Deterioration and Maintenance of Pavements Footways and Walkways

Chapter 2 Footways and Walkways

Index
2.1 Introduction

2.2 Users of the footway and their expectations

2.3 Objectives of Footways and Walkways

2.3 The legal position in the UK

2.5 Design of Footways and Walkways

2.6 Structural Design of Footways and Walkways

1 Design Considerations
1 Selection of footway category
2 Assessment of subgrade
3 Utility apparatus
4 Drainage
2 Pedestrian only design
3 Vehicle resistant design
1 Light vehicle over-run
2 Occasional heavy vehicle over-run design
3 Heavy vehicle design

2.7 Construction of Footways and Walkways

1 Introduction
1 Typical cross section
2 Slip Resistance
3 Surfacing Materials
1 Earth and gravel
2 Cobbles
3 Natural stone Flags / Slabs
4 Stone setts
5 Small element paving
6 Concrete Block and Brick Paving
4 Bedding materials
1 Flags and small element paving
2 Natural Stone setts and paving
3 Concrete Block Paving (CBC)
4 Brick Paving
1 Flexible paving with clay pavers
2 Rigid paving with clay pavers
3 Concrete Block Paving (CBP)
5 Asphalt
6 Concrete

2.9 Whole Life Cost

2.10 References and Bibliography

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Footways and Walkways

Plates
2.1 A typical user
2.2 Informal shared surface
2.3 Typical footwear early 1900's
2.4 Nice design, but how many people can get this view
2.5 Pedestrian precinct – Heavy loading
2.6 Pedestrian precinct – Heavy point loading
2.7 Urban footway formation – the reality
2.8 Some functional features can be a hazard
2.9 Natural stone cobbles
2.10 Natural stone flags
2.11 Typical footway – Copenhagen, Denmark
2.12 Typical footway – Tallinn, Estonia
2.13 Good example of small element paving
2.14 Small element paving mixed with block paving and cobbles
2.15 Brick paving – Wakefield Cathedral precinct
2.16 Laying small element paving Stureplan precinct, Stockholm, Sweden
2.17 Design layout for Stureplan precinct, Stockholm, Sweden
2.18 Natural stone setts – Blackpool, England, 2009
2.19 Natural stone paving – Leeds, England, 2010
2.20 Patterns in Asphalt surfacing – Tenerife

Figures
2.1 Gait analysis after Whittle (2002)
2.2 Walking surface - Surface regularity, legal benchmarks
2.3 Recommended design thickness – Pedestrian only footway
2.4 Recommended design thickness – Light vehicle overrun footway
2.5 Recommended design thickness – Occasional HGV's
2.6 Recommended design thickness - Subject to regular HGV overrun
2.7 Cross section – Footway with Asphalt Surface
2.8 Cross section – Footway with Modular Surface

Tables
2.1 Survey finding – Leake et al (1991)
2.2 Formation CBR basic guidance (AG 26 2003)
2.3 CBR – Subbase thickness relationship
2.4 Slip Resistance vrs potential to slip
2.5 Footway Surfacing Materials
2.6 Footways – Personal Injury Accident Data

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Chapter 2 Footways and Walkways

2.1 Introduction
At this stage there is merit in clarifying the terms Footways and Walkways as they are
used in this section. In the UK the generic term Pavement is usually applied to the
footway, whereas in this text a footway is but a sub-category of the overall family of
Pavements used exclusively by pedestrians. The term Walkway is employed where
there is shared use with motor vehicles and in town centres feature Walkways are
referred to as Pedestrian Precincts.

Footways and Walkways are a more interesting, complex and challenging entity to
design and maintain than carriageways for a number of reasons, which will be explored
in detail later in this section.

The following discussion should be read in conjunction with Atkinson (1997).

2.2 Users of the footway and their expectations

Users of the footway are a broad group of people of diverse age and physical ability,
from the young fit and able to the elderly and disabled and mobility impaired in both
categories.

The group of mobility impaired is considerably larger than might be imagined and
includes not just those with some ambulatory disability, but also those who push
prams, and those who carry shopping. It is this group who provide the greatest
challenge both for the provision and the maintenance of the walking surface.
Conceptually, the lady in the following photograph may realistically be considered to
represent a typical user in the UK.

Two things are of specific note, firstly in Plate 1 the footwear has a small heel, which
does not assist stability, nor does the potential impairment to stability of shopping.
Secondly in Plate 2, however, the users do not have any formal footwear.

With the walking surface the user is intolerant of trips and short undulations, loose
surfaces, and standing water. It should also be remembered that the walking surface
must, in most cases, be capable of sustaining the high stresses resulting from vehicle
overrun – both on an isolated and regular basis.

The design of the highway infrastructure has progressed from the original position of a
single joint surface, which accommodated animals and their accompanying pedestrian
minders along subsequently with wheeled vehicles of increasing diversity such as may
be seen in Plate 2.2.

From the mid 1700's separate footways became the norm with the vehicles being
segregated to the carriageways and pedestrians to the footway. From the early 1950's
there has been progressive encroachment of vehicles onto the footway, which in
addition to being dangerous has resulted in many structural problems and a
progressive acceptance of the need to provide a greater structural capability in the
footway.

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Pate 2.1 - Typical UK user, for the purpose of design

Plate 2.2 - Informal shared surface (Willem Van Herp)

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In the case of a carriageway; fatigue loading is incremental and is a function of the

maximum axle load. Additionally, the loads are transmitted in a generally linear
manner via a rubber tyre – which has a relatively small range of frictional variance and
the tyre itself can cope with a significant variation in surface roughness. With the
carriageway there is merit and greater safety in having a surface of the highest
possible skid resistance.

Plate 2.3 - Typical children's footwear in early 1900's

The range of footwear, particularly that worn by women has changed - from the
almost universal clog shown in the following photograph to the fashion heel, in some
cases capable of applying point loads to a surface approaching and in some cases
actually exceeding its compressive strength of the materials of construction.

Accidents occur on the walking surface for a number of reasons, the main ones being:

 Random occurrences'
 Ambulatory capabilities
 Surface type
 Pedestrian flow
 Surface condition

At this stage a brief examination of the walking process is relevant.

The following figure shows that during the walking phase the foot is lifted then swings
through, making an arc centred about the knee. In the swing phase the toe is
generally the lowest part of the foot, and hence it is most often the toe that makes
contact with any trip hazard. One of the most important aspects of gait in relation to

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tripping is the height of the toe above the ground during the swing phase. This is
known as toe clearance. A number of studies have investigated minimum toe
clearance during both normal walking conditions and when negotiating obstacles. All
of these studies differentiated between minimum toe clearance of young adults and
the elderly, with the former exhibiting minimum toe clearances of between 10mm and
20mm, while the toe clearances of the latter were generally 10mm or less.

Figure 2.1 - Gait analysis after - Whittle (2002)

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2.3 Objectives of Footways and Walkways

Since the late 1940's in England it has to be accepted that there are progressively
fewer true footways that are not to some greater or lesser extent over-run by vehicles.
In these circumstances it is relevant to start by considering a list of objective for this
class of Pavement where their functionality and maintenance objectives are related
predominantly to the needs of pedestrians.

 Provides a safe route for pedestrians, cyclists and motor vehicles where
appropriate
 Free from:
o Obstructions
o Trips
o Standing water
o Loose surfaces
o Litter
o Weeds
 Have gradients as gentle as practicable
 Be well lit where necessary
 Have clear markings
 Have non-slip surfaces in wet and dry conditions
 Have a maximum desirable level of slip resistance
 Without gaps to trap:
o Wheels
o Walking canes
o Shoe heels
 Compatible with the immediate surroundings
 Permit easy and unhindered usage by all pedestrians and cyclists including those
with mobility difficulties
 Designed to minimise the possibility of vehicle overrun
 Capable of supporting overrun where it regularly occurs
 Have minimal maintenance needs consistent with the lowest whole life costs
 Easily reinstated

There is very little detailed guidance in the literature, which will facilitate the
quantification of pedestrian's capability or preferences, such that maintenance
standards can be developed for the walking surface Leake (1991), however presents a
useful starting point,

This reported on a survey conducted in Sheffield, which had three main objectives:

 To obtain pedestrians reactions to existing footways of differing construction and

in various states of maintenance condition;
 To determine the threshold at which a footway became unacceptable to the user
and requires maintenance;
 To obtain information on pedestrians preferred types of footway construction.

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The following table set out a summary of the findings, which were reported for a
variety of surface types.

Raised Friction Broken Gaps

Surface Sex Undulation edges (Pendulum Pavers ≥ 10mm
(mm) ≥5mm value) (%) (%)
(%)
Block paving M/F ≤ 10-11 n ≥ 65 ≤ 10 (R) n
Conventional M ≤ 11 ≤ 12 ≥ 65 ≤ 10 ≤4
flags F ≤ 11 ≤ 12 ≥ 65 ≤ 10 ≤1
Small element M ≤ 10 ≤9 ≥ 65 ≤ 10 (R) n
flags F ≤ 10 ≤9 ≥ 65 ≤ 10 (R) n
Asphalt M/F ≤ 14-15 N/A ≥ 65 N/A N/A

Key: n = no standard obtained, N/A not applicable, M/F Male/Female

(R) Recommendation based on conventional flags

Table 2.1 - Survey findings (Leake et al 1991)

This can be seen to provide the basis for the development of maintenance objectives.

Trip hazard – the foregoing suggests that a trip hazard of 25mm would provide a
significant obstacle to most pedestrians, particularly the elderly. Leake et al (1991)
established that users found difficulties when up-stands exceeded 10mm. This
consistent with Whittle (2002)

Rocking flags – Leake et al (1991) found that all rocking flags are categorised as
dangerous by the user.

Cracks and gaps – Leake et al (1991) found users had difficulties when gaps exceeded
10mm wide.

Depressions and bumps – Leake et al (1991) found that transverse depressions were
more difficult for the user and this was subsequently confirmed by Spong et al.(1995)

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2.4 The legal position in the UK

In the UK the fundamental legislation is set out in the Highways Act 1980 and whilst
this covers many aspects of the highway the fundamental principle is to permits safe
passage and re-passage within the boundaries of the highway. No guidance, however,
is given on acceptable standards of maintenance. This resulted in the development of
case law and the following diagram defines what is generally considered acceptable
beyond which a claimant may be due to compensation.

Figure 2.2 - Walking surface Legal Benchmarks for surface regularity

The present legal position for all users of an adopted highway (one maintained at
public expense) is that if they have an accident they may be able to make a successful
claim against the Highway Authority for compensation. This is not dealt with in any
detail here and the reader is referred to. Roads Board (2005) (2009)

It will be seen that the above diagram, which relates to footways and walkways leads
to an unacceptable standard of maintenance when compared with the table 2.1.

The interesting dilemma here is that the general standards of surface compliance seen
by users as desirable are considerably more challenging than the legal interpretation of
what is reasonable.

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2.5 Design of Footways and Walkways

This section does not set out to give advice on the conceptual and aesthetic design of
Footways and Walkways, rather the structural, construction and maintenance aspects
thereof since this ensures the longevity of the project.

The design of footways and walkways follows highway practices, which are dealt with
in detail elsewhere, and can be traced back to TRL Road 29. first published in 1960.
Whilst this document related to asphalt pavement construction increasingly many areas
are constructed in elemental or modular materials. In this text the term elemental
construction relates to a range of materials from concrete to natural stone in many
sizes from large flagstones to small cobbles.

The greatest challenge for the designer is the urban pedestrian precinct where there is
the opportunity for architectural flair to enhance adjacent buildings and follow
European practices in the mid-late 1940's with major pedestrian schemes which
emerged in the post world war 2 rebuilding era. Almost without exception these were
of elemental construction.

The synthesis of ideas and requirements of the architect and the engineer has not
always been happy due to the naturally extrovert nature of the former and introvert
conservative nature of the latter. Nevertheless, there is a fundamental issue here,
which is where the result is viewed from and this is not well understood. The architect
is used to drafting elevations to buildings, which can easily be seen by the observer
looking with eyes set, typically at 1.5m above ground level. On many occasions
photographs of walkways have been taken from adjacent building not accessible to the
normal user and the layout and juxtaposition of different material of cannot be fully
appreciated from the usual viewing height of 1.5m above ground level, an example is
shown below.

Plate 2.4 - Nice design but how many people can get this view?

Whilst there are separate published standards for elemental construction, especially
where wheeled traffic may be expected to use the area the general rational for the
determination of overall pavement thickness is based on the proposition that the

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thickness of an element and its bedding provides a structural contribution equivalent to

the same thickness of asphalt. This equivalence factor of 1.00 can be found in many
international publications, but some UK literature is more conservative,

Plate 2.5 - Heavy Loading on the Walking Surface

The major problem is to consider the usage. Originally footway design was fairly
straightforward but since the 1950's, in the UK, there has been an increasing degree of
vehicular encroachment, which must be allowed for and in the case of a pedestrian
precinct full heavy vehicular loading must be considered a shown in the previous
picture. At the other extreme the surface must be capable of dealing with
concentrated point loads from high-heeled shoes, typically 6mm x 6mm, and illustrates
some of the problems if gaps between adjacent elements are greater than 6mm.

Plate 2.6 - Heavy Point loading on the Walking Surface

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A 6mm x 6mm high heel can impose point loads in excess of the compressive strength
of some footway surfacing materils.

Harsh climatic conditions can result in specific design issues. For example; in central
Stockholm where 600mm of snow can fall overnight the layout of the precincts is such
that snow blowers and 3 axle lorries must be able to manoeuvre to pick up the snow
prior to business' and shops opening in the morning and in some areas "underfloor"
heating from district heating circulating pipes.

2.6 Structural Design of Footways and Walkways

2.6.1 Design Considerations

2.6.1.1 Selection of footway category

Catalogue designs, adapted from AG26, are given for four categories. The appropriate
category being chosen according, to the risk and type of vehicle overrun and the
amount of pedestrian usage.

A footway in a residential area may be subject to illegal parking by private cars. In a

rural area adopting a pedestrian only design would be sensible as there will be little
risk of inconvenience to pedestrians.

There are many situations where light vehicle overrun is common but overrun by
heavy vehicles would not be expected to occur more than occasionally. Heavy vehicle
overrun is likely where footways are adjacent to roads in areas where deliveries are
made to local shops. Where a footway is subjected to regular vehicle overrun from
parking the existing structure may require thicker layers, higher quality materials or
other strengthening measures.

In many residential areas the most severe loading is from the weekly waste (dustbin)
collection.

Shared pedestrian and cyclist facilities should be considered as light vehicle category to
allow for cleaning and maintenance vehicles.

2.6.1.2 Assessment of Subgrade

A footway must be constructed on an adequate foundation to ensure satisfactory
performance. A soft subgrade provides insufficient support for compaction of the
layers above and they are likely to deteriorate rapidly.

When constructing a new footway a CBR assessment can be made. If the bearing
capacity of the soil is known, this can be related to CBR by simply dividing the bearing
capacity in kPa, by 140 (AG26_2003). Assessment of bearing capacity is more
important if the footway is required to withstand heavy vehicle overrun as this will
determine the thickness of construction.

Where a reconstruction and upgrading of a existing footway is planned the accurate

determination of bearing capacity is difficult due to the presence of services. In these
circumstances it is reasonable to assume a figure > 5%.

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A rough guide to CBR is set out in the table below (AG26_2003)

Soil condition CBR

Very soft, exudes between fingers when squeezed < 1%
Can be moulded by light finger pressure Between 1% and 2%
Can be moulded by strong finger pressure Between 2% and 3%
Can be indented by a thumbnail but not by a thumb > 6%

Table 3.2 - Formation CBR basic guidance (AG_26 2003)

2.6.1.3 Utility apparatus

In a new footway all utility apparatus must be below formation level TSO (2002). The
choice of footway surface should have regard to ease of reinstatement.

Plate 2.7 -- Urban footway formation – the reality

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2.6.1.4 Drainage
Since there should be no standing water on a footway it must be positively drained,
consequently adequate falls are necessary and it is suggested that 2.5% is the
absolute minimum with a preferred 3.5%. If a consistent cross fall of 2.5% is not
possible consideration must be given to some form of longitudinal slot or channel
drain. Great care should be exercised in deciding which because if incorrectly installed
they can present a hazard to users.

Plate 2.8 - Some functional features can also be hazards

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2.6.2 Pedestrian only design

Most pedestrian only footways are surfaced with asphalt. Typically, this takes the form
of a separate 40mm binder course and a 20mm surface course on a 100mm granular
sub-base. Some organizations prefer to use a single layer to avoid the problems of
compacting thin layers, which cool very quickly. It is more difficult, however, to
achieve a good quality surface finish when a separate regulating course is omitted.
Typical construction sections are shown below:

Figure 2.3 - Recommended design thickness – Pedestrian only footway

(AG_26 2003)

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2.6.3 Vehicle resistant design

2.6.3.1 Light vehicle over-run design

The following diagrams show the recommended thickness for light vehicle design,
where over-run is predominantly from private cars.

Figure 2.4 - Recommended design thickness – light vehicle overrun footway

(AG_26 2003)

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2.6.3.2 Occasional heavy vehicle over-run design

Where occasional heavy vehicle over-run is possible such as might occur for delivery
vehicles to private houses or where there is a two-weekly cycle of waste collection
where the dust-bin lorry is now tending towards a 3 axle design then consideration
should be given to local strengthening at radius’ where overrun is more likely. The
following constructions are recommended:

Figure 2.5 - Recommended design thickness – footway subject to occasional HGV

overrun (AG_26 2003)

2.6.3.3 Heavy vehicle design

The designs for footways to support heavy vehicle over-run are based on the
established method of relating the sub-base thickness to the CBR of the sub-grade and
to the design traffic. Here the design traffic is assumed to be 50,000 standard axles.
This allows approximately one vehicle per working day over a design life of 40 years.
It is assumed that one heavy vehicle, is on average, equivalent to one standard axle.
The number of standard axles is multiplied by 3 to take channelisation into account (as
opposed to normal distribution) and to allow for the effects of dynamic loading due to
the vehicle mounting the footway. Because of the impossibility of predicting with any
accuracy the type and number of vehicles likely to over-run a footway, a traffic count
would be in appropriate. The design figure of 50,000 standard axles should be robust
enough subject to over-run. If a higher level of traffic is expected then the structure
can no longer be considered a footway. AG26 (2003)

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Recommended sub-base thickness is set out in in the following table:

CBR % Type 1
sub-base (mm)
2 365
3 270
4 210
5 165
>5 150

Table 3.3 - CBR vrs Sub-base relationship

Figure 2.6 - Recommended design thickness – footway subject to HGV overrun

(AG_26 2003)

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2.7 Construction of Footways and Walkways

2.7.1 Introduction

Once the structural design has been completed it is necessary to consider overall
aesthetic design, the range of materials to be used and how that will affect the
construction process – for example, are all the surfacing elements to be laid in/on sand
or have some to have a stabilized bed? If clay pavers are included as features have
they to be laid on a wet bed. The following examines some of the issues and
considerations, which must be made.

2.7.1.1 Typical cross sections

2m

Channel block (optional)

Asphalt surface course Edge restraint

Kerb

Granular sub-base
Concrete bed and
haunch

Concrete bed and haunch Asphalt binder course

Layer thickness depends on foundation support and loading

Figure 2.7 - Footway with asphalt surface

2-3mm upstand
Small element, concrete or brick paver

25mm compacted sand bed

150mm or thick granular sub-base

Figure 2.8 - Footway with elemental of paver surface

The typical width of 2m is to ensure that two prams can safely pass. It is important to
ensure there is a positive drainage provision and that there is robust edge support at
the front and back of the footway. The construction of all walking surfaces is similar to
the above diagrams.

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2.7.2 Slip Resistance

Secondly, the needed functional requirements of the surface layer must be considered.
There has been previous discussion regarding user preferences but at this stage it is
appropriate to consider the required slip resistance. This is examined in greater detail
in the Chapter 9.

Unlike those Pavements designed for wheeled traffic, the greater the skid resistance
the safer the surface. In the case of the walking surface despite the measurement
procedure is similar in that the TRL Pendulum is used the term slip is used. With the
walking surface, however, there is a maximum slip resistance value (SRV) which if
exceeded makes the process of walking progressively more difficult for the user.

There has been considerable debate about how the slip resistance of the walking
surface should be measured. This is principally related to the exact material
specification of the slider, which is that part of the TRL Pendulum arm, which comes
into contact with the floor when the test is carried out.

The Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL) uses the Pendulum skid resistance tester to
determine the dynamic coefficient of friction (CoF) of a floor surface. This test
correctly models the interaction between the pedestrian heel and the floor during
normal pedestrian gait. HSE (2004)

Based on guidance set out in HSE(2006) the following table is relevant:

TRL Pendulum value Potential for Slip

(SRV)
19 and below high
20 - 39 moderate
40 - 74 low
>75 extremely low

Table 2.4 - Slip resistance vrs risk of slipping

An SRV in the range 35 – 75 is therefore considered to be appropriate.

The footway surface must not become slippery and difficult to walk on when wet. It is
unlikely that this will be a problem with asphalt or concrete materials, but care should
be taken when specifying clay pavers or natural stone. The slip resistance of clay
pavers is expressed as a polished paver value (PPV). A PPV of 45 is adequate for
general use AG26_2003 para 4.7

The recommended slip resistance value within BS6717 for pre-cast pavers is a
minimum of 35 for pedestrian only areas and 45 for use within trafficked area. These
values may also be applied to pavers in natural stone

Where the slope is >5% the above values should be increased by 10.

Locations near fast food outlets where grease / cooking oil may be dropped may
require additional cleaning to maintain an acceptable slip resistance.

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2.7.3 Surfacing Materials

There is a broad range of surfacing materials which can be used on Footways and
Walkways and consideration of which is most suitable is related, initially, to the extent
to which there will be vehicle overrun. In central urban locations it is usual for there to
be a mix of materials and colours as part of the overall scheme aesthetic design.

Pedestrian only Vehicle over-run Shared (precinct)

Earth
Gravel
Natural stone cobbles Natural stone setts
Natural stone flags Stone flags Natural stone small flags
Concrete flags Concrete flags Concrete small element
Concrete – in situ Concrete small element Concrete block paving
Asphalt Concrete – in situ Brick paving
Asphalt Mixture of above
Mastic Asphalt
Hot rolled asphalt

Table 2.5 - Footway Surfacing Materials (IHR 2000)

Before choosing which surface to consider a range of issues were recommended by

IHT (2000), some of which are:

 Type and use: traffic (volume and mix) pedestrians, movement patterns.
 Initial and on-going maintenance cost.
 Strength and durability, for anticipated loading.
 Construction: whether rigid or flexible and ease of construction.
 Pre-formed or in-situ.
 Maintenance, including ease of cleaning and repair.
 Visual appearance: colour, widths, joints and bonds.
 Protection of tree roots.
 Appropriateness: vernacular/regional style, style of adjacent buildings, availability.

2.7.3.1 Earth and gravel

No comment is made relating to either earth or gravel footways. In the UK they tend
to be used exclusively for recreational footways and the materials used are those
available locally.

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2.7.3.2 Cobbles
Natural stone cobbles, typically large river gravel of about 75mm – 100mm diameter,
are generally laid in a local sourced soil or sand-lime mortar. They tend to present an
aesthetic impression rather than a functional walking surface and experience indicates
that this form of construction is confined to local areas and may be used as a deterrent
surface. One recurring problem is that of being disfigured by weeds

Plate 2.9 - Cobbles surface

2.7.3.3 Natural stone Flags/Slabs

Natural stone flags are not usually of consistent dimensions, either in plan or thickness
due to the vagaries of geological bedding, whereas the development of pre-cast
concrete flags led to a progressive standardization of 3ft (900mm) x 2ft (600mm) and
600mm x 600mm with thickness being either 50mm or 65mm.

Plate 2.10 - Natural stone flags - Refurbishment Trafalgar Square, London

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The previous photograph shows the use of large elements during a recent
refurbishment of Trafalgar Square, London the flags (slabs) were up to 100mm thick
and 3m x 3m in size, which clearly needs specialist skills and laying equipment.

2.7.3.4 Stone setts

In many of the Baltic countries most footways are an interesting and attractive mix of
natural stone setts and concrete or natural stone flags. One distinct advantage of this
format is the ability to lay flags without cutting and use the stone cubes adjacent to
both the kerb to cope with one wheel on the footway parking and the varying front
face of adjacent buildings. The bedding course is always unbound granular material

Plate 2.11 - Typical footway, Copenhagen, Denmark

Plate 2.12 - Typical footway, Tallinn, Estonia

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2.7.3.5 Small element concrete paving

The advent of the pedestrianisation schemes, from the late 1940’s in Europe and the
late 1960’s in the UK, led to the use of reinforced concrete flags up to 100mm in
thickness.

Plate 2.13 - Good example of small element paving

The concept of small element paving, typically 450mm x 450mm x 50/65mm thick was
first used in Germany and introduced into the UK in the early 1980’s in Birmingham
proving to be progressively more popular as a properly constructed bed has the
capability to resist traffic.

Plate 2.14 - Small element paving mixed with concrete block paving and cobbles

2.7.3.6 Concrete Block and Brick Paving

For may years brick paving was popular in Europe, where it was generally laid on a
fairly low bearing capacity formation and had the advantage that when localized
settlement occurred the bricks could easily be lifted and relaid with the addition of

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further sand bedding. Bricks tended to be 300mm x 100mm x 50mm to 65mm in

thickness and can be laid either 300mm x 100mm or 300mm x 50mm in plan. There
are a number of interesting brick paved precincts in the UK, particular examples being
Centenary Square Birmingham and the Cathedral Precinct in Wakefield. With "artistic
interpretations such as this the regularity and consistency of the bedding course is of
vital importance.

Plate 2.15 - Wakefield Cathedral Precinct

2.7.4 Bedding materials

2.7.4.1 Flags and small element paving

From the early 1800’s, in the UK, bedding for stone flags, which was the predominant
surface on footways at the time, was generally clinker ash. Clinker Ash being the
waste residue of the many coal-powered boilers, which provided the steam to run the
industrial machinery of the day. From the early 1900’s, in the UK, there was a
progressive move to use sand for bedding as clinker ash became more difficult to
obtain. Where there is only pedestrian access to the walking surface these beddings
proved quite adequate. Pre-cast Concrete flags, typically 900mm x 600mm first
became available from about 1900.

From the mid 1950’s, in the UK, there has been progressive encroachment onto the
footway by vehicular traffic. In the urban centre streets with terraced housing and
roads serving the major estates of social housing, which begun to emerge from about
that time, there was generally no provision for parking of private motor vehicles,
consequently encroachment onto the footways increased and a lot of damage was
fairly normal. Where vehicles were allowed to cross the footway it was normal for a
sand/cement bed to be used along with a thicker 65mm flag.

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The availability of the small element flag from the mid 1970’s followed European
practice and the use of sand bedding continued. Later, in a misguided attempt to
strengthen the pavement the sand was stabilized with cement.

The problem with a cement stabilized bed is that a stiff surface element is laid on a
stiff base and for the pavement to function properly there needs to be a bond develop
between them. The likelihood of any bond developing in these circumstances is
extremely low, consequently any movement of the element will destroy any tenuous
bond which may have developed.

It is argued that for any elemental surface to be successful it must be placed on a sand
or fine granular bed with some degree of resilience. In the UK the preference is to use
sand, whereas in some parts of Europe and the Scandinavian countries a 3mm – 5mm
crushed granite is preferred. This has been examined in detail by Dowson (2001)

The following picture shows the construction of an exceptional precinct in Stockholm

where a 3mm – 5mm crushed granite bedding was used with hot water "underfloor"
heating to ensure a safe walking surface in the harsh winter conditions. What is
particularly interesting is that the picture shows how the mason is placing the 3
different coloured small element pavers where the designer specified.

Plate 2.16 - Laying small element paving for Stureplan precinct Stockholm

In many cases in Europe small element paving is laid in conjunction with small natural
stone cubes to break up the overall surface into irregular shaped areas.

The Stureplan precinct in Stockholm is a good example of this and a copy of the
designer's layout is shown in the following figure, which because of the extremely high
quality of work has delivered exceptional results.

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Plate 2.17 - Design layout for Stureplan precinct – Stockholm, Sweden

Experience with Fargate, one of the major pedestrian precincts in Sheffield, which was
constructed in 1972 and was one of the early UK pedestrianisation projects is relevant.
A sand/cement bed was used and the surface comprised 500mm x 500mm x 100mm
thick reinforced concrete flags. By the mid 1980’s an increasing number of flags were
cracking and progressively became hazardous to pedestrians. Replacement of the flag
with like for like proved unsuccessful consequently the damaged slabs were removed
and the resulting cavity was filled with asphalt. As the number of black infills grew
(think tooth fillings!); the areas became progressively larger and more noticeable
consequently generating increasingly vocal complaints from both the public and the
local press. As a short term palliative, concrete blocks of a matching colour were
placed in the cavities, which proved more acceptable than asphalt, nevertheless the
problem was how to refurbish a major precinct with an attractive long lasting solution.

It this point it is relevant to briefly consider the "design" or service life of the paving in
a precinct. From a highway perspective this would typically be 20+ years. The
interesting dilemma here is that the precinct is an integral part of the fabric of the
commercial area, facilitating ideally unimpeded access by goods and purchasers to the
"sales" areas. As part of the continuing striving for trade and turnover it is not unusual
for commercial premises to be refurbished on a 10-year cycle. This leads to the
question "Is the use of a 20 years+ design life for the walking surface appropriate"?

2.7.4.2 Natural Stone setts and pavers

Many pedestrian pavements are currently constructed on a stabilized bed, particularly
where natural stone setts are used and the joints subsequent filled (grouted) with
cement mortar slurry, effectively forming a continuous stiff surface layer. If one were
to construct a concrete slab it would be split into bays with regular joints to

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accommodate thermal movement – both positive and negative. Most of the grouting
mortar used is of proprietary brands where the exact ingredients are not declared and
it is argued by the manufacturers that “their” product contains a degree of elasticity
not normally associated with a cement mortar.

Plate 2.18 - Natural Stone setts – Blackpool 2009

Plate 2.19 - Natural stone paving – Leeds 2010

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Plate 2.18 shows the construction of a new pedestrianised area in Blackpool, adjacent
to the Winter Gardens, which appears to be, designed to cope with a considerable
traffic load. There is an asphalt layer under the sett layer, which appears to be
shaping over the original pavement construction. The setts are a fairly constant
125mm deep and of varying size, they are laid on/in a semi-dry cement stabilized
bedding in a typical fan pattern. There is no evidence of any expansion joints nor
formal edge restrains.

Plate 2.19 shows the construction of a new pedestrianised street within the bounds of
the University of Leeds. The existing road has been removed and a concrete slab
placed along with robust edge restraints. The paving elements are all machine cut
prior to delivery and are laid on a thin bed of cement bound sharp 6-10mm crushed
stone, prior to the joints being filled with a flowable grout. No evidence of any
expansion joints were noted.

What is particularly noticeable elsewhere in Europe and the Mediterranean Countries is

the almost total use of unbound granular bedding and joint filling, which has the
significant advantage that when an area settles or becomes damaged the surface can
easily be lifted and re-laid using the existing setts with the addition of further material,
as such, costing little more than the labour charges involved

2.7.4.3 Concrete Block Paving (CBP)

In the UK concrete block paving tends to be a standard plan size of 200mm x 100mm
with a range of thickness’ up to 100mm being available depending on the usage. CBP
is laid on sand bedding which should be a constant thickness of 30mm – 50mm
supported by robust construction.

In all town centre pedestrianisations there is an inevitable amount of variable depth

(thickness) adjustment layer to harmonize original and new levels and in some early
projects bedding sand was used as a shaping layer. Subsequent experience has
demonstrated this is not sound practice as the degree of settlement in the sand is
directly related to its thickness and this led to a progressively uneven surface
developing.

In this situation either lean mix concrete or ideally asphalt should be used to
harmonise levels. The problem with lean mix concrete is that shrinkage is inevitable
leading to cracking, which can result is the loss of fine bedding sand into the crack
leading to localized surface settlement. Asphalt is preferred as a base, since it does
not require a curing period and can be used as a temporary walking surface prior to
placing the sand bedding and CBP surface layer.

The appropriateness and specification of bedding sand is a function of both its grading
and petrological background as was demonstrated by Dowson (2001). This is less of a
problem for lightly loaded surfaces but can be critical where there is continuous
channelised traffic.

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2.7.4.4 Brick Paving

2.7.4.4.1 Flexible paving with clay pavers

Initially, brick paving was laid on a sand bed in a similar manner to CBP and gained
market share because of the range and fastness of the available colours. Guidance
relating to laying was set out by Smith (1988). Essentially, clean sharp sand is used
for the 30mm – 50mm bedding and fine sand, typically 100% passing a 1mm sieve
with <10% passing a 75µm sieve. Joints between adjacent elements should be in the
range 2mm – 5mm wide.

2.7.4.4.2 Rigid paving with clay pavers

Hammett (1995) set out guidance on the use of rigid paving with clay pavers. To
ensure continuity of service the concrete base on which they are to be laid should be
sufficiently thick to resist ground movement, otherwise there may be noticeable
stepped cracks in the surface. Elements should be laid in a stiff plastic mortar of 1 :
0.25 : 3 (cement, lime, sand) 15mm – 20mm thick, with a similar mix being used for
grouting between adjacent elements.

An alternative to this is to use a semi-dry process where a 20mm thick bed of 1 : 3

(cement, sand) is laid and the individual elements are coated on the underside with a
slurry of 1:1 (cement : fine sand) 1mm – 3mm thick immediately prior to laying.

When using the rigid paving method movement joint should be incorporated around
the edges of the bed and 4.5m – 6m centres.

2.7.5 Asphalt

Asphalt on footways is generally laid by hand, although the use of mini-pavers is

increasing. Ideally, it should be in laid two courses, surface course on a binder course
typically 25mm and 65mm respectively. The major problem is to ensure that the base,
which is usually granular, provides sufficient support to permit full compaction of the
binder course to be achieved or the service life will be reduced. This compaction is
important as the binder course provides the main structural contribution of the
structure. Recent practice in a number of areas where the surface course has eroded
and the binder course is distressed is to remove all old asphalt and replace by a single
asphalt course. Experience indicates there to be problems with achieving full
compaction and maintaining a consistent crossfall.

Asphalt can be available in a limited number of colours, which can be used to delineate
a particular usage – for example a cycleway from the footway.

In Europe there are many examples where the quality of work is much higher than we
see in the UK and if done properly there is no reason for the surface to be a boring
expanse of featureless asphalt, an example of this was recorded in Tenerife and is
shown in the following picture, where the indentations were obviously made whilst the
asphalt was still hot. Whilst the initial indication was that of local damage closer
examination revealed this was in a large area covering many streets. The patterns did
not present any difficulties to users and resulted in an attractive addition to an
otherwise normally featureless asphalt surface.

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Plate 2.20 - Patterns in asphalt surface, Tenerife

Twin drum vibrating rollers are preferred for compaction; special care should be taken
to ensure good compaction around street furniture and adjacent to walls and buildings.
There are a number of asphalt mixes, which may be used.

Typically asphalt used on footways contains a higher penetration bitumen binder,

typically 100 or 200 penetration.

For the surface course a 6mm aggregate size to BS 594987 is usual and a dense
grading is to be preferred. The use of a limestone aggregate is to be preferred as in
addition to being a hard stone with good weathering capabilities it is less aggressive on
broken skin in the event of a fall. This is particularly relevant for use in school
playgrounds as limestone has antiseptic properties compared with some other
aggregates.

For specialist applications where a high degree of impermeability is required the use of
mastic asphalt can be considered. This may be found useful where there are cellars,
which project under the footway in urban areas. It is usual for mastic asphalt to be
laid hot, by hand as a skilled operation. Compaction is usually by a relatively light
hand roller, which typically leaves a dimpled surface.

2.7.6 Concrete

The use of poured concrete is not widespread in the UK as there is a need for it to
achieve a reasonable degree of set before it can be used or there is the likelihood that
third parties will damage the surface. Surface finish is typically tamped, which is not
the most helpful of walking surface. By comparison in the USA, many footways are
formed from concrete where the surface finish is lightly brushed and the standard of
finish and regularity of colour is considerably better than is usually achieved in the UK.

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2.8 Whole Life Cost

One of the issues raised by the writer when drafting the footways chapter for the
Handbook of Highway Maintenance (Atkinson_1997) was that of Whole Life Costing
(WLC) and the development of a consistent standard of surface maintenance for the
benefit of the user. In many areas of infrastructure provision WLC is used to justify
the first cost of the structure on the assumption of a consistent standard of
maintenance.

A major factor in WLC is the user cost, which in the case of footways and walkways the
proxy accident costs can be used.

At the time the above was first proposed (1990) there was very little factual
information relating to the cost of pedestrian accidents. The development of a culture
of claiming damages for injury resulting from trips etc, within the highway has drawn
attention to the very considerable cost involved. At the present time (2010) there is
still little hard information available in the public domain.

To illustrate the scale of costs involved the following information was taken from an
article in the Sheffield Star dated 26 August 2009 the base information having been
gained under a Freedom of Information request made to Highway Authorities by the
Liberal Democrat Party.

In an attempt to make the information understandable in a comparative format the

following table uses the highway length in each Authority for which figures were
published as a normalising factor. Previous work by the writer concluded that in a
large urban authority the length of footway was of the order of 1.7 times the
carriageway centreline length. It will be seen that there is considerable variation in the
accident cost per km

Authority Cost of Carriageway Footway Cost Relative

claims paid length length £/km/yr Ranking
in 5 years (km) (km) (£)
(£000)
Sheffield 930 2096 3563 52 1.2
Barnsley 497 965 1640 61 1.4
Rotherham 235 1084 1843 43 1.0
Doncaster 182 1463 2487 15 *
Leeds 10,030 2510 4267 470 10.9
Birmingham 7,600 2195 3732 407 9.5
Liverpool 5,500 1166 1982 555 12.9
Average cost £/km/yr 229

Table 2.6 - Footway personal injury accident data

* Figure appear unreasonably low so neglected in comparison

It can be seen from the above table, which contains only a small number of large
urban authorities, that the average cost of claim per km of footway is £229 /km/yr.

It should be noted that the above figures only relate to the cost of claims paid, they do
not include the cost the National Health Service, legal costs and cost to society.

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In a TRL publication "Condition assessment of footways" PR/CE/186/96 Cooper and

Spong estimated the average cost of a claim to be £1370 and the average cost of claim
per km of footway to be £200.

Another TRL publication "The cost of walking accidents" estimated the economic
evaluation of the cost of measures for preventing footway falls to be £5000 per
accident.

Based on the above table together with Cooper and Spong (1996) and making the
following assumptions:

Overall length non-national roads 382,274 km

Multiplier between centreline length and footway length 1.4

Average accident claim £215

The overall annual cost of footway personal injury accident claims in the UK is
estimated to be £115 x 10^6

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2.9 References and Bibliography

AG_26 (2003) UK Roads Board (2003) – Footways and Cycle Route Design,
Construction and Maintenance Guide – Application Guide AG26 (Version 2) – TRL Ltd,
Crowthorne, England, 2003.

Atkinson K. (Ed.), (1990) Highway Maintenance Handbook, First Edition, Thomas

Telford, London, 1990.

Atkinson K. (Ed), (1997). - Highway Maintenance Handbook, Second Edition, Thomas

Telford, London, 1997.

Dowson A.J. (2001) - Investigation into the performance and suitability of sand laying
course and jointing materials in modular pavements, Ph.D. thesis, University of
Newcastle, 2001.

Hammett M. (1995), R.A. Smith, - Rigid paving with clay pavers – Design Note 8, Brick
Development Association, Windsor, England.

HSE (2004) – The assessment of pedestrian slip resistance; the HSE approach, 2004
(www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/web/slips01.pdf)

HSE (2006) – Evaluation of Kirchberg rolling slider and slip alert slip resistance meters
– report HSL/2006/65 (www.hse.gov.uk/pubns.

IHT (2000) – Guidelines for providing journeys on foot – London: Institution of

Highways and Transportation. 2000.

Leake G.R., (1991) A.D. May, D.I.Pearson – Pedestrian’s preferences for footway
maintenance and design - Highways & Transportation, Institution of Highways and
Transportation, London, July 1991.

Lilley A.A. (1991) – A Handbook Segmental Paving, E. & FN. Spon, London, 1991

Pearson D.I. (1989) – Design, Construction and Maintenance of Walkways and

Pedestrian Areas – A Whole Life Approach . In Pratt C.J. (Ed) - Conference
Proceedings - Pedestrianisation – Design, Operation and Maintenance – Coventry
Polytechnic – 1989

Pearson D.I. (1990) – A Whole Life Approach to Elemental Construction in Footways

UK Experience – Concrete Precast Plant and Technology, issue 12/1990 from BIBM
Conference, London, 1990

Pearson D.I. (1990) – Elemental Renaissance – Concrete Quarterly Winter 1990 British
Cement Association

Pearson D.I. (1991) (1) – Footways Inspection, Maintenance and the development of a
Whole Life Cost Framework – Seminar, Towards Better Footways – British Cement
Association, TRL Crowthorne.

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Pearson D.I. (1991) (2) – History and Development of the Physical Requirements of
Footways – Seminar, Towards Better Footways – British Cement Association, TRL
Crowthorne,

Pearson D.I. (1995) – The Design of Pedestrian Facilities, Conference on Area-wide

Pedestrian and Shared facilities, PTRC, London 1995

Pearson D.I. (1996) – Footway Condition Assessment – Footway Focus Conference

Nottingham 1996 – The Surveyor Magazine, London 1996

Pratt C.J. (1980) (Ed.) – Proceedings of Second Conference - Pedestrianisation, Design,

Operation and Maintenance, - Trent Polytechnic, Nottingham 1980.

Pratt C.J. (1991) (Ed.) – Proceedings of Conference – Developments in Town and City
Centres towards the 21st Century, - Coventry Polytechnic, Coventry, 1991

Shackel B. (1996) – Design and Construction of Interlocking Concrete Block

Pavements, Elsevier, - Barking, Essex, England - 1GU11 8JU, 1996

Smith R.A. (1988), - Flexible paving with clay pavers – Design Note 9, Brick
Development Association, Windsor, England.

Spong C.C., (1993) – Footway Maintenance: A review of profile monitoring techniques,

County Surveyors Society, Department of Transport, TRL Project PR/H/43/93,
Transport Research Laboratory, Crowthorne.

Spong C.C., (1994), D. R. C. Cooper, Footway Maintenance: An Assessment of Profile

Monitoring Equipment, Project Report PR/H/66/94, Transport Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne, UK.

Spong C.C., (1994) D.R.C. Cooper, Footway Maintenance: Footway Profilometer End
Product / Performance Specification, Project Report PR/H/85/94, Transport Research
Laboratory, Crowthorne, UK.

Spong C.C., (1995) D.R. Cooper, G.R. Leake, D.I. Pearson – The measurement of
footway profiles - Highways & Transportation, Institution of Highways and
Transportation, London, October 1995.

TSO (2002), Specification for Reinstatements of Opening in the Highway, The

Stationary Office, 2002.

UK Roads Board (2005) - Well Maintained Highways, Code of Practice for Highway
Maintenance Management - UK Roads Board - The Stationary Office, London, 2005

UK Roads Board (2009) - Highway Risk and Liability Claims, A Practical guide to
Appendix C of the UK Roads Board Report, Well Maintained Highways: Code of Practice
for Highway Maintenance Management - UK Roads Board - The Stationary Office,
London, 2009.

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