The Cell  Studded with ribosomes

Anatomy of the Cell  Protein transportation

 Cells are not all the same o Smooth ER
 All cells share general structures  Lipid metabolism
 Cells are organized into three main regions  Golgi apparatus
 Nucleus  Modifies and packages proteins
 Cell membrane o Secretory vesicles – contain proteins for export
 Cytoplasm o Lysosomes – contain hydrolytic enzymes
 Lysosomes
2 types of cells in the human body  Suicide sac
1. Somatic/body/autosomal – diploid cell  Contain digestive enzymes
2. Germ/cell/gametes – haploid cell  Peroxisomes
 Contains enzymes that detoxify substances
The Nucleus
 Centrioles
 Control center of the cell
 Directors of the formation of the spindle apparatus
 Contains genetic material (DNA)
during cell division
 Three regions
 Formation of projectors
1. Nuclear Membrane
 Centrosome
 Barrier of the nucleus
 Microtubule organizing center
 Consists of double phospholipid membrane
 Vacuoles
 Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange
 Eliminates water and stores food and wastes
of material with the rest of the cell
 Cellular Projections
2. Nucleoli
 Not found in all cells
 Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
o Cilia moves materials across the cell surface
 Sites of ribosomal (RNA) transcription
o Flagellum propels the cell
 RNA synthesis and formation
3. Chromatin  Cytoskeleton
 Composed of unwound DNA and protein  Responsible for the shape and structure of the cell
 Condenses to form chromosomes in cell division  Network of protein structures that extend throughout
cytoplasm
Cell Membrane o Microfilaments – actin and myosin subunits;
 Barrier for cell contents 1nm
o Intermediate filaments – fibrous subunits; 10nm
 Semi-permeable, double phospholipid layer
o Microtubules – tubular subunits; 25 nm
 Hydrophilic heads – water loving
 Hydrophobic tails – water fearing
Cell Diversity
 Also contains protein, cholesterol and glycoproteins
 Cells that connect body parts
 Most indispensable part of the cell
 fibroblasts, erythrocytes
 Glycocalyx – external membrane coating made up of
 Cells that cover and line body organs
glycoproteins and polysaccharides
 Specializations  epithelium
1. Microvilli  Cells that move organs and body parts
 Finger-like projections that increase surface area  skeletal and smooth muscle cells
for absorption  Cell that stores nutrients
2. Membrane junctions  fat cell
 Tight or impermeable junction  Cell that fights disease
 Desmosomes or anchoring junction  macrophage
 Gap or communicating junction  Cell that gathers information
 Connexon – separates neighboring cells  nerve cell
 Cells of reproduction
Cytoplasm  ovum and sperm cell
 Materials inside the cell membrane but outside nucleus
 Cytosol – fluid containing nutrients dissolved in water Cell Life Cycle
that suspends other elements  Interphase
 Inclusions – non-functioning units  Cell prepares itself for division
 Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cell  Cell carries on metabolic processes
o Gap 1 – cell growth
Cytoplasmic Organelles and Inclusions o Synthesis – DNA replication
 Mitochondria o Gap 2 – protein synthesis
 “Powerhouse” of the cell  Cell division
 Provides ATP for cellular energy  Cell replicates itself
 Ribosomes  Production of cells for growth, repair and
 Sites of protein synthesis development processes
 Found free in cytoplasm and attached to rough ER Events of Cell Division
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) a. Nuclear Division - formation of 2 daughter nuclei
 Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances Mitosis Meiosi
o Rough ER s
 daughter cells 2 4  Not very selective on what is filtered out – size
PMAT cycle 1 2
chromosomes per daughter cell 46 23 Active Transport
Stages of Nuclear Division  Movement is from low to high concentration, or against a
1. Prophase concentration gradient
 Chromatin material becomes chromosomes  Dependent on ATP
 Nuclear envelope (nucleus, nucleolus and
nuclear membrane) disappears Active Transport Processes
 Centromeres move to opposite sides of the cell  Bulk transport
2. Metaphase  Exocytosis
 Spindle apparatus fully develops o Moves materials out of the cell
 Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell o Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
3. Anaphase o Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
 Centromeres break apart two sister chromatids o Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
 Cell begins to elongate o Material is emptied to the outside
4. Telophase  Endocytosis
 Nuclear envelope reappears o Extracellular substances are engulfed by being
 Chromosomes revert back to chromatin material enclosed in a membranous vescicle
 Cleavage furrow appears  Phagocytosis – cell eating
b. Cytoplasmic Division (cytokinesis) – begins when nuclear  Pinocytosis – cell drinking
division is near completion  Solute pumping
 Na+ - K+ ATPase pump
Solutions and Transport
o Na+ – most abundant extracellular cation
 Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more
o K+ – most abundant intracellular cation
components
 Solvent – dissolving medium
 Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a
solution
 Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
 Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell

Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport

 Membranes are selectively permeable – allows some
materials to pass while excluding others
 Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and
out of the cell
 Transport is by two basic methods
 Passive transport
 Active transport
Passive Transport
 Movement is from high to low concentration, or down a
concentration gradient
 Dependent on kinetic energy

Passive Transport Processes

 Diffusion
 Particles distribute themselves evenly within solution
 Dependent on concentration gradient/difference
 Movement is affected by size and temperature
1. Simple diffusion
 Unassisted process
 Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small
enough to pass through membrane pores
2. Facilitated diffusion
 Facilitated by protein channels of the cell
 Lipid-insoluble
3. Osmosis
 Highly polar water easily crosses the membrane
o Isotonic/normotonic Tissues
o Hypotonic – bursting Body Tissues
o Hypertonic – cronation  Groups of cells with similar structure and function
 Filtration  Epithelium – covering
 Dependent on hydrostatic pressure gradient A  Connective tissue – support
pressure gradient must exist  Muscle – movement
 Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high  Nervous tissue – control
pressure area to a lower pressure area
Epithelial Tissues  Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular
 Found in different areas product
 Body coverings – skin 1. Endocrine gland
 Body linings – tracts  Ductless
 Glandular tissue – exocrine and endocrine  Secretions are hormones
 Functions 2. Exocrine gland
 Protection  Filtration  Empty through ducts to epithelial surface
 Absorption  Secretion  Include sweat and oil glands
 Characteristics
 Cells fit closely together Connective Tissue
 Tissue layer always has one free surface – apical  Found everywhere in the body
 The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane  Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
 Avascular  Functions
 Regenerate easily if well nourished  Binds body tissues together
 Classification of Epithelium  Supports the body
 Number of cell layers  Provides protection
o Simple – one layer  Characteristics
o Stratified – more than one layer  Some tissue types are well vascularized
 Shape of cells  Some have poor blood supply or are avascular such
o Squamous – flattened as tendons, ligaments, and cartilage
o Cuboidal – cube-shaped  Extracellular matrix (non-living material that
o Columnar – column-like surrounds living cells)

Simple Epithelium Connective Tissue Types

 Simple squamous  Bone (osseous tissue)
 Single layer of flat cells  Composed of:
 Usually forms membranes o Bone cells (osteocytes) in lacunae (cavities)
 Lines body cavities – serous membranes o Hard matrix of calcium salts
o Mesothelium – Peritoneum (abdominal wall), o Large numbers of collagen fibers
Pleural (lungs), Pericardium (heart)  Used to protect and support the body
 Lines lungs and capillaries  Hyaline cartilage
 Simple cuboidal  Most common cartilage
 Single layer of cubelike cells  Composed of:
 Common in glands and their ducts o Abundant collagen fibers
 Forms walls of kidney tubules o Rubbery matrix
 Covers the ovaries  Entire fetal skeleton, nasal bridge, ribs, larynx
 Simple columnar  Elastic cartilage
 Single layer of tall cells that fit closely together  Provides elasticity
 Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus  External ear, epiglottis
 Lines digestive tract – stomach, small and large  Fibrocartilage
intestines  Highly compressible
 Pseudostratified columnar  Found in intervertebral discs
 Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others  Dense connective tissue
 Often looks like a double cell layer  Main matrix element is collagen fibers
 Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract  Cells are fibroblasts
 May function in absorption or secretion o Tendon – attach muscle to bone
o Ligaments – attach bone to bone
Stratified Epithelium  Areolar connective tissue (Loose/Ordinary)
 Stratified squamous  Most widely distributed connective tissue
 Cells at the free edge are flattened  Soft, pliable tissue
 Found as a protective covering where friction is  Contains all fiber types
common  Can soak up excess fluid
 Locations: skin, mouth, esophagus, vagina  Adipose tissue
 Stratified cuboidal  Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules
 Two layers of cuboidal cells predominate
 Stratified columnar  Many cells contain large lipid deposits
 Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in  Functions
size and shape o Insulates the body
*Stratified cuboidal and columnar are rare in the human body o Protects some organs
and are found mainly in ducts of large glands o Serves as a site of fuel storage
 Transitional epithelium  Reticular connective tissue
 Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching  Delicate network of interwoven fibers
 Lines organs of the urinary system – bladder, urethra,  Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of
ureters lymphoid organs – lymph nodes, spleen, bone
 Glandular Epithelium marrow
 Blood  Formation of granulation tissue
 Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix – plasma  Contains capillaries and phagocytes
 Fibers are visible during clotting  Regeneration of surface epithelium just below the scab
 Functions as the transport vehicle for materials
Regeneration of Tissues
Muscle Tissue  Tissues that regenerate easily
 Function is to produce movement by contracting or  Epithelial tissue
shortening  Fibrous connective tissue and bone
 Three types  Tissues that regenerate poorly
 Skeletal muscle  Skeletal muscle
 Cardiac muscle  Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
 Smooth muscle  Cardiac muscle
 Properties  Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
 Contractility
 Irritability Developmental Aspects of Tissue
 Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary germ layers
Muscle Tissue Types  Muscle and connective tissue arise from the mesoderm
 Skeletal muscle (voluntary)  Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
 Can be controlled voluntarily  With old age there is a decrease in mass and viability in
 Cells attach to connective tissue most tissues
 Cells are striated
 Cells have more than one nucleus
 Cardiac muscle (heart)
 Found only in the heart
 Function is to pump blood (involuntary)
 Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at
intercalated disks (branching cells)
 Cells are striated
 One nucleus per cell
 Smooth muscle (visceral)
 Involuntary muscle
 Surrounds hollow organs
 Attached to other smooth muscle cells
 No visible striations
 One nucleus per cell
 Circular and longitudinal

Nervous Tissue
 Neurons and nerve supporting cells
 Function is to receive and send impulses to other areas of
the body
 Properties
 Irritability
 Conductivity

Tissue Repair (wound Healing)

 Regeneration
 Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of
cells
 Fibrosis
 Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar
tissue)
 Determination of method
 Type of tissue damaged
 Severity of the injury

Events in Tissue Repair

 Capillaries become very permeable
 Introduce clotting proteins to make clot
 Wall off injured area to prevent blood loss and
infection