CHAPTER 3.

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SEDIMENTARY ROCK

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 Introduction
• Formed from rock fragments. Parent rocks
loosening by weather, eroded and transported by
water / wind to and deposited.

• Deposited over some existing sediment layer,

and the proses is repeated.

• The stacking of sediment layers resulted

increasing in the compression stress.

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 Origin
• Involves four major processes which are:

(a) Weathering
(b) Transportation
(c) Deposition
(d) Lithification (Compaction and Cementation)

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ROCK CYCLE

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This whole process of forming Sedimentary Rocks
(known as DIAGENESIS)

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 Weathering
• Weathering - chemical and mechanical processes that break up
the rocks which are exposed to the atmosphere.

• Chemical Weathering - produced mineral of increased volume.

E.g. Oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis and dissolution.

• Mechanical Weathering - breakdown of the rocks into smaller

fragments without undergoing a change in chemical
composition. E.g. frost action, alternate heating and cooling
organic activities, etc.

• The rocks can break and decompose to form soil.

• The soil can then be transported by various agents such as

streams, wind, groundwater and glaciers.

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 Transportation
• Running water - most effective form of sediment transport.

• Sediment carried towards the river, delta and sea.

• Wind and glaciers also transport a sediment.

• Water and air are transportation agents, thus the size of detrital material
that can be transported depends on the velocity (i.e. energy).

• Rapidly moving water / air can transport larger grains size.

• Ice, on the other hand, is a solid. Thus, ice can transport all sizes of
sediment independent of the velocity at which the ice is moving.

• The sediments are deposited at locations where the velocity of the

water/air decreases.

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 Deposition
• Deposition – the process of settlement of the sediments.

• The depositional environment influences the

characteristics of sedimentary rock formed (physical,
chemical and biological condition).

• E.g. type of transporting agent, geochemical parameters such

as pressure, oxygen, temperature, and flow characteristics of
depositing fluid (velocity). Typical types of texture,
composition, internal structure, and fossil assemblages are
thus developed in each deposition.

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 Lithification (Compaction and Cementation)
• Lithification involved the processes of compaction and cementation which
converting loose sediments into sedimentary rocks.

• Compaction is the process of loose sediments are compacted to a denser state by

additional stress from accumulated material deposited or by the tectonic forces.

• The process of removal of water from void spaces between particles takes place,
thus particles are forced closer together. Clayey-rich sediments can be
compacted much better than sands.

• Cementation process takes place by filling the voids in pore spaces by chemical
precipitation.

• These pore spaces are gradually filled by precipitation from groundwater.

• Most commonly cementing minerals are:

(a) Silica (SiO2) - Rocks cemented by silica are among the hardest and strongest.
(b) Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
(c) Limonite
(d) Iron Oxide
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 Classification of Sedimentary
Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are classified
according to the derivation of sediment
types.

• The two major sediment types are:

(a) Clastic Sedimentary Rock

(b) Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
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 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
• CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are made up of
mineral grains, fragments of other rocks (called lithic
fragments), shells and other inorganic of formerly
living organisms.

• The clastic particles in a sedimentary rock are

cemented together by mineral precipitates that form
during the process of diagenesis.

• Also known as fragmental sedimentary rocks that are

derived from weathering process of parent rocks.

• The texture of clastic sediments consists of a fragment

which varies in shapes and sizes. e.g. range of various
sandstones with different grain sizes.
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Cont’d
• Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to their texture (grain size).

• Rocks with GRAVEL SIZE GRAINS (Grain size greater than 2 mm) are called
conglomerates (if the grains have rounded outlines) or breccias (if the grains are
angular in shape).

• Rocks made up of SAND SIZE GRAINS (Grain size 1/16 to 2 mm) are called
sandstones. For sandstone, if it was dominated by quartz grains it will be quartz
sandstone (also called quartz arenite), if it was dominated by feldspar grains it will
be arkose and if dominated by sand - sized rock fragment grains it will be lithic
sandstone (also called graywacke).

• SILT is called siltstone (Grain size 1/256 to 1/16 mm (gritty)).

• CLAY with grain size less than 1/256 mm (smooth) are called shale (if fissile) or
claystone (if massive).

• MUD is technically a mixture of silt and clay. It forms a rock called mudstone or mud
shale if fissile.

• They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) texture consisting of:

(a) Clasts - larger pieces, such as sand or gravel

(b) Matrix - mud or fine-grained sediment surrounding the clasts
(c) Cement - the glue that holds it all together, such as: calcite, iron oxide and silica
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Clasts and matrix (labeled) and iron oxide cement (reddish brown
color)

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 Example of Detrital or Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia Conglomerate

Quartz Sandstone Arkose Sandstone Greywacke Sandstone

Siltstone Shale (fissile) Claystone

(massive)

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Types of Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary
Rocks

Types of Sediment Clastic Sedimentary Rock

Gravel Conglomerate or Breccia

Sands Sandstone
Silts Siltstone
Clays or Muds Mudstone or Shale

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 Conglomerate
• Consist of consolidated
deposits of gravel, with
variable amounts of sand
and mud in the spaces
between the larger grains.

• Cobbles and pebbles usually

are well rounded fragments
over 2 mm in diameter.

• Conglomerates are
accumulated at base of
many mountain ranges, in
stream channels and on
beaches.

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 Sandstone
• Sandstones is most familiar
sedimentary rock with sand
size ranging from 0.0625 mm
to 2 mm in diameter.

• Composed of almost any

material thus can be various
colors.

• Quartz grains are usually the

most abundant mineral because
quartz is a common constituent
in many other rock types, not
easily broken down by abrasion
and chemical action.

• The particles of sand in most

sandstones are cemented by 18
calcite, cilica or iron oxide.
➢ If it was dominated by quartz grains it will be QUARTZ
SANDSTONE (also called QUARTZ ARENITE)

If it was dominated by feldspar grains it will be ARKOSE

If dominated by sand - sized rock fragment grains it will be

LITHIC SANDSTONE (also called GRAYWACKE).

Quartz sandstone Arkose sandstone Lithic sandstone /

/ Quartz Arenite Graywacke
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 Siltstone
• Siltstone is fine-
grained in which the
material is 0.0625
mm to 0.004 mm in Holtzclaw siltstone-Kentucky
diameter.

• Silt is a material
frequently carried in
suspension by rivers
and deposited in
floodplains and deltas.

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Shales (Mudstone)
• Shales (Mudstone) are shale
solidified deposits of
mud and clay.

• The particles that make up

the rock are less than
0.004 mm in diameter
and can be seen under
microscope.

• Shale is most abundant in

sedimentary rock, usually
soft and easily
weathered. 21
 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are precipitated from a
solution as a result of changing physical conditions or due to the
actions of living organisms.

• The chemical weathering of rocks also lead to the formation of

sediments as dissolved matter in solutions.

• Common dissolved sediments include the bicarbonates of Ca,

Mg, Na, and K.

• Other sediments include dissolved silica in the form of Si(OH)4,

sulphates and chlorides of Na, Mg, Ca, and K.

• These sedimentary ultimately form sedimentary rocks by two

distinct processes known as (1) Organic Sedimentary Rocks and
(2) Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.
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 Organic Sedimentary Rocks
• This group consists of rocks composed of
organic matter (mainly plant fragments).

• The most common example is coal

• Coal is a compacted remains of dead plants

in a tropical swamp environment.

• It composed of accumulations of organic

debris. 23
Organic Sedimentary Rock -
Coal

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 Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS form by direct precipitation from solution.

• Typical solutions that chemical sediments form from include: sea water, fresh surface
water in rivers and lakes and groundwater.

• One common class of inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks is called evaporites.

• Evaporites form by precipitation from sea water or brackish fresh water.

• The scenario for the formation of an evaporite requires that a sea water becomes
isolated, for example in a lagoon.

• The isolated sea water then begins to evaporate, which concentrates the dissolved
salts and other components of sea water.

• Minerals that are formed in this way and are found in evaporites are listed in the Table
3.8.

• This group includes (1) THE EVAPORITES, (2) THE CARBONATES (limestones and
dolostone), and (3) THE SILICEOUS ROCKS.
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 Evaporation and precipitation forming salt
deposits

Table 3.8 Inorganic Chemical Sedimentary Rock

Rock Type Composition
Limestone CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg (CO3)2
Chert/Flint SiO2
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Rock Salt NaCI
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Cont’d

(1) EVAPORITES - The evaporites form from the evaporation of water

(usually seawater) such as:

• Rock salt - composed of halite (NaCl)

• Rock gypsum - composed of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
• Travertine - composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and
therefore, also technically a carbonate rock; travertine forms in
caves and around hot springs.

(2) CARBONATES – The carbonate sedimentary rocks are formed

through both chemical and biochemical processes such as:
• Limestone
• Dolostones
• Two minerals are dominant in carbonate rocks:

1. Calcite (CaCO3)
2. Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
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(3) SILICEOUS ROCKS - those which are dominated by silica (SiO2).

❑ They commonly form from silica - organisms such as diatoms,

radiolarians, or some types of sponges.

• Chert is formed through chemical reactions of silica in solution

replacing limestone.

• Diatomite - looks like chalk, but does not bubbles in acid. Made of
microscopic planktonic organisms called diatoms. May also resemble
kaolinite, but is much lower in density and more porous. Also referred
to as Diatomaceous Earth.

• Chert - Massive and hard, microcrystalline quartz. May be dark or

light in color. Often replaces limestone. Does not bubbles in acid.
Chert

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 Example of Sedimentary Rocks
• Limestone

• Dolostone

• Rock Salt and Gypsum

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 Limestone
• Composed principally of mineral calcite, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and originates
both chemical and organic processes.

• Many plants and invertebrate animals extract calcium carbonate (limestone) from
water in their life processes and use it to construct their shells and hard parts of
calcite.

• When these organisms die, their shells build up deposit of limestone with a
texture consisting of shells and shell fragments.

• In quiet water, calcium carbonate is precipated as tiny needlelike crystals, which

accumulate on the bottom.

• Soon after they are deposited, the grains commonly are modified as they are
compacted and become recrystallized.

• This modification produces microcrystalline limestone, a rock with a dense, very

fine grained texture. Its individual crystals can be seen under high magnification.

• Microcrystalline limestone also is precipitated from springs and from the dripping
water in caves.

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 Dolostone
• Rock composed of
mineral dolomite, a
calcium magnesium
carbonate
(CaMg(CO3)2.

• It is similar to
limestone in most
textural and
structural features
Triassic dolostone from
arid appearance. Slovakia

• Can develop by direct

precipitation from
seawater. 31
 Rock Salt and Gypsum
• Rock salt is
composed of
mineral halite
(NaCI).

• It forms by Rock salt

evaporation in
saline lakes.

• Gypsum CaSO4
2H2O also originates
from evaporation of
saline water. Gypsum 32
 Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

• It shows variety of unique features such as:

(1) Texture
(2) Sedimentary Structures
(3) Fossils
(4) Stratigraphy
(5) Color
(6) Ripple Marks and Mud Cracks

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 Texture
There are two types of texture of
sedimentary rocks:

(1) CLASTIC:
Rock fragments have been eroded,
transported and deposited and
classify based on fragments size.

(2) CHEMICAL:
Formed by chemical precipitation
from solution made limestone,
dolomite, salt and gypsum.
▪ Common in sea water but also
occurs in lakes, streams, caves
(groundwater) and springs.

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 Sedimentary Structures
• Sedimentary structures explained the
processes of sediment transport and
deposition.

• BEDDING is the stacking of sediments.

• Three main types of bedding are:

(1) Rhythmic Layering

(2) Cross bedding
(3) Graded bedding
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 Rhythmic Layering

• Alternating layers having different grain size.

• Caused by different water/wind velocity.
• Low velocity - fine grained deposited - mud
• Highvelocity - coarse grained deposited - gravel

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 Cross Bedding

• The beds are inclined in the direction that the wind or water was
moving at the time of deposition.

• In beach deposits, sand dunes, and river sediment.

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 Graded bedding

• As current velocity decreases, first the larger

particles followed by smaller particles.
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 Fossils

Glyptocrinus Trilobite

• FOSSILS are remains

of ancient plants and
animals that have
been preserved.

• Soft organic remains

can be preserved in
anaerobic
environments. Brachiopod

Brachiopod 39
 Stratigraphy
• Stratigraphy studies a rock layer in sedimentary.

• Stratigraphy to understand the ancient landforms and

depositional environments.

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 Color
• The COLOR often indicates the geochemical environment at
the time of deposition.

• Abundant of oxygen are in red or brown, oxidized state.

• Lacking of oxygen are dull grey and dark green.

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 Ripple Marks
• RIPPLES are undulations of the sediment surface
produced as wind or water moves across sand.

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 Mud Cracks
• The sedimentary was exposed to the air during
deposited in shallow lakes on tidal flats.

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 Sedimentary Rocks in Engineering Works
• The strength of sedimentary are influenced by aged
of rock i.e. increased by compaction and
cementation - quarry for dimension stone.

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 Sedimentary Rocks in Engineering Works
• Angle of bedding
planes vital importance
to ensure stability.

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 Sedimentary Rocks in Engineering Works
Subsidence cavities in limestone due to soluble in
groundwater.

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 Sedimentary Rocks in Engineering Works
Dam leakage can occur along cavities and bedding
planes. Limestone can be found in Kuala Lumpur and
Ipoh

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