey in 1924 marked the formal
end of what by then had become only an empty shell of global unity. Iran, Egypt,
Morocco, and Turkey had existed for centuries as discrete, rich civilizations with
relatively fixed boundaries. Saudi Arabia was not a unified political entity until 1932.
Together with Syria and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula it had cartographic recognition
as early as 1471 AD as Arabia Felix, Ayaman, Petrea and Arabia Deserta. The huge
Ottoman Empire was divided by the Allies in 1923 into colonies, spheres of influence,
mandates or crucial states, all with boundaries based on colonial politics, sometimes
whims. Thus the future Muslim nation-states of the Middle East were born and the
concept of Ummah eroded. In Asia and Africa, imperial policies demarcated the
boundaries of the colonies of Britain, France and the Netherlands even as recently as the
1947 partition of India. The arbitrariness of national boundaries with minimal, often no
regard for ethno/linguistic or geographic considerations continues to plague Muslim
states and Israel in 1948 and irredentism of the Israeli state is the most glaring instance of
colonial injustice and arbitrariness. It has been the primary cause of Muslim international
relations. Decolonization following World War II spawned such independent Muslim
states as Indonesia, Pakistan, Malaysia, Morocco, Tunisia, Jordan, Libya, Iraq, Syria and
the Gulf States. Subsequently others such as Bangladesh, Brunei, Bosnia and the six
Central Asian republics became sovereign entities. By 1994 the number of Muslim states
had reached 52. The concept of the nation-state thus further eclipsed the vestigial
remnants of global Muslim unity.
A major division of the ummah is that of Arabs and non-Arabs. Arabs constitute only 20
percent of Muslims; the largest concentrations are in such non-Arab states as Indonesia,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Muslim minority of India. The most populous Arab
country, Egypt, with about 60 million, is dwarfed by Indonesia's population of 250
million and the populations of Bangladesh (176m) and Pakistan (128m).
The intra-Arab differences over the Gulf War have undoubtedly weakened what little
effectiveness the League of Arab States has had in recent years. It has successfully
mediated some disputes but its inability to act against Iraq for its invasion of a fellow
member state, Kuwait, was a defining moment in loss of prestige. The invasion was a
clear violation of Article 2 of the Joint Defense Treaty which was part of the League's
charter. It specified that armed aggression against any member was an action against all
members and was to be repelled by collective or individual state effort.
In December 1994 a three-nation Arab summit was held in Alexandria. Egypt, Syria and
Saudi Arabia reaffirmed their support of Syria's position on peace talks with Israel. This
statement followed Syria's complaint that such Gulf states as Oman and Qatar were
making overtures towards peace with Israel. Thus the divisions of the Gulf War and the
Arab -Israeli peace negotiations continue to plague Arab solidarity, to weaken Arab
international entities and to encourage the formation of smaller groups of Arab states
with common, although often transitory national interests. The most effective regional
Arab organization is the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), formed in 1981 by six nations

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of the Arabian Peninsula: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United
Arab Emirates. Its importance has increases as a consequence of the Gulf War. In
addition to extensive patterns of trade relations, its mutual defense policies have drawn
the Gulf States, already bonded by geography and a common culture, more closely
together
The Ummah Islamiya can be divided into distinctive regional entities with common
economic problems and, in some cases, cultural affinity. Reference has earlier been made
to the Gulf Cooperation Council, by far the most successful of these regional groups. The
Maghreb Union, established in 1989, consist of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and the
Mauritania. A different national configuration is the Arab Cooperation Council also
established in 1989, consisting f Jordan, Iraq, Egypt and Yemen. Conflicting alliances
during the Gulf War and civil war in Yemen virtually collapsed this organization. A
regional entity of ten countries, established in 1993 as the Economic Cooperation
Organization, is made up of Iran, Turkey Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the six Central
Asian states of Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and
Kazakhstan. The potential economic and political power of this group is great but its
effectiveness is handicapped by the rivalry of Turkey, Iran and, although not a member,
Saudi Arabia for influence in Central Asia. Its third annual summit was held in Islamabad
in March 1995.
The distinctive character of Islam in East and Southeast Asia is reflecting in the
formation in 1993 of the Asian Islamic Council based in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Organized
with the help Saudi Arabia, the Council has predominantly a religious and cultural
emphasis and includes representatives of Muslim emphasis and includes representatives
of Muslim states such as Indonesia and Malaysia and of minorities in the Philippines,
Korea, Japan and other Asian countries. Hence its composition is that of individuals
rather than the governments of nation-states. In this respect, as well as in its religious
cultural objectives, it resembles the Muslim World League more than the other regional
entities described above.
The foregoing suggests that an elaborate network for an Islamic global political structure
has slowly emerged during the last few decades, but that its organization is loose and
without central authority. The principal impediments to the emergence of a more
effective universal Islamic community are the conflicts within Islam, acerbated by the
Gulf War and by the intervention of foreign powers who view the rise of an effective
Muslim power block as inimicable to their interests.
3. Muslim Minorities (Dar al-Harb)
The traditional way of describing the structure of the Islamic world is by dividing it into
dar al-Islam and dar al-harb. The former, usually translated as the domain or realm of
Islam, referred to lands ruled by Muslims or in which Muslim institutions flourished. The
latter term: lands, domain or realm of war, referred to countries with on-Muslim
governments. The two terms have also been translated as "Realm of Belief: and "Realm

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of Disbelief". Dar al-Islam embraces those states which declare themselves constitutively
to be Islamic (such as Pakistan and Saudi Arabia). It also includes those where a majority
of the population is Muslim although no official declaration of Islam has been made
(Indonesia). These regimes are easily identified; they are the 52 member states of the
Organization of the Islamic Conference listed in the appendix at the end of this essay.
The second category, dar al-harb, can perhaps no longer be appropriately thought of as a
political context of warfare. It is more accurate to refer to this group as Muslim minorities
living in a relatively peaceful non-Muslim regime in which their Islamicity can be fully
and freely expressed. No doubt Bosnians, Chechens as well as some Muslims who,
viewing certain restrictions on their behavior in France, England and certainly in the
former Soviet Union, might consider the traditional translation more accurate.
It may be useful to suggest a third category of refugees or migrants who have fled an
unfriendly regime (Afghanistan, Palestine, Bosnia) but who have not established a
permanent or semi-permanent home in their new land. This includes those who are
refugees remaining in their own country such as the million Azeris in Azerbaijan, Biharis
in Bangladesh, Afghans in Afghanistan, Chechens in Chechnya or Muslims in Bosnia.
All such refugees, whether outside or with their homeland, can appropriately be called
dar al-muhajirin (realm or domain of refugees). There would inevitably be some overlap
between this category and minorities. The distinction would be either the fact of an
established new abode or the intent to remain in it. This group in not represented in any
formal organization such as the OIC or the League of Arab States.
Minorities living in dar al-harb make up about one third of the world' Muslim population.
Although relevant today are conflicting an imprecise, some approximations may be
ventured. The largest concentration of minorities is the 130 million Muslims in India,
constituting about 12 percent of the total Indian population. Before the breakup of the
Soviet Union, some 15 percent of the population was Muslim. With the independence of
the Central Asian Muslim republics the Muslim minority in Russia has been reduced to
about 3 percent. China has a Muslim minority of 40 million or 4 percent of the
population. In South Africa, Muslims constitute 3.5 percent of a total population of about
40 million. For the whole of Southern Africa, Muslims are 20 percent of the population.
The smallest Muslim minority is that of Japan 0.9 percent of the population follows
Islam. In many states Muslim minorities are geographically dispersed. In others, such as
China, Kashmir and the Philippines they are concentrated in a defined area determined
largely by historical forces. In such instances they may constitute a majority in that
specified territory (state or province) even though they are a minority in the nation as a
whole. Of all the Muslims living in dar al-harb only the Muslims of the southern
Ph8ilippines, Kashmir, Cyprus, Bosnia and to a lesser degree Eritrea, have sustained
consistent dissonance with the majority regime over a period of years. Only Eritrea (once
a part of Ethiopia) has successfully gained independence. The Republic of Northern
Cyprus has achieved de fact independence but its de jure status ahs been recognized only

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by its sponsor, Turkey. The grievances of Muslims elsewhere, particularly in Europe are
increasing but there are no moves for separateness.
Only recently has much systematic attention been given to the roles of Muslim
minorities. The Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs was established in 1976 at King
Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah. Its excellent journal continues to be published in
London. Internationals seminars on minorities have been held in London in 1978 in
Sherbrooke, Canada in 1981 and in Perth, Australia in 1984. A growing body of literature
is emerging and international body of specialists in Muslim minority problems has
emerged with communication links and publishing outlets. The World Islamic Council
for Propagation and Relief convened a seminar in London in January 1995 on minority
problems. These developments will strengthen Muslim identity within each minority and
may ultimately affect the manner in which Muslims as minorities are treated in the non-
Muslim states where they live. What is now needed is formal representation of minorities
in such institutions as the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Whether or not new
Muslim states will be created by secession or by boundary changes remains to be seen.
4. Refugees (Dar al-Muhajirin)
The problem of Muslim refugees which I have labeled dar al- muhajirin has received
even less attention than minorities. Although the figures fluctuate rapidly, it is estimated
that the number of refugees in 1994 approximates 23 million. Although it is impossible to
determine accurately, my estimate would be that approximately 80 percent or about 18
million, area Muslims. The volatility of this figure is suggested by the fact that in early
1995 it was increased by more than 300 thousand Muslim refugees who fled Grozny,
Chechnya as a result of Russian military action there. The largest groups of Muslim
refugees the Afghans (some 5.7 million) who fled their country for Pakistan, Iran Iraq,
and elsewhere. The oldest and second largest group is the Palestinians numbering about 2
million, concentrated in Jordan, the west Bank and Gaza but scattered in a global
Diaspora. Bihari Muslims trapped in Bangladesh because they are Urdu speaking citizens
of Pakistan number about 200 thousand.
Refugees have a special status in Islam since the Prophet himself as a refugee migrated
from Makkah to Medina. From that date, 622 AD, the Muslim calendar begins. The
living significance of this tradition is suggested by the comment of Brigadier Said Azhar
who was Pakistan's Chief Commissioner for Refugees: {Pakistan's humanitarian gesture
is influenced by a various Quranic injunctions on the treatment of migrants who forsake
their homes for the sake of Allah. It is against this background that the people of Pakistan
have shared property and poverty in the noble spirit of the first migration (hijra) of
Muslims from Makkah to Median 14 centuries ago."
5. Cultural Diversity within a Universal Islam
The quintessential of Islam command universal acceptance but the behavior and practices
of Muslims living in distinctive political-cultural configurations differ. Certainly it can be
said that all profess to believe in such canons as the absolute oneness of God (Taw'hid),

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the sacral status of the Holy Qur'an revealed by God through the Archangel Gabriel to the
Prophet, the belief that there can be no prophet after Muhammad (Seal of the Prophet)
and the Five Pillars of Faith: testimony of faith (Shahadah), prayer five times daily
(salat), fasting during the month of Ramadan (siyam), tithing of income for charity
(zakah) and pilgrimage to Makkah (hajj). The universality of these beliefs cuts across
sectarian lines such as Sunni and Shia, (except for the seal of the Prophet), are embraced
even by such a sect as the Ahmadiyyas who are regarded by Pakistan, Saudi Arabia , and
others as heretical. These essentials of belief are shared by the four classic schools of law:
Hanbali, Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi.
The modality of Islam which prevails in Saudi Arabia is a blend of the Salafiyya
movements of Muhammad Abduh and the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab.
The official view in Saudi Arabia is that neither the term Salafiyya nor the terms Wahabi
is accurate. The belief that the creed of Saudi Arabia is simple Islam in its purest form is
premised on several factors. First is the historical fact that it is the birthplace of the
Prophet, the site where he received the Qur'an and where he lived, preached is buried.
Second is the absence of a complex, institutionalized religious system existing prior to
Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabia was, relatively, a tabula rasa, hence the Islam which emerged
was not seriously conditioned or modified by a competing system. Lastly, there was
virtually no colonial influence in Saudi Arabia. The rule of the Ottomans in the Hejaz
was Muslim rule, as the influence of Aramco in Al-Hasa had no effect on Islam. The
encrustations of Ottoman Islam were expunged by the purifying movement of Sheikh
Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab in the 1740's. The relative pristinity of Islam in Saudi
Arabia becomes evident upon comparison with Islamic behavior elsewhere.
The two most powerful modifying influences on Muslim societies have been colonial rule
and preexisting cultures. By its very existence the superordinate subordinate relationship
of colonialism eroded confidence in Islamic culture. Imperial hubris elevated values of
the metropolitan powers. In some realms, particularly the French to a lesser degree the
British, Dutch and Italian, the consequent dialectic came perilously close to the
substitution of one culture for another. French rule in North Africa and the Levant has
produced a blend of French and Arab culture unique to the area. In architecture, ambience
and social customs, for example, Lebanon, especially Beirut, was more French than
Islamic. The introduction of grape cultivation and the manufacture of wine in North
Africa is a symbol of this departure from orthodox Islamic teaching. In Turkey
secularization was due not to the influence of an occupying colonial power but to the
emulation of European culture by the charismatic influence of Kendal Ataturk. In India
and Indonesia, Islamic behavior was affected by a powerful Hindu culture. In India and
Pakistan today one finds fakirs, pirs, veneration of saints and graves which are proscribed
in Saudi Arabia There is a mystic quality derived perhaps from Sufism, Hinduism, and
pre-Islamic Zoroastrianism of Persia which colors behavior of village Islam sufficiently
to justify a classification which some analysts have call "Indic Islam". In Indonesia the
mysticism residing in the rich Hindu art, drama, and music of Java have profoundly
influenced Islam. The rise of Schism to be the state religion in Iran may well have been

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influenced by pre-Islamic Persia. The inclination to strong monarchy in the form of
kinship and in the power of the imam and the ayatollah, the sense of hierarchy, the love
of regal splendor and panoply had all been glorified in the Persia of Cyrus. Indeed the
receptivity of Persia to Shiite Islam may have been conditioned by these very factors in
ancient Persia. Peter J. Chelkowski and Ehsan Yarshater suggest that the elaborate
veneration of Hussein and the theme of redemption through sacrifice and self-immolation
had parallels in ancient Persia.
Egypt has had a mixed cultural colonial legacy as complex as that of Iran. The Islamic
domination, starting with the 7th century AD, grafted politico-religious authoritarianism
on ancient Pharaonic culture which had the same emphasis. The twelve year period of
Napoleonic rule (1789-1801_ encouraged a sense of nationalism and introduced elements
of French law and bureaucratic organization. During the next period of rule under
Mohammed Ali, large numbers of foreigners were brought in from Britain, France and
Turkey to provide technical assistance When the British assumed control in 1182 until
Egyptian independence in 1922, there was massive infusion of British norms and
institutions of government. Much of what was introduced came by ways of India where
the British already had long experience in colonial rule. We thus see in Egypt one of the
world's oldest universities and regarded by many as the global center of Islamic
scholarship. This cultural duality is also manifest by the existence of an uncommonly
robust Islamic militancy seriously challenging government and political stability.
Sectarian divisions in Islam are neither as pronounced or as numerous as those in
Christianity. The 1995 World Almanac lists 167 Christian denominations in the United
States alone. Baptists appear to be the most fractious, with 21 distinct persuasions. The
doctrinal differences within Christianity are profound. These range from the orthodox
literal interpretation of scripture to belief in scripture as metaphor and myth. The
spectrum includes trinitarianism and unitarianism; the liturgies embrace the sumptuous,
ornate splendors of the Orthodox and Catholic traditions as well as the simplicity of the
Quakers and Moravians. And within the Christian embrace lie the doctrines and practices
of Christian Science and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.
When we compare the fact that Islam embraces no deviation from its quintessential with
the divisions in Christianity, it is misleading to use the term "sect" (which describes
Christian divisions) to characterized Muslim differences. The term "modalities" in the
Islamic context seems more appropriate.
The major division is that of the Sunni and Shia with the Sunni claiming about 85
percent. Shiism, the state religion of Iran also claims about 30 percent of the population
of Pakistan. Nearly half the population of Iraq is Shia although the regime of Saddam
Hussein is Sunni. The Alawi, a branch of the Shia, is the ruling elite under Jafiz al-Asad
in Syria; the Shiites are a significant minority in Lebanon and a small minority (about
200 thousand) on the east coast of Saudi Arabi. The principal difference between these
two modalities lies in the role of the religious leaders, imams, and especially the position
of the ayatollah. This is linked to the notion of occultation, i.e. that certain imams, and

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have gone into hiding and may reappear at critical moments. This is a mystical aspect of
Shiism which is rejected by the Sunni. Shiism emerged in about 632 AD from
disagreement about leadership in Islam after the death of the Prophet. The dominant
belief was that the leadership should be elected by the followers of the Prophet; this
group became known as Sunni. Others, who felt the leadership should pass by inheritance
to Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad and thence to his sons Hassan and Hussein, became
known as Shiites. The defining moment came with the brutal assassination of Hussein in
680 AD in Kerbala (in modern Iraq). This event is commemorated with great fervor in
Shiite communities with processions, self-flagellation and religions plays depicting the
assassination.
Another variation in modality is a group known as the Ahamdiyyas (also called Mirzai
and Qadiani) named for their founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad and for his abode -the
village of Qadian in India. This group flourished in Pakistan but was declared "non-
Muslim" by the National Assembly in 1974 because it violated the "Seal of the Prophet"
by professing that its founder was a prophet following Mohammed. Ironically, the
Ahmadiyyas have been zealous missionaries, especially in Africa and have been staunch
practitioners of Islam wherever they have settled.
Cutting across these modalities, although found mostly among the Sunnis, is a tradition
of Islamic mysticism called Sufism. The Sufis seek, either through asceticism or ecstatic
experience such as dance, song or meditation, a direct communion with God. Sufis, found
throughout the Muslim world, are a significant influence in Islam.
In addition to these modalities several schools of law emerged during the two centuries
after Muhammad's death in 633 AD. The four most prominent schools, named for their
founders who were influential scholars of Islam are followed today. These schools,
mentioned earlier, differ with respect to the degree of reliance on hadith, on the reliability
of hadith, and emphasis on consensus or on reason and analogy interpreting the Qur'an.
Differences in the law of inheritance and marriage requirements have also emerged
through the years. There is no deviation from the quintessentials of the faith. A Muslim
army may follow any school or all schools of law. Saudi Arabia recognizes the validity of
all four schools in its Shari'a courts.
Another powerful and persuasive indicator of the complexity of the Muslim world and
the force of couture as a modifier of behavior is ethnographic and linguistic diversity.
Arabic is the language of the Qur'an; although it is translated into all major languages.
Prayers are often recited in Arabic by non-Arabic speaking Muslims but Arabic not the
language of common use beyond the 22 Arab states or Arab communities in other states.
Hundreds of other languages are spoken by Muslims: Persian, Urdu, Malayan, Swahili,
Bengali, Turkish, and Berber, to name but a few. These languages are derived from
several different linguistic families and have different (though sometimes related) scripts.
Strenuous efforts have been made to teach Arabic in all Muslim configurations, but
cannot be said that it is anywhere new universal in use.

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Richard V. Weekes identifies some 300 distinct ethnic groups wholly or partly Muslim.
He describes in detail 96 such groups whose Muslim populations exceed 100,000. These
96 groups include more than 92 percent of the world's Muslims. These groups are not
necessarily internal religious minorities, but are distinctive ethnic communities,
sometimes speaking different language from the majority in the country where they live.
Often their domicile goes beyond national boundaries.
Another factor influencing cultural behavioral patterns is the impact of the dominant
culture on minority Muslims, particularly in Europe and North America. This has become
a matter of serious concern to first generation Muslim immigrants who see their children
and grandchildren subjected to values which Islam regards as evil: teenage pregnancy,
sexual promiscuity, abortion, drug dependency, immodesty of dress, rejection of religious
values, pornography. Organizations like the Islamic Society of North America, the World
Muslim League and the European Muslim council have taken vigorous measure to deal
with this problem.
6. Internal Minorities
The perception of a monolithic Islamic community is further dimmed by the presence of
non-Muslim minorities living in Muslim states. Islamic law is rich in its empathy for and
protection of such minorities. Islam recognizes the special status of members of Judaism
and Christianity as "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitab): those who believe in the sacred
status of the Old Testament. Such persons (dhimmis or kitabis), for example, are allowed
in a non-Muslim state to recite the authorized prayer at the halal slaughter of animals for
food. They are guaranteed the right to worship, to vote and to hold government positions.
Exceptions can be made if such activities are inimical to the Muslim nature of the society.
Under this rubric, some Muslim states restrict freedom of worship and the right of non-
Muslims to hold office.
Christians are a numerically significant minority in Muslim states. It is estimated that in
the Middle East alone there are some 12 million or 10 percent of the population.
Lebanon, before the civil war, had a Christian population of nearly 40 percent of the total.
Egypt has about 8 million Copts and Syria about one million Christians. About 10
percent of the Palestinian Diaspora is Christian. Pakistan for many years had a devout
Roman Catholic, A.R. Cornelius, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Its Roman
Catholic minority, largely of Goan ancestry, is led by Joseph Cardinal Cordeiro. The
valuable properties of both the Catholic and the Anglican churches, although in some
cases unused, have never been threatened with expropriation. Jordan also has a Christian
community and its Foreign Minister, Dr. Kamal Abu Jaber, is a Christian. Iraq, which is
about three percent Christian (largely Chaldean, Nestorian, Orthodox, Catholic and
Protestant) has a Chaldean Christian, Tariq Aziz, as Deputy Prime Minister. In Egypt, a
Coptic Christian, Boutros Boutros Ghali, was Deputy Prime Minister prior to his
appointment as United Nations Secretary General. Morocco has flourishing Jewish and
Christian communities. Turkey, as an avowedly secular state with strong European
leanings, is tolerant of its Christian minority. It is true that these minorities live in

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societies with an overwhelming Muslim ethos and are often not confident of their status
as dhimmis. The traditions of Islamic law are their sole protection. To be sure, this
tolerance is not practiced in all Muslim countries. Saudi Arabia does not allow separate
buildings for worship by non-Muslims. The Bahai' s, a sect originating in Persia, have
been banned in Muslims states as heretical. This is because they have violated a cardinal
principle of Islam in their belief in a prophet after Muhammad. The radical states of
Libya and the Sudan has experienced acts of violence against non-Muslims. Egypt ahs
had difficulty controlling terrorist acts against Coptic Christians. Perhaps the principal
advantage of the Christian minorities in Muslim states is their network of influence with
Christians in the West. This makes for improved understanding of the Muslim condition
and may moderate perceptions of the non-Muslim world.
Christian influence on the Middle East has been profound. The American University of
Beirut established in 1866 as Protestant College and the Catholic (Jesuit) University of
Saint Joseph established in Beirut in 1881 have trained much of the medical, scientific,
political and intellectual leadership of the Middle East. Robert College in Istanbul has
had similar though lesser influence. The leadership elites trained at these institutions have
not necessarily been Christian. On the contrary, most have been Muslim. Arab churches
in the Middle East have been influential bridges between Muslims and Christians. Frank
Sakran a representative for the Greek Orthodox (Arab) Church to the World Council of
Churches has been particularly effective. In the United States Archbishop Philip E.
Saliba, Primate of the Atiochian Orthodox Christian Church of North America, heads the
influential Standing Conference of Middle Eastern and Christian leaders. Libya's
Muammar al-Qadafi, not usually portrayed in the American press as a conciliatory figure,
has spoken and acted in behalf of Muslim-Christian understanding.
7. Differences in Polity
The 52 Islamic nations, thought bonded in the metaphysical realm by common religious
belief, are widely separated by differences in state polity. Those differences have been
induced or aggravated by colonial rule and by post-colonial enmeshment in a web of new
imperialism now cultural and economic. Weak or embryonic political structures cannot
easily sustain a polity which is truly indigenous and in harmony with its own cultural and
historical circumstances when it is subjected to the transnational commercial and cultural
dynamism of the United States, a radiating power of enormous energy and hubris. Nor is
robust resistance possible when the web of dependency is upon with threads of gold
poised to break unless externally formulated standards of political structure and behavior
are met. The greater the integration of Muslim polities with the world at large, the greater
the dependence on technologically advanced systems and the greater the threat to
distinctive indigenous religious and cultural values. Differing political systems are also
the consequences of varying perceptions of the nature on an Islamic state and often of
amateurish flirtation with Western political concepts and structures. These include single
party and multi-party systems, parliamentary and presidential patterns, unicameral and
bicameral legislatures, judicial review, socialism communism, capitalism, and free versus

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controlled market economies. Even such flirtatious experiments cannot be independent
for they are enmeshed in the web of political systems left by colonial rule. That web is
too tightly woven to permit escape. The result is a veritable kaleidoscopic display of
governmental systems. A few examples of the variations are illustrative.
Pakistan, subjected to the triple trauma of two centuries of British rule, separation from
India, and the secession of East Pakistan (to become Bangladesh) is an extreme case. It
had four constitutions, thus rearranging the crucial relationship of space, power and
culture four times. It had two periods of martial law and massive infusion of American
technical assistance. Two heroic efforts were made to escape the web of dependence on
the West. The first was the decade (1958-1969) old experiment in Basic Democracies
initiated during the regime of Ayub Khan. The second was the ten-year (1977-1987)
political structure, Nizam-I-Mustafa (Way of the Prophet) evolved in the regime of Zia
ul-Haq. Both were courageous and brilliant efforts to throw off colonial and post -
colonial intervention and establish and indigenous polity. The Basic Democracies scheme
attracted favorable worldwide attention and had it continued longer it might well have
been a model for other developing countries. The fall of the government of Ayub Khan
and his replacement first by Yayha Khan then by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and the distraction
of the secession of East Pakistan brought about the demise of this notable experiment.
Nizam-I-Mustafa was a different scheme which sought to evolve an Islamic polity
through serious efforts to revise the legal system I accordance with Shari' a. While this
was popular with such groups as the Jammat-I-Islami, it was resisted by others of a more
secular persuasion. In any even Nizam-I-Mustafa collapsed with the death of Zia al-Haq
in a mysterious airplane crash in 1988 in which the United States ambassador Arnold
Raphael, was also killed. The successor governments of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz
Sharif and no interest in the creation of their predecessor. The faltering remnant of the
parliamentary system introduced under British colonial rule has proved incapable of
coping effectively with the horrendous problems of refugees and bitter regional feuds.
Saudi Arabia is at the other end of the spectrum of comparison. Its religious, linguistic
and ethnic cohesion is unmatched. It did not experience colonial rule, hence did not suffer
from a disarticulation created by the forced imposition of foreign norms and institutions.
In the context of comfortable wealth it constructed its own polity with the Qur'an and as
its constitution. It did not have to struggle to reconcile British or French law with Islamic
law. It functioned under Islamic law (shari'a), selectively integrating extraneous elements
to meet new needs. It built institutions before it expanded political participation and then
gradually evolved an appointed representative system (majlis al-Shura) in 1993. The
Saudi polity cannot be fitted into Western categories. Neither an absolute monarchy nor a
constitutional monarchy of British pattern, it is as nearly indigenous as can be found.
Iran's polity has a similar indigenous quality, achieved by a different course. The first
difference is its history of imperial greatness dating back to Cyrus and Darius in the 6th
century BC. There followed waves of Greek, Parthian, Roman and Arab conquest. By
650 AD the Sassanid Empire fell to the Arabs and indigenous Zoroastrianism was

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replaced by Islam. A long period of Muslim dynasties evolved into constitutional
government in the early 20 the century. There then followed a period of monarchical rule
under Reza Shah and his successor, Pahlavi Shah. Throughout much of this history the
idea of monarchy and intense feelings of devotion to Shia Islam were dominant. In the
twentieth century, until 1979, the cultural influence of the West, especially France,
Britain and the United States were important. The Khomeini revolution was a drastic
effort to establish an indigenous polity. It almost totally detached that polity from the
ideological premises and economic and political structures of the international state
system of the West. By emphasizing its predominantly non-Arab ethnicity and its Shiite
Islam, it has distanced itself somewhat from the ideology and transactions of the Islamic
ummah. Its development in the twentieth century has been marked also by its relative
wealth rather than abject poverty. Like Saudi Arabia, Iran has thus developed an Islamic
system of government. Unlike the futile efforts in Pakistan, it has done so by disengaging
from along, rich and complicated past of foreign influence. But its tactic was revolution
rather than gradualism and thus far it has successfully forged a relatively indigenous
political system.
The Indonesian case is characterized by the penetrating influence of Hinduism. Western
constitutional government, learned from Dutch colonial rule, did not penetrate as deeply
as British tutelage in India. There was no imperial pat as in Iran, or an indigenous Islam
city as in Saudi Arabia. Islam was dominant since the 14th century, but was not
exclusive; Hinduism still prevailed in many parts. The post-colonial period, starting with
1948 under Sukarno and continued under Soharto, has been dominated by a unique brand
of secularism tinged with Islam. The ideology of Pancasila is the national civil religion
and is part of the 1945 constitution under which Indonesia is ruled. The five principles of
Pancasila, nationalism, humanity (internationalism), consultation (democracy), social
justice, and belief in a Supreme Beijing, effectively separate the secular and the
sacerdotal, and equation difficult for Muslims to accept. By making adjustments in the
applicability of Islam in family law, the pluralistic, secular structure has endured and
Islam, while not enjoying cultural exclusivity, continues to exist as the religion of 90
percent of the population.
In the struggle to relate Islam to a polity Muslim states must cope with pre-Islamic
indigenous heritage, experience of colonial rule, international influences of the economy
and culture, indigenous Islamic forces and relations with the Muslim ummah. There is no
common agreement among them as to what constitutes an Islamic state.
8. Religious Complementarities
The relationship of three monotheistic Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity and
Islam, is not necessarily one of mutual antagonism. Certainly the theological connections
are evident and have been analyzed in an enormous volume of literature. Earlier parts of
this essay described Islam's special consideration of ahl al-kitab, people of the book: Jews
and Christians. All three religions share a common respect, even reverence, for Old
Testament prophets. The naming of Muslims for the Prophets should not go unnoticed,

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though it may be obscured by Arabization. Moses becomes Musa; Abraham: Ibrahim;
Solomon: Sulyman; Mary: Maryam; David: Daoud; Jesus: Issa; John: Yayha; Joseph:
Yusif, to name but a few. The complementarities with Christianity include belief in the
virgin birth of Christ, though not in the resurrection, crucifixion, ascension nor in the
Trinity of divinity of Christ. Muslims are attentive to if no celebratory of Christmas.
Prince Bandar, the Saudi ambassador to the United States, sent Christmas cards in Arabic
with an English translation of part of Sura (chapter) 3 of the Qur'an called Al-Imran sura,
which describes the angel's announcement to Mary of the coming virgin birth of Christ.
This view of the Qur'an and hence the historicity of Christ's birth is as prevalent today as
it was in Conway's time. This can be illustrated by an event in England in 1993. A British
television series, Spitting Image, featured a rubber puppet of Jesus styled as a hippie.
Then Muslim association protested, pointing out that Muslims revered Jesus and that
those responsible for the television series should be severely punished. The puppet was
withdrawn. The producer said that he had discussed the puppet with Church of England
leaders who regarded it as "innocuous." The Muslim' committee said that the Anglican
clergy "should be heartened by the leadership provided by British Muslims in protesting
[Christian} blasphemy."
The only predominantly Muslim country in Europe is the newly independent, tragically
beleaguered nation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The brutal massacre of Muslim Bosnians by
Orthodox Christian Serbs serves as a chilling backdrop for the projection of Muslim-
Christian relations. Yet the Muslim Bosnian President, Alija Ali Izetbegovic, wrote
prophetically that kinship between Islam and Christianity has been overlooked. "Their
kinship, if we draw all the necessary conclusions from it, could direct the relations of
these two great world religions to an entirely new dimension in the future. As Islam in the
past was the intermediary between the ancient cultures and the West, it must again today,
in a time of dramatic dilemmas and alternatives, shoulder its role as intermediary nation
in a divided world. This is the meaning of the third way, the Islamic way."
Relations between Jews and Muslims have not always been hostile. There were times in
Islamic history, especially during Muslim ascendancy in Spain (711-1212 AD) when
Jews were well treated and often sought Muslim sanctuary from Christian persecution.
The Jewish historian, Mark Cohen, asserts that Jews fared better in the Muslim world and
challenges the "counter myth of Islamic persecution" that has prevailed since the Six-Day
War of 1967. The sentiment of Muslim states towards Jews is a political statement about
Zionism, the establishment of Israel, the displacement of Palestinians, control of
Jerusalem and the third holiest site in Islam: Al Quds al-Haram (the Dome of the Rock).
Inevitably this political sentiment, brewing for half a century, translates into attitudes
towards Jews as people. But historically this has not been the root cause. It is conceivable
that with the achievement of a just Middle East peace settlement, Jewish-Muslim
relations will improve and that the constantly invoked them of "Judaeo-Christian"
tradition will be expanded to "Judeo-Christian-Islamic".

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The values and ethical systems of these three Abrahamic monotheisms are
quintessentially compatible despite some theological differences and varying
interpretations of scripture and history. In the face of what appears to be the
disintegration of Western civilization, comparable, the apocalyptic tell us, to the fall of
Rome, a unified front of all otherworldly perspectives is needed. The start has been made
in Jewish-Christian and Christian-Muslim relations. Now the urgent need is for a similar
Jewish-Muslim reconciliation.

8.2 Universal of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an international document that states the
basic rights and freedoms all human beings are entitled to. It was adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948. Nearly every state in the
world has accepted the Declaration. It provides a universal set of minimum standards for
how people should be treated. The Declaration has inspired more than 80 international
conventions and treaties, as well as numerous regional conventions, and domestic laws. It
has also been the catalyst for an expanding system of human rights protection for groups
such as disabled people, indigenous peoples and women. It has been translated into more
than 360 languages.

The recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world. Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts
which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which
human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear has been
proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people.

The General Assembly, Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a

common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every
individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall
strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by
progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective
recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and
among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

Article I: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood.

Article 2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no

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distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status
of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust,
non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Article 3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

Article 4: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall
be prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5: No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading

treatment or punishment.

Article 6: Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.

Article 7: All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to
equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination
in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Article 8: Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national
tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by
law.

Article 9: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Article 10: Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an
independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and
of any criminal charge against him.

Article 11: Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent
until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the
guarantees necessary for his defense. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on
account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or
international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be
imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

Article 12: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family,
home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the
right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 13: Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the
borders of each State. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and
to return to his country.

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Article 14: Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising
from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the
United Nations.

Article 15: Everyone has the right to a nationality. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of
his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.

Article 16: Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or
religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as
to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only
with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. The family is the natural and
fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.

Article 17: Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with
others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this
right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in
teaching, practice, worship and observance.

Article 19: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right
includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Article 20: Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. No
one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21: Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly
or through freely chosen representatives. Everyone has the right to equal access to public
service in his country. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of
government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be
by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free
voting procedures.

Article 22: Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is
entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in
accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and
cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

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Article 23: Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and
favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. Everyone, without
any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. Everyone who works has
the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an
existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of
social protection. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the
protection of his interests.

Article 24: Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of
working hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Article 25: Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and
well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing, and medical
care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in
circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care
and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same
social protection.

Article 26: Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher
education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be
directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding,
tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further
the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior
right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

Article 27: Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the
community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from
any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

Article 28: Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and
freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

Article 29: Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full
development of his personality is possible. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms,
everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the
purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and

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of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a
democratic society. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to
the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Article 30: Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State,
group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the
destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

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