Id 002

Open, Distance & Electronic Learning
(ODEL)

Special Needs Education
Module ID 002
Child Growth and Development.
Kenya Institute of Special Education

Kise Vision
“To be a Regional Centre of Excellence

in Special Needs Education & Related
services.”
More About the Authors.
Mrs. Margaret Mumbi Githang’a holds a M. Phil. degree in Special
Needs Education and is currrently Deputy Director(Finance and Administration)
KISE.
Eunice Millicent Keta is a trained teacher. She holds a Diploma in

Special Needs Education from KISE, a B.Ed. degree (Special Education) from
Kenyatta University and a M. Ed. with a specialization in Educational Planning
from the same university.
Before joining KISE as a lecturer, she had worked in various programmes and
Special schools for children with Mental Disabilities.
Published by
Kenya Institute of Special Education

Open,Distance and e-Learning,(ODEL) P.O.Box 48413-00100,Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel: +254-020-8007977 Fax: +254-020-8007966, e-mail: info@kise.co.ke
Open, Distance & Electronic Learning
(ODEL)
(Special Needs Education)
Module ID 002
Child Growth and Development
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION i

© Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE)
First Edition 2002 , Second Edition 2007
Re-Printing 2009
ISBN 9966-789-02-2
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or used in any form or by
any means - graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
taping, or information storage and retrieval systems - without written permission of
the publisher.
2nd Edition
ii Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)
First Edition
Author : Margaret Githang’a
Editor : Stephen Mwaura
Second Edition
Reviewers : Ms. Eunice Millicent Keta

Mrs. Martha Mwaura

Editor : Dr. Rachel W. Kamau Kang’ethe

Illustrations
and Layout : Samson Oyombi

Publisher : Kenya Institute of Special Education
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION iii

Acknowledgements
Kenya Institute of Special Education (KISE) wishes to acknowledge with great
appreciation the tremendous contribution of individuals, institutions and organisations
that assisted in the publication and production of this module. These include the author,
Mrs. Margaret Githang’a and the editor, Cammy Otiato for the first edition and
the reviewers of the second edition, Ms. Eunice Millicent Keta and Mrs. Martha
Mwaura edited by Dr. Rachael W. Kamau Kang’ethe. Special thanks goes to Mr.
Ben Gitau for the invaluable technical advice in the preparation for the development
and production of this module.
We would also wish to thank the Royal Danish Embassy, for the continuous support,
advice and encouragement through Dr. Kurt Kristensen, the then DANIDA Consultant
during the initial development of the Distance Learning Programme in KISE.
Our gratitude also go to the following institutions whose members participated

actively in the workshops held to prepare the development and production of this
module and others in the series: Ministry of Education, Kenya Institute of Education,
University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, Kenya Society for Deaf Children, Maseno
University, Ministry of Health, Kenya National Library Services, Kenya Institute of
Policy planning, Research and (KIPPRA), Kenya Technical Teachers College, Kenya
Red Cross Society and Kenya Polytechnic, Kenya Education Staff Institute (KESI).
We also want to thank the members of the Publishing Committee for the first and
second editions respectively. These are; Cammy Otiato, Stephen Mwaura, Peter
Ndichu, Grace Ogonda, Monica Kilonzo, Mary Runo, Lynett Ongera, Mwangi
Kithure, Benedict Kilei, Teddy Oketch and Jeslinah Mwabili for their technical and
professional input.
Finally, special thanks go to the Technical Staff Lewis Ogundo, Samson Oyombi,
Stephen Muriuki, Ephantus Mwaniki and Benard Adalo and the Typist Everlyne
Simiyu for their commitment, dedication and patience during the development and
production of this module.
iv Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Table of Content
Contents Page

Acknowledgement : ………………………………………................................ iv
Table of content : …………………………………………................................. v
Module Introduction ……………………………………..................................... viii
Symbols used in the module …………………………….................................... xi
Unit 1: Human Reproduction and Stages of Child

Growth and Development
Introduction: ………………………………………............................................. 2

Section 1: Human Reproduction and the Prenatal Period
of development ……………………………….................................... 3
Section 2: Perinatal Period of Development………………............................. .... 13
Section 3: Postnatal Period of Development……………..................................... 15
Summary …………………………………………............................................. 23
Self Test …………………………………………………................................... 24
Learning outcomes ………………………………………................................. 25
Unit 2: Theories of Child Growth and

Development and their Implications
Introduction: ………………………………………............................................. 28
Section 1: Physical and Motor Development …………….................................. 29
Section 2: Cognitive Development……………………….................................. 36
Section 3: Language Development ………………………................................. 43
Section 4: Emotional Development………………………................................. 52
Section 5: Inter and Intra Individual Differences ………................................... 59
Summary:…………………………………………………................................. 61
Self Test:………………………………………………………........................... 62
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION v

Learning outcomes ………………………………………................................. 63
Unit 3: Theories of Personality Development
Introduction……………………………………………........................................ 65
Section 1: Psychosocial Development………………………….......................... 66
Section 2: Psychosexual Development ………………………........................... 72
Section 3: Moral Development………………………........................................ 77

Summary…………………………………………………................................... 81
Self Test………………………………………………….................................... 82
Learning outcomes ……………………………………….................................. 83
Unit 4: Influence of Family and

Community on the developing Child
Introduction …………………………………………............................................ 85
Section 1: The Family…………………………………….................................... 86
Section 2: The Community……………………………….................................... 91
Section 3: The Adolescent ………………………………................................... 101
Summary ………………………………………….……..................................... 112
Self Test ………………………………………………….................................... 113
Learning outcomes ……………………………………….................................. 114
Answers to Self Tests ……………………………………................................... 115
References ………………………………………………..................................... 123
vi Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Active Learning Devices
Your Comments
Dear Learner,
This is the second edition of this Module. We therefore call for your comments and
observations on this module.
This is to enable us make further improvement on this module inorder to fulfil your
needs.
Please use the attached module evaluation form.
We look forward to your feedback.
Please send your comments to:
Deputy Academic Registrar

Open, Distance and E-learning (ODEL)
P.O. Box 48413-00100, NAIROBI, KENYA
Telephone: +254-20-8560314/ +254-66-51307,
Cellphone:+254-724-269505, Fax: +254-20-8562425,
e-mail: info@kise.co.ke
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION vii

Module Introduction
Dear learner,
Welcome to Module 2: Child Growth and Development. This Module covers

the description and explanation of changes in a child’s growth, development and
behaviour. The changes in development and behaviour are as a result of maturation
and experience. Some of the theories that attempt to explain a child’s development
and behaviour are discussed. We shall also look at the influence of family, community
and adolescence on a child’s growth and development. You will learn more of this in
Module 5. However, some of the content has also been covered in Module 1.
Aim
This Module aims at increasing your knowledge on important aspects of child

growth and development that involve changes in physical, mental, emotional, moral,
language and personality development.
Objectives
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
• explain the human reproductive system;
• describe the various stages of development;
• describe the various theories of child growth and development and their
implications;
• recognise differences among children at different age levels;
• describe the influence of the family, community and adolescence on the

developing child.
viii Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

This module is divided into four units as follows:
Unit 1: Human Reproduction and Stages of Growth and Development
Unit 2: Theories of Child Growth and Development and their

Implications
Unit 3: Theories of Personality Development and implications
Unit 4: Influence of Family, Community and Adolescence on the

Developing Child.
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION ix

Module Orientation
In this module, every unit begins with an aim and objectives. Read them carefully
because they will guide you on what you should achieve at the end of every unit. The
units are divided into sections. As you read the units, you will find in-built activities,
which may require your written or practical responses, observations, discussions or
consultations. You are encouraged to try these activities.
Besides these practical activities, you will find self-tests at the end of every unit. These
exercises are meant to function as study tools to help you keep on the right track as
you read the units. Make a genuine attempt to respond to all exercises and compare
your answers with those given at the end of the module. If you score below 50%, you
are advised to re-read the unit. You are advised to use the scoreboard to rate yourself
Enjoy your reading!
x Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Symbols used in the module
The Kenya Institute of Special Education has selected various symbols for use in the
Open, Distance and Electronic Learning materials. (ODEL)You were introduced
to them in the Learner’s handbook. Below is a reminder of the symbols.
Objectives
It indicates the objectives of the units in the module.
Activity
It tells the learner to complete the activity set in the text before
he/she proceeds with the read-ing of the module. He/she has to write
down the answers, ideas or opinions.
Question Mark
It indicates an in text question asked to the learner as he or she
proceeds with the reading of the module
Discussion
It tells the learner to consult, research and find someone,
preferably a fellow student, to discuss with.
Note this point

It indicates a key point or a tip.
Summary
It shows the summary of the main points as per the objectives of
the unit.
Learning Outcomes
It points out whether the learner has understood the unit content in
relation to the set objectives.
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION xi

Answers to self tests
This signifies answers to the self-tests that are given at the
end of each unit.
Glossary
It shows the meaning of difficult terms used in the module.
Reference
It shows the meaning of difficult terms used in the module.
Refer
It points out the need to refer to other modules or to recall
certain important information
Self test
This symbol shows the learner a self-test which is usually at the
end of every unit. The self-test is a practical exercise, which
enables the learner to test how well he/she has understood
the content in the unit.
Congratulations
It signifies successful completion of the module by the learner
Take note of these signs every tme you come across them in this module!
xii Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
UNIT 1
Human Reproduction and Stages of

Growth and Development
KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION 1

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 1, Human Reproduction and Stages of Growth and Development.

In this unit, you will study the reproductive system and how children develop from
conception to childhood. You will also look at the reflexes of a new born baby. These
reflexes are important as their absence or persistence may suggest abnormal brain and
body functions. Some biological and environmental factors that may interfere with
the normal growth and development process will also be examined.
Aim
This unit aims at helping you to explain the reproductive system, growth and
development that take place during various stages of prenatal, perinatal and postnatal
periods of and some factors that may affect child growth and development. It further
aims at assisting you to identify the various reflexes of a newborn baby.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the human reproductive system;

• explain how the life of a child develops from conception to childhood;
• describe the aspects of growth and development that takes place during
prenatal, perinatal and postnatal periods;
• discuss factors that may interfere with normal pattern of growth and
development of a child.
This unit is divided into the following three sections;
Section 1: Human Reproduction and the Prenatal Period

Section 2: The Perinatal Period.
Section 3: The Postnatal Period.
Enjoy your study!
2 Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Section 1: Human Reproduction and the Prenatal
Period of Development
In your day-to-day activities, you interact with children of different socio-economic
and cultural backgrounds. You may already have noted the different characteristics
shown by children at different age levels. For you to be of assistance to children,
you need to learn more about how they grow and develop right from conception. In
this section you will be introduced to the following:
• Definition of terms
• Prenatal development
• Factors affecting prenatal development
Let us now examine each of them.
Definition of terms
The following terms will be explained:
• Growth
• Development
• Human reproduction
• Fertilization
• Conception.
Growth
What is growth?
This is an increase in the size of an individual. Growth can be measured in terms

of weight, height, and length. It therefore refers to the quantitative aspects of an
individual. For example, we usually talk about physical growth when referring to
increase in size. The rate of growth varies from child to child but it follows a certain
laid down pattern which we shall learn about.
Development
This refers to any change in body or behaviour within the individual across one’s
lifespan, as a result of age and experience. Development, unlike growth encompasses
both quantitative and qualitative aspects of an individual. It is therefore a more
complex process as its aspects may not be measurable. Examples of qualitative
aspects of development are cognitive, social, personality or emotional development.
Having understood the two terms, let us now examine reproduction and conception.
Human Reproduction
This is the process of procreation (giving birth). Reproduction requires a male and
a female.
In order to understand reproduction we need to understand the human reproductive

system first.
What comprises the human reproductive system?
The human reproduction comprises both the male and the female reproductive
systems as shown in Figures 1.1. and 1.2. The male reproductive system consists of
the following parts:
• testes which are sperm producing glands;

• the urethra is a tube running through the centre of the penis and, it
allows urine and sperms to pass through;
• sperm duct is a tube that runs from the testis to the urethra and
allows sperms from the testes to pass to urethra;
• penis is the external sex organ discharging urine from the bladder
and also introduces sperms into the vagina.

Figure 1.1: Male reproductive parts
The female reproductive system consists of the following parts as shown in

figure 1.2:
• ovaries which are the organs in a woman’s body producing egg cells (ova);
• oviducts is where fertilization actually takes place;
• uterus is the muscular organ in women where babies develop;
• vagina is the passage through which menstrual flows from the body,
sperms from the male organ are introduced to the uterus and foetus
passes during child birth.

Figure 1.2: Female reproductive parts
Fertilization
It is the union of the sperm and the ovum to form a zygote. It is the zygote that
grows and develops into a child.
Let us now examine the prenatal period of growth and development.
Conception
How does conception take place?
Once every month, an ovum which is a female cell or egg is released by one of a
woman’s ovaries. The egg moves through the fallopian tube towards the uterus or
womb. The uterus is the organ in a woman’s body in which a baby develops
during pregnancy. This short journey takes about two or three days. It is only in
the fallopian tube that fertilization can take place. When the egg reaches the uterus,
before it is fertilized, it usually disintegrates and is flushed out with the menstrual
flow. However, if the egg meets the sperm and is fertilized in the fallopian tube by a
sperm or male cell, conception takes place. Conception is the beginning of pregnancy
and marks the beginning of prenatal period. The prenatal period is divided into three
stages as follows:

Prenatal development
The prenatal period is the time in which a baby develops in the womb before birth.
In other words it is the time a baby spends in the mother’s womb. It has three
stages. These are:
• Germinal stage;
• Embryonic stage;
• Foetal stage.
Let us now examine each of these stages and see the growth and developmental
changes that occur.
The germinal stage
This period begins at conception and lasts for about two weeks. It is marked by
rapid cell division and the fertilised egg travels from the fallopian tube and attaches
itself to the uterine wall.
The embryonic stage
This period starts at approximately the third week of pregnancy and ends at the
eighth week. During this period, the embryo begins to resemble a human being and
most body organs are formed.
The foetal stage
This period extends from the beginning of the ninth week of pregnancy to the time
of birth. During this period, the foetus continues to grow in size and the body
organs become mature.
It is during the embryonic stage and early foetal stage that

environmental hazards are known to cause harm to an
unborn child.
In your community, you might have come across infants with physical, sensory or
developmental impairments.
Have you ever considered what could have gone wrong during the prenatal stage of
development leading to such impairment? This is what the next topic will introduce
you to.
Factors affecting pre-natal growth and development
Developmental problems that may arise during prenatal period could be attributed to
the following factors:
• Genetic or hereditary
• Environmental
Let us now examine each factor.
Genetic or Hereditary Factors
Genetic factors influence characteristics that every individual inherits from parents.
They are usually known as genes. They are passed from one generation to another.
The influence of genetic factors in one’s life is seen in development of such traits as;
• skin colour
• height
• some genetical conditions such as albinism.
• hair texture and colour
• cognitive abilities
• personality
Some of the impairments you have noted in the children in your class or community
may have been caused by genetic or chromosomal disorders which are currently
referred to as genetic or chromosomal conditions.
What are genetic and chromosomal disorders or conditions?
I hope you said that genetic conditions are disorders which are influenced by the factors
or genes transmitted from parents to off springs. Such conditions include muscular
dystrophy, spina bifida and albinism which involve genetic transmission. On the other
hand chromosomal disorders are due to unexpected effects or mistakes concerning the
whole chromosome such as the case where one ends with more
chromosomes than the normal. For instance Down ’s syndrome.
Since these are very many genetic and chromosomal disorders, we shall only look at
the ones related to special needs and disabilities. They include;

• Phenylketonuria(PKU)
• Rhesus factor condition
• Down’s syndrome
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
This is a genetic condition that is transmitted to the offspring by the two parents.
Children born with phenylketonuria (PKU) are unable to produce an enzyme that
is needed to metabolise one amino acid (phenylalanine) into a genetic base called
tyrosine. The accumulation of the amino acid phenylalanine becomes toxic or
poisonous. The toxins that accumulate because of this problem destroy nerve tissue
thereby causing severe mental disability.
The good news however, is that if PKU is identified early, the affected child is put on
a diet that limits the intake of proteins. The diet checks against its effects.
Rhesus Factor (Rh)
Rh disease is a genetically related disorder caused by an interaction between a

specific factor (protein) in the blood of the foetus and its mother’s blood. The
problem arises when a child is conceived by an Rh-(Negative) mother and an Rh+
(Positive) father and the child inherits the positive rhesus factor from the father.
This causes blood incompatibility and red blood cells

of the foetus are therefore destroyed.
This condition in children is likely to cause :
• Jaundice-Yellow colourization of the newborn baby

• Anaemia-Lack of adequate blood
• Mental retardation and other neurological conditions.
• Death
Each body cell has 46 chromosomes but each sperm or ovum has 23 chromosomes.
During the formation of these gametes, there may occur a mistake whereby the sperm
or the ovum has 24 chromosomes instead of 23. When such a sperm or ovum with 24
chromosomes meets a normal one with 23 chromosomes, you get a zygote with 47
chromosomes and not 46 chromosomes. This is the case with Down’s syndrome.

Down’s Syndrome
Down’s syndrome is one of the most common conditions resulting from

chromosomal disorders. An individual should have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
However, in cases of down syndrome, individuals usually have 47 chromosomes.
Children with this condition are likely to have problems with:
• speech
• motor skills
• vision
• cognitive development leading to mental disability
Women over the age of 35 and men above 55 years are more
likely to give birth to a child with Down’s syndrome.
Environmental Factors
From your experience, what environmental factors

are likely to cause harm to the foetus?
I hope you mentioned the following:
• maternal diseases
• maternal diet
• x-rays
• use of drugs.
• age of the mother
• emotional stress
• depravation
Let us examine each of the above environmental factors.
Maternal Diseases
Diseases such as Rubella or German measles, and sexually transmitted diseases like
syphilis, gonorrhoea when contracted during the first three months of pregnancy are
likely to cause visual, hearing and cognitive problems to the unborn child. As you

are aware, rubella can cause multiple disabilities, such as deafblindness, physical
disability and mental retardation.
The health of the mother before pregnancy is very important.
Maternal Diet
Poor nutrition on the part of the mother may result in premature birth, underweight
baby, longer labour and the child may develop physical and neural defects. Cultural
beliefs and practices that restrict a pregnant mother’s diet may lead to natural
malnutrition which may also result in poor physical and cognitive development of the
foetus.
X – Rays
Exposure to radiation during the x-ray process may damage the

central nervous system of the foetus. Consequently, the infant may exhibit poor
physical growth, malformation or brain damage.
Use of Drugs
Mothers who smoke heavily and consume alcohol risk having children with attention
and learning problems among other difficulties.
Age of the Mother
The older the woman, the greater the chance of giving birth to a child with special
needs. The recommended child bearing age period for mothers is between 20 –35
years. In addition, teenage pregnancy can also cause problems because the mother’s
reproductive system has not matured.
Emotional Stress
Mothers who experience stress and anxiety during pregnancy are likely to develop
high blood pressure which in turn may cause complications to the development of the
foetus.

Your local maternal health clinic has invited you to talk to
expectant mothers. What would you tell them concerning
the environment and dangers to their unborn babies?
Write down your answers and discuss with a colleague.

Section 2: Perinatal Period of Development
In the previous section we learnt how children develop while in the mother’s womb
and problems that may occur. In this section, we shall look at what happens during
the birth process. This is because some of the events during this period may have
lasting effect on the growth and development of the child.
What is the prenatal period?
The perinatal period refers to the time when a mother is in labour up to the actual birth
of the baby. The birth process involves both the mother and the child. Sometimes
complications may arise and the normal delivery pattern does not take place.
What factors are likely to cause harm to the baby during

the labour process?
You may have listed the following factors:
• premature birth
• prolonged labour
• maternal diseases
• un-hygienic conditions
• instruments of delivery such as forceps or vacuum delivery
Let us briefly examine each factor.
Premature Birth
Babies who are born before the full 38 week pregnancy period are likely to be of low
birth weight. Consequently, they require extra care as their immunity may be poor.
They are likely to experience problems with breathing, sucking and maintaining body
temperature. This may lead to the development of special needs and or disabilities in
the child.

Prolonged Labour
This is when a baby takes a long time to be born after the onset of labour. Prolonged
labour may be caused by birth complications such as big head or breech birth. The
breech position is when the baby’s legs come out first instead of the head during birth.
All this delay may result in anoxia; that is lack of oxygen to the baby’s brain which is
likely to cause brain damage.
Transmission of Maternal Diseases
A mother may infect a new born baby during the birth process if she has sexually
transmitted diseases such as gonorrhoea, syphilis, HIV and AIDS among others.
This may lead to a child acquiring sensory, developmental or multiple impairments.
Transmission of HIV and AIDS to the baby, may eventually lead to the child’s
death.

Unhygienic Conditions
If equipments used during delivery are dirty, for example, the razor blade for cutting
the umbilical cord, the baby may contract tetanus which is likely to cause damage to
the central nervous system.
Instruments of Delivery
In an unusual delivery, a doctor may use certain equipments like the forceps or vacuum
delivery (due to birth complications) to extract the baby. Vacuum delivery involves
a situation whereby the baby is sucked out of the uterus. Forceps are used to hold
the head and pull the baby out. These equipments risk causing damage to the child’s
brain as a result of extra force and especially because the infants head bones have not
become hard.
Visit your local maternal health centre/unit and find out

more about dangers faced by both mother and child
during the birth process.
Record your findings and discuss with a colleague.

Section 3: Postnatal Period
Postnatal period is the period immediately after birth. In this section, we will briefly
look at:
• movement
• exploration and play
• communication skills
• school readiness
We will also examine factors that may interfere with a child’s growth and
development after birth.
Let us now examine each of this.
Movements
New born babies or neonates seem helpless and incompetent; however, a closer look
reveals that this may not always be the case.
Who is a neonate?
The term neonate refers to infants from birth through the first month of life. Neonates
can see, hear, smell, taste and respond to pain and touch.
Although their senses are less acute at birth, babies are capable of a number of
movements such as;
• following a moving object with their eyes to the direction of sound

• imitating facial movements as illustrated in Figure 1.3
• reflexes.

Imitating facial movements
Fig 1.3 Baby’s imitation of facial movements.

(Source: Adapted from Spreen et al, 1995)
In addition, to facial movements, a number of adaptive reflexes can be observed in a

new born.
What is a reflex?
A reflex is an inborn, instinctive, automatic response to a particular form of

stimulation. For example blinking of the eye (this behaviour is not taught to any
individual).
A neonate comes into the world equipped with more than a dozen reflexes, which are
unlearned responses to specific stimuli. Most of the reflexes disappear within a few
weeks or months after birth. Reflexes are survival instincts. They help the infant in
the following ways:
• Avoiding danger – baby will move limb away from source of pain.
• Feeding activities - sucking is necessary for feeding and consequently
survival e.g. suckling the breast.

These reflexes that initially are uncoordinated, later pave way for improved motor
skills. However, individual differences in reflexive actions exist that are not a cause
for concern. Some of these reflexes are shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1.1: Neonatal Reflexes
Name of reflex Testing method Response
Rooting Stroke cheek near corner of mouth Baby turns head towards
finger, opens mouth,
and tries to suck finger.
Sucking Place finger in infant’s mouth Infant sucks finger

Rhythmically.
Startle Produce sudden loud sound

e.g. a bang on the table Infant thrusts out arms
in an embrace like
gesture and curls hands
as if to grasp something.
Babinski Gently stroke sole of foot

from toe toward heel Toes fan out and curl
as foot twists in.
Reflexes provide a fundamental way of assessing the state of a baby’s nervous system.
When neonatal reflexes are weak, absent, exaggerated or fail to fade away, it may be
an indication of abnormal central nervous system functioning.
Having studied how some of these reflexes may be elicited, try

testing the above reflexes on an infant and see whether you
will get the expected response. Be sure to get permission from
the parents of the child.
Exploration and Play
Learning occurs best when children can explore and play and try new things.

How can parents encourage exploration in children?
To encourage learning you should allow the baby as much freedom of movement at
home as possible. Young babies can be moved from room to room to be with the
family while older babies who can crawl or walk should not be restricted in their
movements. In the African tradition, mothers usually carry their babies on their back.
This practice enhances the development in many areas for example muscles and
cognition.
For children, play is work as well as pleasure. Playtime is therefore not aimless or
wasted. Instead, play time is essential for intellectual, physical, social, emotional,
and personality development. Parents can provide their children with a rich and
ample selection of toys. However, unless they at least occasionally play with them,
showing them how to build blocks or “read”, children’s cognitive development may
not progress fast.
Play helps in the development of physical, social, cognitive, emotional and

personality.
Table 1.2: Appropriate toys and activities for babies.
Ages Toys Activities
1 - 3 months Toys of bright colours Random arm and leg

movements
4 - 6 months Rattles, teething rings, stuffed toys Touch, handle bang,

rattle, chew, suck
7 – 9 months Blocks, balls, large plastic beads Throw, pound, bang

and shake
10-12 months Boxes, baskets, containers, simple books Manipulation, pushing,

pulling,
1 – 2 years Balls, simple books, large beads Catching, throwing,

opening and closing
2 – 3 years Simple books, pencils, pens, balls,
skipping ropes Kick, throw, jump, draw,
build towers, read
Refer to Module 7 : Early Childhood, Care Development
and Education for more information on play and toys
Communication Skills
One of the most important channels of human communication is vocalization. The

major tasks for an infant are to learn to communicate effectively with others. Therefore,
communication skills depend on development in all other areas physical, emotional,
social and intellectual.
Babies communicate long before they are able to talk or produce speech. During the
first year of life, the infant develops the ability to communicate verbally and to convey
ideas effectively. The
baby’s first sounds other than cries are usually coos or gurgles made after food and
sleep and usually in the mother’s arms.
By the end of the first year even without words babies can
effectively make most of their needs and wants known.
You will learn more about babies’ communication in Unit 2: Section 3 of this
module.
School Readiness
Can you think of how a child’s first experience in school

affects his or her learning.
School readiness involves the total preparedness of a child socially, physically,

mentally and emotionally for school. There are several factors that make the child’s
early school experience either pleasant or unpleasant.
It is important for parents and teachers to note that children take many years in school
and therefore it is vital that they develop positive attitude at the outset.
Parents should ask themselves whether the child is:

• physically prepared to go to school in terms of strength and endurance;
• properly prepared for social interaction outside the home;
• sufficiently prepared for academic work in school.
In line with the above, special considerations should be given to children with special
needs and disabilities.
What should be considered before a child with special

needs goes to school?
I hope these are some of the things you mentioned:
• vision and hearing tests are especially important for reading

• acquisition of appropriate self help skills for independence
• functional language for communication and interaction
• ability to socialise with other children.
It is evident that a child with special needs should be given extra support in the
school. They should also be explained to as fully as possible what he or she should
expect in school.
A child with special needs will show or indicate problems in the

areas of seeing, hearing, talking and such other areas like
feeding, dressing and toileting.
Let us now examine some factors that may interfere with a child’s growth and
development after birth.
Problems that May Arise in the Postnatal Period
The following problems may affect a child’s development during postnatal period.
• postnatal anoxia
• diet/nutrition
• diseases
• contact with chemicals
• trauma
• lack of immunization

Postnatal anoxia
This may occur if a child is exposed to any situation that prevents oxygen from
flowing through the brain. Consequently, brain damage may occur.
One way of testing anoxia is by checking the colour of

neonate and movement.
If you have ever observed the colour and the movement of a new born baby you may
have realised that the colour of the new born baby is pinkish. Blue colour in a new
born baby is an indication of lack of oxygen which may lead to brain damage and
consequent death. Yellow colour in a baby is a sign of jaundice. It is advisable that
the baby is taken for a medical check up.
Diet and Nutrition
Developing young babies require a balanced diet. Severe malnutrition may result in
poor physical and mental growth and development of the child.
Lack of Immunization
Immunization helps to protect a child from common childhood diseases such as

measles, poliomyleties, whooping cough among others. Throughout the first year, an
infant should be periodically taken to a baby-well check up to ensure that he or she is
developing normally, and to receive immunization.
Diseases
Childhood infections may cause inflammation of the brain as a result of high fever
and actual damage to the brain. The inflammation may then lead to brain damage as
in the case of cerebral malaria infection.
Contact with chemicals
Some chemicals when ingested may cause fever, convulsions, coma, mental disability
or even death. These include paraffin, lead and pesticides.

Trauma
Trauma can either be physical or psychological. Physical trauma can be caused through
head injuries or direct blows to the head which are a frequent cause of brain damage.
Death of a loved one, war situation and stress due to deprivation are examples of
psychological trauma which may also cause emotional and behavioural problems.
Discuss with a friend some of the problems you may have

witnessed in the postnatal period development of a child.

Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the stages of prenatal development which are
germinal,embryonicandfoetalstages.Thegerminalstageistheperiodfromconception
upto third week. The embryonic stage begins at the third week while foetal stage
starts from the ninth week to birth.
You also learnt that problems may arise during the prenatal, perinatal and postnatal
periods. Such problems may lead a child to develop difficulties with
vision, hearing, motor skills, mental functioning, learning, behaviour and in some
cases even death
In addition, you learnt the various reflexes of a new-born which included rooting,
sucking, startling and babinski .These help the child to avoid danger and are important
for survival.
You have also learnt the development of several skills during the postnatal period
which include movements, exploration and play, communication skills and school
readiness skills.
It is our hope that you have gained important knowledge that will help you
understand more about infants’growth and development during these early stages of
development.
Good luck as you practice knowledge gained in this module!

Self Test - Unit 1
Answer the following questions.
1. Define the following terms:

• Growth
• Development
(4 marks)
2. List the 3 stages of prenatal development.

(3 marks)
3. The duration of the germinal period is four weeks. True/False

(1 mark )
4. What are the effects of the following on the foetus?

(a) Prolonged labour
(b) X-rays (4 marks)
5. A pregnant mother should only feed on a diet which is high in protein.

True/False (1 mark )
6. Name any two neonatal reflexes. (2 marks)
7. Why is immunization important? (2 marks)
8. List any two childhood diseases that children should be immunized against.
(2 marks)
9. Name four factors that may interfere with a child’s growth and
development during the postnatal period. (4 marks)
10. Name one hereditary and one chromosomal conditions (2 marks )
Total ( 25 marks)

Score board
20 - 25 Very Good
16 - 19 Good
13 - 15 Satisfactory

0 - 12 Read the Unit again
Learning Outcomes
You have now completed Unit 1. The learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick
in the corresponding box that reflects your understanding.
.
No. Learning Outcomes Sure Not Sure
1. I can now explain the human

reproductive system.
2. I can now explain how a child develops

from conception to childhood.

3. I can now describe the prenatal, perinatal
and postnatal periods of development.

4. I can now discuss the factors that may
interfere with normal pattern of growth
and development of a child.

If you have put a tick at a not sure box to any section, study it again. If you are sure
then

Congratulations!
You can now proceed to the next unit.

UNIT 2
Theories of Child Growth and Development

and their Implications

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 2: Theories of Child Growth and Development and their

implications. In this unit, we shall focus on the various aspects of development that
a child undergoes from the period of infancy to that of adolescence. Important aspects
of development that include, physical, emotional, and language development will also
be reviewed. We shall also examine inter and intra individual differences.
Aim
This Unit aims at assisting you to identify the main stages which children pass
through in physical, mental, language and emotional development.
Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
• describe the main developmental stages a child passes through from

infancy to adolescence.
• explain individual differences among children at various stages of

development.
• explain the aspects of physical and motor development in a developing

child and how it affects cognitive development.
• explain importance of speech and language development in the

This unit consists of five sections namely:
Section 1: Physical and Motor Development

Section 2: Cognitive Development
Section 3: Speech and Language Development
Section 4: Emotional Development
Section 5: Inter and Intra-Individual Differences
Read on!
Section 1: Physical and Motor Development
A child’s physical and motor development has a direct influence on other aspects of
development as will be discussed in this section. Although the sequence of physical
and motor development is the same for all children, individual differences exist in the
rate at which certain physical features and motor skills emerge. In this section, we
shall study the following:
• Factors that affect physical growth

• Motor development
• Development of motor milestone
• Difficulties experienced by children with motor problems
• Indicators of motor problems
Let us now briefly examine each of these aspects.
Factors that Affect Physical Growth and Development
What is physical growth?
Physical growth refers to changes that occur in an individual in height, weight and
size. Although physical growth is generally determined by hereditary factors, the way
a child interacts with the environment also affects physical growth and development.
The rate of physical growth also varies with age, for example it is
fastest during prenatal stage, first year of life and at puberty.
A child’s feeding habits are also affected by periods of growth. For example, during
early childhood period when growth is slow the appetite declines but rises sharply
during puberty. This draws our attention to the importance of providing a balanced
diet to a growing individual.

Which factors affect physical growth?
Factors that may affect physical growth include:
Nutrition: Does the child receive a balanced diet? Unbalanced diet especially one
that is low in protein leads to diseases like Kwashiorkor whereas a predominantly
energy-deficit diet may result in a syndrome termed as marasmus. A combination of
these two conditions is known as Marasmic-Kwashiorkor.
Heredity: An individual’s height and skin complexion are closely related to that of
his/her mother or father. This is determined by some hereditary characteristics.
Diseases: If a child is suffering from ill health, he/she may fail to feed properly thus
leading to stunted growth.
Size of infants’ body: If a child is very fat, motor control may be delayed due to
inactivity. On the other hand, a child who is too thin will be too weak to carry out
motor activities.
Home environment: Is the child being raised in an anxiety-producing or stressful

environment? If so, the child may lack love and attention from parents and this may
interfere with its growth.
Hormones: These are chemicals, which are secreted into the blood stream and serve
to control body growth.
Economic circumstances: Is the child coming from a well to do family or from a

poor family ? A child from a well to do background is likely to grow sufficiently well
in weight and height as compared to a child from a poor background.
Good child rearing practices are very crucial for both rich and
poor families. However, children from both types of families
may have their physical growth affected. For instance, well to
do parents may feed their children on junk food which is not
good for their health while children of poor parents may suffer
from malnutrition due to underfeeding or lack of a balanced
diet.

Motor Development
Take a moment and think about your daily schedule of activities.
You will realise that everything that you do requires movement. Similarly, children
too need to develop movement or motor skills in order to master their bodies and
explore the environment in a new way.
A child’s motor development can be observed in the following behaviours:
• the way one uses the total body to get around in the environment as in
walking, running, climbing, swimming, jumping, skipping, digging and
cutting among others.
• the way one uses hands to explore the environment in activities such as
writing, reading, threading a needle, holding a knife to cut and so on.
What difficulties are likely to be experienced by children

with physical and motor problems?
Some of the difficulties that may be experienced include:
• problems in academic tasks that involve motor skills such as drawing and
writing among others;
• limitation in body co-ordination which denies a child opportunity for play

and interaction with peers and others, ultimately affecting a child’s social
development;
• language and speech problems as a result of lack of experience and

poor coordination of muscle movements in the organs of speech;
• carrying out activities of daily living such as, feeding, washing and
dressing.
Motor skills are necessary for all children and you should
provide children with ample opportunities to practice and
learn these skills.

If you have a child who is blind or deaf in your class, proper motor skills acquisition
are important for the purpose of communication for this category of learners. As you
will learn in Modules on Braille and Sign Language, a child who is blind requires
motor skills for writing and reading Braille. Similarly, a child who is deaf must have
developed motor skills in order to learn and express his/herself in sign language.
If some aspect of physical and motor development is interfered

with, the mental, emotional, language and social development
are not only obstructed, but abnormal behaviour may
also be seen in the child.
Development of Motor Milestone

Let us now look at the developmental milestone in achieving normal walking in
children.
A motor milestone is the achievement by a child I n development of some acceptable
and normal progress in motor movement. For example: crawling, walking, running
and jumping among others.
Examine the figure below and discuss the locomotive

development patterns of a child with a friend.

Fig 2.1: Locomotor pattern of development.
(Source: Adapted from Schickedanz et al, 1982)
We hope you are able to make the following observations from Figure 2.1.
1. A child who does not have any physical or sensory impairment is able to accomplish
various motor skills with ease. For instance several weeks after birth, infants tend to
lift their heads off the mattress while lying facing down. This movement is as a result
of visual stimulation and curiosity to see.
What is the significance of the initial head movement?
These movements help the infant to develop control of head, neck and trunk in
readiness for advanced motor skills such as walking.
2. By about 4 months of age, an infant can sit with support and at 7 months,
the infant is able to sit alone.
3. By 10 months of age, infants are able to support themselves on their

hands and knees, enabling the creeping movement to take place.
4. At 11 months, most infants can walk when held by the hand .
5. Between 12 to 15 months, many children are capable of walking on their own.
Do children with special needs in education achieve this motor

development milestones as specified in Fig2.1?
Children with special needs experience marked delays in accomplishing independent

walking skills. Some of them never learn to walk on their own due to severe physical or
mental impairment. On the other hand, motor development may be delayed in infants
who are blind. Ability to see attracts infants to the things that they see. As a result,
blind infants are unlikely to be motivated to reach out for objects nor crawl or creep.
The average age of walking for blind children ranges between 20 - 36 months.
Examples of other children who may experience motor problems include those
with Down’s syndrome and those with cerebral palsy. Children with Down’s
syndrome have problems with maintaining balance. Their average age of walking
ranges between 4-5 ½ years. Those with cerebral palsy experience motor problems
due to poor muscle tone and co-ordination. They often do not walk until age 6 or
7 years. Many of them may not even not walk, due to paralysis of the lower limbs.

Indicators of physical and motor problems
What are some of the indicators of physical and motor problems?
Children with motor problems that you will come across are likely to exhibit the
following:
• Poor balance and posture

• Body deformities
• Poor head/neck control
• Missing body parts
• Stiff or weak muscles
• Incordination of limbs
Discuss the factors that may affect physical growth and

development. Record your answers and discuss
with a colleague.

Section 2: Cognitive Development
In the previous section, you learnt about a child’s physical and motor development
and noted that a relationship exists between physical and mental development of a
child. In this section, you will trace a child’s cognitive development from infancy to
adolescence period.
In this section you will earn about
• the meaning of cognition

• piagets theory of cognitive development
• indicators of cognitive problems in children
Let us now examine each one of them briefly.
Cognition
What is cognition?
Cognition refers to “knowing or thinking”. Cognitive abilities refer to a wide range

of mental activities that include:
• reasoning
• interpreting information
• assessing situations
• representing ideas
• problem solving
• memory
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
A number of theories are used to explain cognitive development in children. In this

module, we shall use, Piagets Theory of cognitive development.
Jean Piaget a Swiss psychologist and philosopher believed that all children pass
through a series of distinct stages in intellectual development. According to his theory
of cognitive development, there are four stages that a child should go through in order
to attain cognitive abilities. The emphasis is that stages of cognitive
development occur in the same sequence for everyone, but ages at which stages are
reached depend on maturation of the central nervous system and experience. These
stages are:
• sensorimotor
• preoperational
• concrete operational
• formal operational
Let us briefly examine each stage.
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years - Infancy)
This stage is referred to as sensorimotor because the child understands the

environment through the use of the five senses. To successfully make use of the
senses, the child is constantly involved in movement.The infant at this stage constructs
an understanding of the world by co-ordinating sensory experiences with physical
actions. Initially, the baby’s actions are focused on its body but later
on, the child shifts interest to consequences of some action on the external
environment. By the end of this period a child:
• is capable of moving, grasping, imitating and exploring;
• acquires language and the idea of representation by understanding that

words stand for objects:
• understands that an object continues to exist irrespective of whether it is

visible or hidden.
Parents and teachers should always bear in mind that a child’s interaction with the
physical environment could increase the rate of development because the opportunity
to observe and manipulate objects helps the child to think in more complex ways.
Children with severe cognitive difficulties may not progress

beyond Sensorimotor stage.
Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years): Early Childhood
This stage is called pre-operational since children at this age are incapable of
complex mental activities. Even when provided with concrete evidence, a child is

still not capable of using logical process of reasoning. Hence, the child may show
problems with some of the following tasks:
• distinguishing between living and non-living objects.

• classifying objects.
• seriation
• reversibility
• conservation
Let us briefly examine each of these tasks.
Distinguishing Between Living and Non-living Objects.
A child at this stage for example believes that animals can talk and that inanimate
objects such as trees and rocks have life. Thus, pre-schoolers are likely to reason
that the sun follows them wherever they move.
Classification
What is classification?
Classification is the ability to recognise likeness between objects and to use it for
grouping. For example, sorting or grouping objects according to shape, colour and
size. In a classroom situation, you should realise that a child’s ability to recognise
similarities is essential for a variety of learning experiences.These include the following:
• Reading skills: One should be able to recognise similarities in words and

Sounds
• Team competition: Differentiate between one’s team mates and opponents
• Debating: Be able to put forward arguments for and those against the topic
of discussion.
Seriation
This is the ability to arrange objects based on some order or size. For example, one
may start ordering from smallest to largest object. To perform this task, a child must
have developed the ability to compare.

In a classroom situation, there are many activities that involve sequencing of events.
For example, children are expected to master letters of the alphabet and numeral
numbers in the order in which they occur. Similarly, children who have not acquired
seriation ability may be unable to participate in games that require them to observe
certain sequential rules.
Reversibility
What is reversibility?
This involves the understanding that despite the perceptual change that has occurred
in an object, if it were reversed to its original form, it would be the same as before. For
example, if liquid is poured from a tall thin container into a shallow container, children
who cannot reverse think that the quantity has changed as the shape of container has
changed. Thus a pre-schooler is easily deceived by appearance even though reason
should tell him/her that the liquid in the two containers is still of the same amount. In a
similar manner, in a Mathematics lesson, the child should be able to note reversibility
in the following sums:
5 + 3 = 8 and 8 – 5 = 3
Conservation
What is conservation?
This is the ability to understand that although something may change its shape and
even look different, it may not have changed its quantity or size. For example, a child
may be shown two equal balls of Ugali or clay. Then one ball is rolled into a sausage
shape. If the child is asked to tell which of the balls has more clay or ugali, the child
is likely to say that it is the sausage shaped lump that has more clay or ugali because
of the size in length.
Apart from conservation tasks that involve liquids and substance, children should
also be exposed to reversibility and conservation tasks that involve numbers, length
and area. These tasks aid in the understanding of academic subjects like, Science and
Mathematics. For example, a child should note the similarity in the following sum:
• 4+4 = 8
• 2+2+2+2 = 8
A child who cannot conserve length, for example, cannot acquire the concept of
measurement. Conservation tasks therefore have important implications on age
appropriate learning activities. It is during the pre-operational stage that mental
abilities, which are necessary for schooling begin. Thus, a child who is expected to
cope with a formal school curriculum should successfully pass through this stage.
It is during pre-operational stage that some children

are found to have specific learning difficulties.
These children experience difficulties when performing
tasks such as reading, writing, spelling or arithmetic.
You will learn more about these children in the module 18 on Specific Learning
Difficulties.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Middle and Late Childhood
Although a child at this stage reasons in a logical way, the reasoning is limited to things
that are physically present or concrete. The need to see and touch objects during this
stage has important implications on teaching of primary school children. The theory
emphasises that a child will only think successfully if concrete objects are availed. For
example, if a child at this stage is asked to add 2 or more numbers, calculations may
be done on his/her fingers. You should therefore ensure that children have counters
for Mathematics and that pictures and diagrams are used meaningfully by children.
This will serve to translate the spoken word or written figure on the Chalkboard into
something that can be touched and counted.
By this stage, children should be able to perform most of the academic tasks required
at school. Thus, they will not have problems with the following tasks:
• reversibility.
• classification.
• seriation.
However, you should realise that passage from one stage to another is a gradual process
which varies from individual to individual. In addition, children require practical and
relevant experience to facilitate or enhance their learning.
Children with cognitive difficulties develop at a slower rate

or may fail to completely develop as proposed in this theory.

Formal Operational Stage. (12 +): Adolescence and Adulthood
This is the fourth and final stage in cognitive development as proposed by Piaget. It
is attained after the age of twelve years. That is, during adolescence, the adolescent
reasons in more abstract, logical, and idealistic ways. Hence, the child has the ability
to study the geography of Asia, without being there physically.
What is the significance of a stimulating environment in

cognitive development?
Parents and teachers should appreciate that a stimulating environment also plays an
important role in the development of mental skills in children. The speed at which
children pass through the stages of cognitive development depends on how
stimulating the environment is. Experiments conducted to examine the effect of
early stimulation on animals have shown that“minimal changes in early environment
have proved to have profound effects on the subsequent performance of the
developing organisms” (Clark,1988).
A stimulating environment for development of mental skills may be achieved if:
• children are provided with a variety of relevant toys for play;

• opportunities to play and interact with other children are provided;
• parents and teachers give meaningful attention to children under their care;
• parents and teachers give effective feedback to their children/learners.
Passage from one stage to another is a gradual process and

children do not suddenly stop thinking in one way and begin
thinking in another way.
Indicators of Cognitive Problems
After having gone through the four stages of cognitive development, its important for
you to note stages at which cognitive problems may be identified based on children’s
behaviour.
What are some of the indicators of cognitive problems?

During the infancy and early childhood period, you may suspect a child has cognitive
problems if the child is slow in developing the following skills:
• sensory motor which is characterised by problems in perception

• self-help which is characterised by lack of independence.
• communication which is characterised by poor language development.
• socialisation which is characterised by lack of interactions
During childhood and early adolescence, you may suspect cognitive problems if the
child has difficulty in basic learning of:
• academic subjects which is characterised by poor performance

• reasoning which is characterised by lack of abstract thinking
• judgement which is characterised by poor decision making
• social perception which is characterised by antisocial behaviour
Having studied the theory of cognitive development,

what aspects do you think require to be emphasised
in a classroom situation.
Discuss with a colleague.

Section 3: Language Development
Language development is an important achievement of childhood and is one of the

most fundamental human characteristic. Individuals who have normal hearing have
the ability to develop oral language as they listen to other people talk.
In this section, we shall study language development under the following headings:
• Definition of language
• Functions of language
• What is language development
• Stages of language development
• Indicators of language problems
• Acquisition of second language.
Let us now look at each of this.
Definition of Language
What is language?
When we speak of language, we are referring to man’s ability to communicate by

using arbitrary, self-initiated symbols he has usually learned from fellow human
being who know those symbols too.
Speech is the act of uttering or voicing of various speech sounds in a given order to
convey meaning.
It is important to note that those who lack speech

also have a language.
In this module we shall discuss spoken language, for details on sign language and
non-verbal communication . See the module on sign language.
Sign language is a form of language which uses hands and

finger configurations.

Functions of Language
Language is the most important tool for communication among human beings.
What is the function of language?
It facilitates social interaction and social relationships and exchange of ideas

and provides the individual with the tool for thinking.
Inadequate language development may have far reaching

implications for a child’s overall development, as well as
specific behaviours involved in communicative transactions.
Stages of Language Development
Language development takes place in stages. However, for it to develop, it requires

several conditions.
What are the conditions necessary for language development ?
Language development requires:
• vocalising and experimenting with vocal sounds;

• a responsive environment to the child’s vocalisation which makes the
efforts
• to interpret the child’s early attempts in communicating and speaking;
• an active interaction with others in a highly affective and social context;
• ability to remember and understand what is said and heard;
• ability to respond and express one’s own needs.
What are the stages of language development?

Children all over the world acquire language through the following stages :
Stage 1: Prelinguistic vocalisation

Stage 2: Babbling
Stage 3: One word
Stage 4: Two words
Stage 5: Acquisition of grammar
Let us briefly examine each stage.
Prelinguistic Vocalisation (0 - 3 months)
This stage is referred to as prelinguistic because the infant’s sounds lack linguistic
structure. From birth, infants produce crying sounds to indicate hunger, comfort,
discomfort or pain. At about 4 – 6 weeks, cooing begins and it involves the production
of vowels like sounds such as “ooo”, “aaa”.
Babbling (3 - 6 months)
At this stage, infants combine vowel and consonant sounds to produce repetitive
sounds such as, “baba” or “gaga”.
One Word Stage (12 -18 months)
At about 12 months of age, an infant produces a single word such as, “mama”,
“daddy” or “bye”. These first words are usually nouns or verbs, which are found in
the immediate environment. A child at this stage also tends to use one word to convey
a variety of messages. For example, the word “water” may mean “ I want a glass of
water” or “ there is water on the floor”. The use of a word in this manner is what is
referred to as holophrastic speech.
Two Words Stage (18 - 24 months)
As the vocabulary increases, a child begins to produce a simple two-word combination.

For example, “daddy go” or “me milk”. This is what is referred to as telegraphic speech
as the child only uses essential words, as is the case when sending a telegram.

Acquisition of Grammar (2- 6 years of age)
Between 2 to 3 years of age a child is able to use four or more words in a sentence.
A child’s use of language continues to improve and by the time a child is 3 to 4 years
of age, he/she is able to ask questions. By the age of 5 to 6 years most children acquire
the basic skills of spoken language. Language development does not stop at this age.
It continues up to adulthood as an individual verbally interacts with people who share
a similar language.
Table 2.2 will help you to trace the language acquisition profile of children between
0 - 6 years of age.

Table 2.2: Language Acquisition Profile
Age Communication Characteristics
0-3 months Birth cry; cries to show hunger, discomfort, insecurity, pain etc.;
laughs and smiles; has eye contact; coos; can produce sounds
such ‘nga’/ga/ and /ma/.
3- 6 months - Babbling stage

- Vocal play with sounds including those sounds not found in the
target language
12-18 months - One word - stage

- Understands a lot of commands and requests.
- Pronunciation are still with errors.
- Vocabulary: 6 -10 words
18 - 24 months - Starts putting two words together (telegraphic speech)

- Vocabulary: 50 words.
- Talks to self while playing.
- Asks for names of things he/she comes across.
- Pronunciation still with errors.
2 ½ - 3 years - Knows names of one or two colours.

- Uses short sentences full of grammatical errors.
- Telegraphic speech may continue
- Talks to self in long monologues.
- Talks mostly about what is present and happening.
- Experiences difficulties pronouncing consonant blends/clusters.
4 years - Uses 3 - 5 sentences.

- Can name up to four colours;
- Can describe objects according to size (e.g. big/small) and
length (short/long),
- Can tell about something, which has happened.
- Very inquisitive.
- Can describe events with some detail.
5-6 years - Deviations from adult language tends to be more in style than
in grammar.
- Language well developed
- Idiomatic expressions (takes their literal meaning)
- Vocabulary not yet full developed.
Due to individual differences in mental development and nature of exposure,
children do not develop language at the same pace. The ages given in the table
are just guidelines because some children may demonstrate advanced language
skills, while others may experience delays or acquire it in an unusual sequence.
A mother or care giver plays an important role in

facilitating the child’s acquisition of language,
ince she communicates with the child on a daily basis.
Therefore, exposure to language and appropriate feedback is very important.
Indicators of Language Problems
In your day-to-day interaction with children you need to know some signs of language
problems that they may exhibit. These include :
• not reacting to sound.

• not reacting to initiatives from the surrounding. For example, not responding
to sound.
• not taking initiatives in talking by asking or answering questions.
• inability to speak clearly.
• inability to understand what is said.
• failure to take part in discussions or conversations.
• faulty pronunciation.
Children with speech and language difficulties may develop learning, behavioural
and social problems since they cannot be understood and are also not able to express
themselves clearly. They tend to think people hate them and isolate them.
What causes language problems in children?
Language problems may arise in children as a result of some of the following

factors:
• Delayed mental development.

• Physical defects in the body structures involved in speech production.
• Paralysis of speech muscles.

• Hearing impairment.
• Environmental deprivation. That is lack of appropriate exposure and effective
feedback.
Observe children in your class or school and identify some

of the difficulties mentioned in this section.
Acquisition of a Second Language
We have already looked at acquisition of the first language. Let us now examine
how a second language is acquired.
How do children acquire second language
Your answer may have included the following:
• through interaction with speakers of the language

• by listening to and speaking the language
• through formal instruction
• private or individual study
The processes involved in first and second language acquisition

are very similar. Both require social interaction as well as
corrective feedback.
The learner requires an interactive environment that allows him or her to hear and
practice what is heard. However, the following strategies may be used in helping
children develop a second language.
• Formal instruction
• Classroom application
Let us explain each of these:

Formal Instruction
English and Kiswahili are second languages for the majority of Kenyan children. When
the children go to school for the first time, they will already have acquired skills in their
mother tongue. That is, they have acquired special sounds, grammatical structures
and rules that govern their language. This may either enhance or interfere with the
learning of the second language. For example, you may have realized that children often
make direct translation or transliteration from their mother tongue to either English or
Kiswahili. Some mother tongues do not have certain sounds or letters and therefore
childrenfinditdifficulttoproducethosesoundse.g.KikuyushavenoLandthereforeconfuse
itwithR.Childrenwilltrytocomparethenewlanguageruleswithwhattheyalreadyknow.
How can you facilitate effective learning of a second language?
In school, acquisition of the second language occurs through conscious study and
teaching of formal aspects of the language. This involves teaching, the formal rules
of language such as spelling, grammatical structure, idiomatic expression, reading,
writing and practising what is learnt.
The second language is learnt best in a stress free environment that does not emphasize
passing of exams. Students develop very little proficiency in a language when teachers
emphasize accuracy over fluency. It is therefore important for the teacher to plan and
presentthecontenttothelearnersbitbybitsothatafteragivenperiodofregularinstructions,
thelearnerscanbecomeproficient. Practiceandimmediatefeedbackenhancelearning.
Classroom Application
You play an important role in helping students to develop their language skills by:
• actual teaching of the language in all aspects as indicated in formal and

informal instructions;
• providing reading materials;
• giving children ample opportunities to play and talk with one another and
with adults using the language;
• creating situations in which children formulate and elaborate their messages;
• asking children probing questions such as; What else did it look like? What
did you then do to help them express ideas which may not be flowing.

Discuss with a colleague ways employed to encourage
speaking English in your school. What are the reactions
of the children to these measures.

Section 4: Emotional Development
In the previous sections of this Unit, you studied physical, motor, mental and language
development in children. In this section, you will learn how children develop
emotionally. You will also learn how these other areas of development relate to the
emotional development of children. We shall examine the emotional development of
children under the following topics:
• types of emotions
• sequence of emotional development
• role of emotions in the development of a child
• factors that may cause emotional problems in children.
What are emotions?
Emotions may be viewed as internal reactions or feelings, which may be either positive
(such as joy) or negative (such as anger). For a child to undergo normal development
physically, proper diet and exercise are necessary. For good emotional development
to take place, love and security provided by parents or caregivers are regarded as
important ingredients. Behaviours that express emotion include the following:
• Vocal qualities - one’s voice and words convey emotion.

• Body movements - gestures or movements of the whole body.
• Facial expressions - a smile or a frown.
Types of Emotions
The following emotions may be observed in infants and children:
• Basic emotions
• Self – conscious emotions
Let us briefly examine each of these emotions.
Basic Emotions
These are emotions that can be directly inferred from facial expressions such as,
discomfort, happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger and sadness.

An Infant’s facial expressions reflect their emotions and can
be used to infer how they feel.
Self-Conscious Emotions
These include emotions such as shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy and pride. They
are called self – conscious emotions because each involves injury to or enhancement
of one’s sense of self. A child who feels ashamed and embarrassed may for
example:
• Lower eyes and head.

• Hide face with hands.
• Have an odd smile on the face.
Sequence of Emotional Development
Infants usually indicate interest by staring attentively at an object or person. An infant

aged 3 to 6 months will greet familiar faces with a smile. At about 7 months, fear and
anxiety is exhibited in the presence of strangers. As a child’s physical, mental and
language capacities mature, it also acquires a large variety of expressing emotions.
Children aged 2 years, when angry, are likely to express their anger through physical
fights and temper tantrums.
However, children who are older may choose to move away from the threatening
situation or respond verbally to the issue at hand. With the passing of time, children
too, just like adults, learn to hide their emotions and are capable of expressing what
they do not feel.

Table 2.3 will help you trace the stages of emotional development. Due to the
uniqueness of each child, some children’s emotional development may or may not
necessarily fit within the age bracket indicated.
The chronological age given is a general guide to the

emergence of certain emotions in children.

Table 2.3: Emotional Developmental Milestones
AGE EMOTIONAL EXPRESSIVENESS EMOTIONAL

UNDERSTANDING
Birth – 6
months • Signs of all basic emotions are present • An infant greets familiar
and each becomes more recognisable faces with smiles, coos,
with age. wriggling, and gurgles.
• Social smile emerges.
• Laughter appears.
• Expressions of happiness are
greater when interacting with familiar
people.
7-12 • Infants are likely to stare,

months • Anger and fear increase. frown, or show some sign
• Use of caregivers as a secure base of puzzlement in the
emerges. presence of strangers.
• With the emergence of crawling and • Infants can detect their
walking skills infants are now able to parents’ mood and
approach or retreat from stimulation. emotions, which may lead
to laughing or crying,
depending on the emotion.
1-2 years
• Self – conscious emotions appear but • Vocabulary of words for
depend on the presence of others. talking about feelings expand.
3-6 years • As mobility and language skills • Understanding of causes,

improve, the child develops ways of consequences, and behavioural
coping with situations that create signs of emotion improves in
anxiety. accuracy and complexity.

7-11 years • Self – conscious emotions become • Ability to consider multiple
integrated with inner standards for right sources of information when
action. explaining others’emotions
• Conformity to and conscious awareness appears.
of emotional display rules improve. • Awareness that people can
than one emotion at a time emerges. experience more
(Source: Adapted from Berk, 2001)

With the help of the table, observe children playing in the
field during free time. List down their emotions and
the corresponding actions that they display.
Role of Emotions in Child Development
What role do emotions play in the development of a child?
Emotions play the following roles:

• They serve to organise and regulate the child’s own behaviour.
For example, a child who succeeds in a given task will feel happy
to practice it as opposed to one who repeatedly fails.
• Children’s emotional state can influence their learning ability. For instance,
a child who shows interest in a certain topic or subject, is likely to pay more
attention during the lesson.
• Emotions serve to initiate, maintain or terminate interactions with others.

Children’s smiles, cries and attentive interest affect the behaviour of other
people in a powerful way.
Factors that May Cause Emotional Problems
What are some of the factors that may cause emotional

problems in children?
I hope you listed the following:
• Rejection
• Excessive fear
• Presence of physical or sensory impairments
• Speech problems.

Rejection
Every child needs to feel secure and loved by family members, friends and teachers.
A child who is accepted in the home and school environment is likely to progress
well due to the feeling of recognition. On the other hand, a child who is rejected
feels worthless and these feelings may interfere with his or her general development.
Consequently, he or she may harbour negative feelings which ultimately affect his
or her emotional well-being.
Excessive Fear
A person who is afraid is likely to run away from the threatening situation, which
he/she is unable to cope with. Children may develop fear of the teacher or parent if
they constantly receive extremely harsh treatment. It is as a result of fear that some
children perform poorly and sometimes drop out of school and also run away from
their homes.
Presence of Physical or Sensory Impairments
Children with disabilities may develop emotional problems if they are self – conscious
about their appearances or condition. For example, a child who is blind may not
wish to be seen carrying a bulky Brailler or walking with a mobility cane. Similarly,
children with motor problems who have to use crutches or a wheelchair for mobility
may also feel the same. They may imagine that other children are making fun of
them. Other children may develop emotional problems to discriminate practices and
negative comments about their condition from people who do not understand them.
Speech Problems
A child who stammers may suffer from inferiority complex. This is because of the
emotional strain that he/she is subjected to by those who are in the community. Other
children tend to laugh and tease him/her due to lack of fluency in speech. Consequently,
such children may choose not to participate in learning activities that involve speech
or any social gatherings.
Emotional development is very important for

personality adjustment.

You will learn more about children with emotional and behavioural problems in
Module 11: Managing Emotional and Behavioural Disorders.
Think of the negative comments the children are likely to

say about children with emotional problems. Write them
down and discuss with a colleague.

Section 5: Intra and Inter-Individual Differences
As you studied the various aspects of development in children, you must have noticed
that in every stage of development a chronological age is also given. The age is a
guideline for the emergence of certain behaviours in children. For instance, in language
development, you learnt that a child aged one year ideally should be in the one word
stage. However, this is not always the case, as some children may utter their first
word before age one and others may accomplish it at one and a half years or more.
If you have observed children playing out in the field, you may have noticed that each
child is unique. The difference may be physical in terms of size, height or weight.
You may also have noticed that some children are active, talkative and mix well with
their classmates. On the other hand, other children are passive and prefer their own
company. This is what is referred to as individual differences. Individual differences
cut across all areas of a child’s growth and development right from birth. As a teacher
you should appreciate that children in your class have varying abilities and these
abilities also vary in the way they develop.

What contributes to individual differences?
Individual differences arise from what one inherits from both parents (nature) and
the environment (nurture) in which one is raised. Some of the factors that give rise
to individual differences are:
• heredity
• maturation.
• age.
• early stimulation
• socialisation practice
Heredity
An individual’s genetic endowment is largely responsible for height, weight, skin

colour among others. This is evident when you observe members of the same family.
You are likely to see a resemblance in physical appearance.

Maturation
This term refers to a biological pattern of development, which has nothing to do

with learning. For instance, at birth an infant cannot be able to sit as the system
responsible for this kind of action is yet to develop.
Age
As ones chronological age advances, an individual is exposed to diverse experiences

that contribute to his/her uniqueness.
Early stimulation
A child may at times miss an opportunity to learn simply because the environment
fails to provide it. A child who is allowed to explore and manipulate environment is
likely to learn faster than one who is in a restrictive environment.
Socialisation process
Every child grows up in a community that is interested in passing on their cultural

values to the offspring. This in turn influences the way a child will act or react to
issues and situations.
Each individual is a unique creation to which both nature

and nurture make contributions. Remember we are all as
different as our finger prints. Even our brains are unique,
just like the finger prints.

Summary
In this unit, you have learnt the various aspects of child’s growth and development.
In Section 1 you have learnt about physical development which deals with growth in
terms of height, weight, size and motor development which deals with movements
and such motor skills and abilities as walking, writing, reading, jumping among
others.
In Section 2 you learnt about cognitive development whereby Piaget cognitive

theory outlined four distinct stages in intellectual development. These stages are:
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete and final operational. Indicators related to
cognitive problems such as poor performance in academic subjects, lack of abstract
thinking, poor decision making and antisocial behaviour were also discussed.
In Section 3 language development as an important aspect of child growth and

development was discussed. Language as the most important tool for communication
and stages of language development which a normal child goes through were
oulined. Acquisition of first and second language were explained. The importance
of social interaction for enhancement of language whereby the child is exposed to
language at home plays as prerequisite to acquisition of the second language was also
explained.
Emotional development was discussed in section 4 whereby stages of emotional

development were outlined, types and importance of emotions in learning.
Sequence of emotional development such as signs displayed right from birth in
anger and when a child is happy. Rejection, presence of physical or sensory
impairment may all lead to emotional development.
In Section 5, you learnt the uniqueness of intra and inter-individual differences of each
individual. Individual differences aregreatly attributed to heredity and environmental
factors such as maturation, age, early stimulation, socialization and
personality.
In addition you have also learnt that each aspect of development enhances the
development of other aspects. I hope that you have also noted that each aspect of
development is dependant on both nature and nurture. This information should help
you support learners more effectively.
Good luck as you practice what you have studied. You may now attempt the
following self-test.
Self Test-Unit 2
Attempt the following questions.
1. List the five factors that might affect physical growth? (5 Marks)
2. List any two factors that would enhance motor development of an infant
( 2 Marks)
3. Identify any five educational implications of the cognitive theory as
proposed by Pigaet (5 Marks)
4. Explain three ways in which you as a teacher could facilitate fluency and
proficiency in the acquisition of a second language in your class.
(6 Marks)
5. Mention three problems that are likely to be exhibited by children with

motor problems.
(3 Marks)
6. List four contributors to individual differences (4 marks)
Total (25 marks)
Score board
20 - 25 Very Good
16 - 19 Good

Learning Outcomes
1. I can now describe the main developmental

stages a child passes from infancy to adolescent.

2. I can now explain the individual differences
among children at various stages of development.

3. I can now explain the aspects of physical and
motor development in a child and how they
affect cognitive development.

4. I can now explain the importance of speech and
language development in the overall
You have now completed unit 2. The learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick
If you have put a tick in the not sure box, turn to the relevant section and study it.
If you have put a tick in the not sure box, turn to the relevant section and study it
again. If you are sure then,
Congratulations!
You can now continue to the next unit.

UNIT 3
Theories of Personality Development

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 3: Theories of Personality Development. In this unit, theories

of personality and moral development will be discussed. The perspective of each
and how it affects behaviour and development will be examined. We shall explore
personality development from the psychosocial and psychosexual point of view. The
moral development of children will also be discussed based on Piaget and Kohlberg.
Aim
This unit aims at introducing you to theories of personality and moral development.
The theories will assist you to understand some of the behaviours of children in your
class including those with special needs. It also addresses the importance of social
relationships and the need for good role models for the developing child.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
• discuss various theories of personality development;

• describe the stages of the psychosocial and psychosexual theories of
personality development.
• relate child growth and development with personality and moral development.
This unit consists of three sections namely:
Section 1: Psychosocial Development
Section 2: Psychosexual development
Section 3: Moral development

Section 1: Psychosocial Theory of Personality
Development by Erick Erison
You have learnt about physical, cognitive and language development in children.
Let us now examine the factors that contribute to personality development of a child.
In this section, attention will be drawn on the important relationship between children
and their parents, teachers, friends and the wider community. However, before we
discuss the psychosocial theory of personality development by Erik Erikson, we need
to understand what is meant by the following terms:
• Personality development
• Psychosocial development
Let us look at each of these.
Personality Development
In Unit 1, we defined the word development; let us now look at each of these
What is personality?
Personality refers to the way an individual responds to the world or carries oneself
as a result of internal or external influences.
According tothepsychosocialtheory, personality development is a continuous process

that begins at birth and continues throughout an individual’s lifespan.
Psychosocial Development
What is psychosocial development?
Psychosocial development is concerned with the relationship between needs of an

individual and those of the society. A person’s past and present social settings are
considered as playing a crucial role of influencing one’s personality.
Let us now discuss the psychosocial theory of personality development.

Psychosocial Theory by Erick Erikson
Psychosocial theory argues that an individual’s social development is put under

specific pressures or conflicts at different ages of life. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial
theory of personality development highlights the impact of early experience on later
stages of adulthood. These conflicts are referred to as crises. Thus, at each stage of
development, a child faces a new “crisis” that needs to be resolved at that particular
stage of development. The way in which the “crisis” of each stage is resolved has a
major influence on the development of one’s overall personality.
Erikson identified eight such crises and linked them with the eight stages of
psychosocial development.
What are the eight stages of crises

in psychosocial development?
The eight stages are:

• Trust versus mistrust
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt
• Initiative versus guilt
• Industry versus inferiority
• Identity versus identity diffusion
• Intimacy versus isolation
• Generatively versus stagnation
• Ego integrity versus despair
Each stage of psychosocial development has the potential for

the development of both strong and weak personality
characteristics. Individuals should strive for qualities that
give strong personality characteristics.
Although there are eight stages of psychosocial development, We shall learn about
the first five stages that apply to children, (from infancy to adolescence).
Let us briefly examine each of the first five stages.
Trust versus Mistrust (0-1 year)
In the first year of life, an infant’s interaction is largely confined to the mother
or caregiver. The way in which an infant is nourished, handled and made to feel
comfortable and secure may lead the child to develop a sense of trust or mistrust.
Infants are likely to gain a sense of trust if parents meet their needs with love and
care. However, if the infant’s needs are not met or are harshly handled, they develop
mistrust. This may led the child to grow up either trusting or mistrusting others and
the world in general, depending on their early experiences. Parents who have children
with sensory or physical impairments should ensure that they do all that is possible to
adequately meet their needs.
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)
As you may be aware at this stage the child has developed motor, language and
cognitive or intellectual skills as well as awareness of some degree of independence.
The child may also like to exercise control over the environment through exploration
and interaction. From these experiences, a child learns what is socially acceptable or
unacceptable without losing the feeling of being able to manage himself or herself.
Parents should permit the child some reasonable free choice of movement and avoid
being over critical of minor mistakes. On the other hand, if parents are overprotective
or fail to recognise the child’s sense of competence, the child develops a sense of
doubt and shame.
A child who doubts his or her abilities is likely to feel ashamed and embarrassed when
in the presence of others. This has important implications for children with special
needs as they are at times restricted by overprotective parents. For example, a blind
child may be restricted from exploring the environment for fear that he or she might
fall or bump into objects and hurt himself or herself. Parents with such fears should
be advised to put proper safety measures in place that would allow children with little
or no sight to walk, run, pull and handle objects in their environment.
Initiative versus Guilt (3-6 years)
The marked development of physical, mental and language skills enables the child at
thisstage,tounderstandtheworldaroundhimorher.Duringthisphaseofdevelopment,
many children are aware of parental and societal expectations and are curious to
learn.They therefore tend to ask questions about each and everything, make plans, set
goals and persist in both physical and social activities. Parents should support their
children’s new sense of purpose and direction. If parents restrict the child’s activities
and fail to respond to his or her questions, the child is likely to feel frustrated and may
develop guilt.
Parents and teachers who have children going through this stage in their care should
also avoid unhealthy criticism or punishment for minor failures. For example, some
children with or without special needs may still have a problem of bedwetting at

this age. They require to be supported with patience and understanding in order to
overcome the problem. A child who emerges from this stage with a sense of guilt may
become hesitant, indecisive, and also lack initiative in planning and carrying out other
activities.
Industry versus Inferiority ( 6-12 years)
This is the fourth stage and by this time children are already in school.This is considered
an important period for developing attitudes towards work. If previous development
has gone well, the child now enters a period of mastery, whereby an individual is
expected to learn basic skills. These include:
• Physical, mental and educational skills

• Understanding of the physical environment
• Social skills of getting along with peers, teachers and others
At this stage children begin to experience pressure from teachers and parents. The
teachers expect the child to perform well academically while the parents expect them
to lend a hand in household chores. A good parent or teacher is one who enhances a
sense of industry or hard work rather than making the child feel inferior. This can be
done by alternating family chores or errands with play, study and games. Encouraging
Children who are encouraged to participate in such activities serves to increase their
sense of industry.
On the other hand, parents and teachers who view children’s effort at making things
as a “messy business” serve to encourage the development of a sense of inferiority.
Thus, children who experience success in schoolwork and activities emerge from this
stage with a sense of industry. In addition experiences of failure at home, school and
with peers may lead to feelings of incompetence and inferiority.
How can schools structure their environment?
Teachers and school environment play a crucial role in helping the child out of
industry versus inferiority crises. Consequently, schools should try to structure their
environments in a way that would help learners view themselves as capable individuals
by:

• Creating a barrier free environment would go a long way in assisting those
with mobility problems find their way around the school with ease.
• Ensuring that the school curriculum is adapted to meet the needs of all
children.
Children should also be assisted to realize that

hard work always pays.
Let us now lack at the last stage of psychosocial development which is;
Identity versus Identity Diffusion ( 12-20 years)
Children, who by now have gone through the previous stages successfully, are
equipped with a sense of trust, autonomy, initiative and industry. Their main task is
to search for a personal identity and overcome identity diffusion.
What challenges take an individual, at this stage?
These may include the following:

• Physical and emotional changes during puberty.
• Environmental influences from friends.
• Demands of the society.
Recognition and support from parents and others is very helpful to them as they
experiment with a wide range of roles and expectations. As they continue to experiment
with various sexual, occupational and educational roles, their experiences help them
find answers to questions such as:
• Who am I?
• What is my place in society?
• What am I supposed to do?
• In which manner am I expected to behave?
Failure to find answers to these questions leads to indecisiveness, anxiety, loneliness

and confusion about future adult roles. Consequently, a person may remain at the
adolescent level for longer than normal. The chances of this happening are higher
if some of the previous stages were not successfully resolved. At each of the eight
stages, conflicts must be resolved, at least partially before progress can be made to the
next stage. This way individuals shall develop well adjusted personalities.

Failure to resolve the conflict may result in psychological
disorders that affect the rest of their life – span. The
individual may develop emotional and behavioural problems
leading to being poorly adjusted.
Implications of the Psychosocial Theory to Children with Special

Needs
What are some of the implications of the psychosocial

theory for children with special needs?
From the discussion on the first five stages, the influence of the family members and
significant others on the growing child’s personality is evident. Children with special
needs are likely to experience emotional and behavioural problems if parents, teachers
and peers do the following:
• make them feel unwanted, peculiar or incompetent;

• overly criticise, mock or humiliate them;
• deny them opportunities to engage in play, social activities and
household chores;
• fail to encourage and train such children to acquire literacy skills of
reading and writing;
• fail to train them on expectations of the society in terms of their future
adult roles.
Children with special needs, like all other children should be assisted by providing
them with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude that would help them strive
for qualities that give strength. However, care should be taken to ensure that the
abilities of the child are always taken into consideration so as to avoid frustrating the
child. You need to remember that we are all unique in the way we develop and the
way we react to different situations.
You have now come to the end of psychoanalytic theory of personality development
by Erik Erikson.

Section 2: Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
Development by Sigmud Frend
In Section 1, you learnt how personality develops from the psychosocial perspective.
In this section, you will learn about personality development from the psychoanalytic
point of view. We shall examine personality development according to Sigmund
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
Sigmund Freud was a Viennese physician (medical doctor from Vienna) who be-
came interested in personality development when he realized that many of his pa-
tient’s problems seemed to lack physical causes.
Let us look at main issues of this theory. These are
• structure of the mind

• psychosexual stages of development
Structure of the Mind
How did Freud view personality?
Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective suggests that there is a structure of the mind that
includes the id, the ego and the superego. These structures struggle for control of the
energy of the psyche. This structure of the mind is functional not physical. In other
words, it refers to the way the brain works.
Let us discuss each one of these structures.
The Id
The id attempts to have basic pleasure seeking instincts satisfied. It is self serving,
irrational, impulsive, and totally unconscious. We are all born with these instincts
because they are meant to help us survive.
Have you ever met people who seem ruthless in their attempt
to satisfy their personal desires. Give a few examples
from your experience.

You may have mentioned the following:
• robbery with violence

• stealing
• aggression both verbal and physical
• irresponsible sexual behaviour
• demand that their needs be met irrespective of the needs of others
According to Freud, these people allow their id to control them in making decisions
The Ego
The Ego works to prevent the id from expressing itself inappropriately. It is

sometimes described as the “executive” seat. Ego is also referred to as the reality
principle.
Is there any difference between the id and the ego?
The id operates on the pleasure principle which seeks immediate gratification while
the ego, in contrast, is guided by the reality principle. The ego delays action until it
is practical or appropriate. For example, if an individual has the urge to empty the
bowels, they will wait until they go to the right place. In fact, the ego is the system
involved in problem solving, thinking, planning and execution or implementation of
actions. It is in conscious control of the personality.
The Superego
The superego which is similar to a conscience takes this job one step further by
attempting to enforce societal, religious and/or parental values about right and
wrong. It therefore acts as a judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego.
This is the moral principle.
Here is an illustration of a struggle of the three

mental Structures
You are sexually attracted to someone. The id compels you to have immediate

gratification, but is opposed by the superego (finding the very thought of sexual
behaviour shocking). Here we see the influence of religious belief or societal values
at work. So when the id says “Go for it” superego replies, “Don’t even think of it”
and the ego says, “I have a plan!”
Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
What is psychosexual Development?
According to Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of six. Early

experiences play a fundamental role in personality development and continue to
influence behaviour later in life. Personality develops through a series of stages during
which the pleasure seeking energies of the id become focussed on certain erogenous
zones (an area capable of producing pleasure). This psychosexual energy or libido is
described as the driving force behind behaviour. Each area then serves as the main
source of pleasure, frustration and self expression.
Freud believed that many adult personality traits can be traced to fixation in one or
more stages.
What is a fixation?
A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage caused by

over indulgence or by frustration. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will
remain “stuck” in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage
may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking,
drinking or eating. Psychosexual stages and ages are divided into the following:
Stage Age
• Oral 0-1 year
• Anal 1-3 years
• Phallic 3-6 years
• Latency 6-12 years
• Genital 12 years plus
Let us now examine each of these stages:

The Oral Stage (0-1 year)
During the oral stage, the infant’s primary source of gratification occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital
for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process. The child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, the individual would
have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problem with
drinking, overeating, smoking, kissing, gum chewing or nail biting.
The Anal Stage (1-3 years)
The primary focus of the libido during this stage is on controlling bowel and bladder
movement (elimination). The major conflict at this stage is toilet training. The child
has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense
of accomplishment and independence.
Success at this stage is dependent upon the parent’s approach to toilet training. One
approach involves praise and reward for using the toilet at the appropriate time. The
other approach is to punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
If parents take an approach that is too lenient, an anal-expulsive personality can

develop in which the individual is disorderly, destructive, cruel or messy. On the
other hand, the anal-retentive (holding-on) personality is obstinate, stingy, orderly,
and compulsively clean.
The Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
Have you observed that very often children are inclined

towards the parents of the opposite sex?
Freud tried to explain this phenomenon. In this stage, the primary focus of the libido
is on the genitals. Children discover the differences between males and females. Boys
begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affection. The Oedipus complex
describes these feelings of wanting to posses the mother and the desire to replace the
father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these
feelings, a fear termed as castration anxiety develops. The term electra complex has
been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud,
however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
What happens in a family where parents live in disharmony?
You may have noticed that children may be inclined to side with the parents of
the opposite sex and later in life may hate or view persons in opposite sex with
suspicion.
The Latency Stage (6-12 years)
In this stage, the libido interests are suppressed, it is a time during which
psychosexual development of the ego and superego contributes to this period
of calm. The stage begins around the time the children enter school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests. It is a time of
exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other
areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important
in the development of social and communication skills and self confidence.
The Genital Stage (12 years +)
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexualinterestintheoppositesex.Whereinearlierstagesthefocuswassolelyonindividual
needs, interest in the welfare of others develops during this stage. If the other stages
have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well balanced, warm
and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.
Freud thoery has been influential because it shows that the first years of life help shape
adult personality; identifies feeding, toilet training and early sexual experiences as
important events in personality formation. Finally it shows that development proceeds
through a series of stages.
Through the psychoanalytic process, it has been shown that many cases of maladjusted
or imbalanced personality evolved due to non-gratification in the early stages of
development. It may also be due to sex abuse during childhood.
You may have observed people who are either chain smokers
or who indulge in gum chewing. How would you interpret
this behaviour using Freud Theory. Discuss with a colleague.

Section 3: Moral Development by Jean Piaget and
Kolhberg
In this section, we shall examine stages of moral development according to Piaget
and Kohlberg.
What is morality
Morality concerns itself with what is socially acceptable in a given community. It

involves drawing a line between what belongs to the individual and what is due to the
others in the respective environment. It also involves how to treat others. In addition
to Piaget’s contribution to our knowledge on cognitive development in children, he
has also thrown some light into our understanding of children.
Let us discuss these under the following areas:
• Stages of moral development in children.

• How children acquire morals.
Stages of Moral Development According to Piaget
What is moral development?
Moral development refers to the process by which an individual learns to determine

what is right and what is wrong in one’s community. Piaget identified two stages of
moral development:
• Morality of realism - a child aged 5 to 10 years.

• Morality of co-operation - a child about 10 years and above.
Let us briefly discuss each stage.
Morality of realism (5 -10 years)
A child who is below age five shows little understanding of rules that govern social
behaviour. However, a child between the ages of 5 to 10 is aware that rules exist.
Children in this stage believe that rules are handed down from God, parents or teachers
and that no one can change them. To such a child, rules are fixed and ought to be
obeyed as they are presented. In the mind of the child, therefore, nothing is in itself
wrong or right, good or bad.
When judging a certain action, children at this stage only take into account the
consequences of the behaviour and ignore the intention underlying the behaviour.
For example, when a child hears that Wanjiku has broken 10 glasses, while assisting
her mother in the kitchen and Njeri has broken only 1 glass while attempting to steal
sweets from the cupboard, the child will focus on who among the two has broken
more glasses. Thus, the younger child will judge Wanjiku harshly for breaking 10
glasses as compared to Njeri who only broke 1 glass.
Morality of co-operation (10 years and above)
At about 10 to 11years of age, children’s moral development undergoes more change.

Due to the child’s exposure to various social situations, an understanding that rules are
made for the purpose of protecting rights of individuals begins to emerge. The child
now realises that right or wrong does not only depend on an individual’s opinion but
that of the society. With this understanding, children also learn that rules are flexible
and may be subjected to change.
Unlike the child aged 5 to 10 years, the older child is now able to make judgements
based on the motive underlying the behaviour that has been observed. For instance, in
the example on the incident of breaking of glasses, a child beyond 10 years is likely
to focus on the motive. Consequently, Njeri who only broke 1 glass will be judged
harshly as her motive was stealing.
Changes in a child’s cognitive capabilities and the opportunity

to interact with other children are considered significant factors
in the process of moral development.
Stages of Moral Development According to Kohlberg
Let us now look at another theory of Moral Development by Lawrence Kohlberg.
The Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is dependent on the thinking of Jean

Piaget. He demonstrated through studies that people progressed in their moral
reasoning through a series of stages. He stipulates six stages which are generally
classified into three levels. These three levels are:

• pre-conventional
• conventional
• post conventional.
Table 2.3 below illustrates these levels:
Table 2.3: Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Stage Level Social Orientation
Pre-conventional 1 Obedience and punishment

2 Individualism, instrumentalism
and exchange
Conventional 3 Good boy or good girl

4 Law and order
Post Conventional 5 Social contract

6 Principled conscience
Just as in Piaget’s moral theory, a child at stage 1 & 2 is guided by the fear of the
consequences of his or her actions and therefore tries to behave according to socially
acceptable norms, because they are told to do so by some authority figure for example
parent or teacher.
In level 3, one is trying to seek approval of others (good boy or girl) and in Stage 4
is simply meeting the obligations of duty to the society.
The 5th level is a higher level of morality encompassing genuine interest in the welfare
of others and the universal principle of sacrifice. This is rarely attained by most adults.
Most people never advance beyond the fourth stage.
Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages, one
stage at a time. Kohlberg posed moral dilemma to children of different ages.
The two examples below illustrate some moral dilemas
1. Imagine you are a soldier in the army at the battle front. You receive news
that there is flooding back home and your family is in danger of drowning; on
the other hand the nation is also being attacked by the enemy. What action
would you take?

2. There was a man whose wife was sick and did not have money to buy the
medicine, what would you advise him to do. To steal the drug or to let his
wife die?
How do Children Learn Morals?
Morality may be learnt through some of the following ways:
• Reward and punishment – when children receive praise and approval for
their behaviour, they are likely to engage in such behaviours in future.
However, if their behaviour meets with reprimand from parents and
significant others, the undesirable behaviour may not be repeated.
• Imitation of role models – children if exposed to parents and teachers, who

are of good morals, may emulate those moral behaviours.
What are some of the basic morals that children should

acquire?
I hope you listed some of the following:
• Honesty
• Respect for other people’s views or ideas.
• Respect for other people’s property
• Self – discipline
• Sensitivity to other people’s needs.
• Patience and tolerance.
How can parents and teachers assist a child to develop a

sense of right and wrong. Discuss with a colleague and
write down your answers.

Summary
In this unit, you have learnt much about personality and moral development. You
have also learnt about the psychosocial aspects of personality development according
to Erick Erickson which stressed:
The importance of social relationship in shaping the personality of an individual.

Resolving conflicts at every stage successfully. Role of parents and teachers in helping
children develop a balanced personality.
You have also learnt about the psychoanalytic perspective of personality by Sigmund
Freud which stipulates showed that the mind is made up of three functional structures.
These are; the Id which is pleasure seeking, the Ego which operates on reality principle,
the Superego which is the moral principal.
In addition you have also learnt that there are five stages of psychosexual development,
namely; the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage must be completed
successfully before one moves to the next stage or else it may result to a fixation and
consequently to poor personality adjustment.
Morality development by Piaget and Kohlberg was also discussed. The theories
stipulates that morality is acquired through stages as one develops. Good role
modelling by adults for the development of morals by children is therefore essential.
Good luck as you apply the knowledge you have acquired in this unit.

Self Test - Unit 3
1. List the five stages of the psychosocial theory. (5 marks)
2. Identify the principles on which the following functional mind structures

operate:
• Id
• Ego
• Superego (6 marks)
3. List the two stages of moral development as proposed by Piaget. (2 marks)
4. Mention the levels of moral development by Kohlberg (9 marks)
5. State any three ways in which parents and teachers can guide children to
acquire good morals (3 marks)
(Total 25 marks)
Score board
20 - 25 Very Good
16 - 19 Good

Learning Outcomes
You have now completed Unit 3. The learning outcomes are listed below. Put a tick
1. I can now discuss the various theories of


2. I can now describe the stages of the
psychosocial and psychosexual theories of

3. I can now relate child growth and
development with personality and moral
development.
If you have put a tick in the not sure box, turn to the relevant section and study it
again. If you are sure then:
Congratulations!
You can now continue to the next unit.

UNIT 4
The Influence of Family and Community

on the Developing Child.

Introduction
Welcome to Unit 4: Influence of Family and Community on the Developing Child.
In this unit, you will learn how parents, siblings, peers, school and the community affect
the developing child. A look at the adolescence stage of development will conclude
this unit. This stage is important as it marks the transition period from childhood to
adulthood. The challenges faced by the adolescent during this period will also be
discussed.
Aim
This unit aims at assisting you to identify factors within the family, school and the
individual that contribute to an individual’s development. It further aims at helping
you to understand various challenges faced by the adolescent.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• describe the influence of family, peers, school and environment on the

developing child.
• identify and describe the developmental changes that occur in an adolescent

during puberty.
• describe some of the challenges faced by the adolescent in the society.
This unit consists of three sections:
Section 1: Influence of the family

Section 2: Influence of the Community.
Section 3: The adolescent
Read on!

Section 1: Influence of the Family on the
Developing Child
Take a moment and think back to your own childhood days and consider what as-
pects of it come into mind. You may be surprised to note that most of the events that
come to mind actually centre on your family. We are aware that you are familiar
with the saying, “East or West home is best!”
Why is the family so important on the development of a child?
The family is important because:
• it is the earliest and most sustained social contact for the child.
• children develop gradually and enjoy years of support and instruction from
the family before acquiring independence.
• it provides the first context for learning – language and mental skills,
It provides enduring bonds that guarantee support at all times.
From the above observations, it is evident that the family has crucial roles to play in
the life of a child. These roles include:
• Monitoring, guiding and training the young to be competent and participating

members of the society.
• Providing physical, emotional, moral and financial support.
• Orienting the child to his/her immediate world of relatives, neighbours and

community.
Family consist of:
• Parents
• Sibling
Lets examine the influence of each in the development of a child.

Parents
Parents are very crucial in the life of a child. They are the key in the life of the child
since they are the head of families. Parental characteristics may affect the developing
child positively or negatively.
Which parental characteristics may negatively affect

the developing child?
You may have listed parents who:
• Are in a relationship that lacks harmony.

• Abuse their children
• Neglect their children.
• Are too permissive.
• Enforce rules rigidly.
Let us now examine each briefly
Disharmony among parents
A home which is characterised by quarrels and disagreements that may have a negative
effect on the child. For example, where one spouse drinks so much and when he comes
back home engages in verbal or physical fights with the other spouse. Parents in such
a relationship have a tendency of influencing bad and negative behaviours to their
children. Consequently, their children have a high chance of developing emotional
immaturity and anti-social behaviours. Parents who are also unfaithful to one another
and quarrels in the presence of their children tends to erode the children’s trust and
confidence in adults.
Parents who abuse their children
What is child abuse?
I hope you said that child abuse may be in the form of:

• Psychological abuse such as excessive ridicule, humiliation or any form of
mental cruelty.
• Physical abuse such as sexual molestation or causing pain through cuts,

burns, broken bones or other physical injuries
What is the effect of child abuse in children?
The development of the child will be affected in every aspect such as; physical,
cognitive, social, and emotional and even language.
Children who grow up in abusive conditions are likely to

experience problems in social, cognitive and emotional
development.
Parents who Neglect their children
Neglecting children may be through failure to provide:
• Physical needs-food, clothing, medical attention, adequate shelter and

supervision
• Emotional needs-love and affection.
Children who are neglected feel unwanted and rejected. This may lead to feeling
suspicious of others, (mistrust) thus affecting the child’s social development. In Unit
3, you learnt that trust Vs mistrust, is the first stage of the psychosocial theory as
explained by Erikson. It emphasises the need for children to receive proper care from
parents and caregivers. Children who are neglected may also lag behind in physical
growth.
Parents who are Permissive
What do you understand by the term permissive?

You may have said that being permissive is being too kind, linient and almost allowing
the child to do as he/she wishes to.
Parents who are permissive do not impose controls of any kind on their children. For
instance, they may allow their children to make their own decisions regarding routine
activities such as:
• Viewing of television.
• Time for taking meals.
• Time to go to bed.
• Time of doing household chores
• Type of friends
Children of suchparentsmightendupasimmature and dependent individuals wholack

self-control. Consequently, they may develop emotional and behavioural problems
which may lead to truancy and even dropping out of school.
Parents who Enforce Rules Rigidly
These are parents who are too strict and exercise too much control over their children’s
actions and behaviours. They expect their children to obey their commands without
questionsandoftenusethreatsandpainfulpunishmenttoregulatechildren’sbehaviour.
Children who grow up with such parents are likely to lag behind in moral reasoning
and may also develop anti-social behaviours. For instance being rebellious.
Having learnt how parents can negatively affect a child’s

development, pause and for a moment think of qualities of a
parent who is likely to positively or negatively
influence a child’s development.
Your list may have included parents who:
• Listen to children and encourage dialogue.

• Use rewards rather than punishment to regulate children’s behaviour.
• Set limits on a child’s behaviour by providing explanation to help their
children understand the reasons for such requests.
• Meet the child’s needs and action with love and understanding.
• Maintain harmony at home.

As a parent you should be a good role model by positively responding to the needs
your child. Parents influence their child’s moral reasoning by the way they bring
them up.
Siblings
Apart from parents, ones brothers and sisters also affect the developing child. Siblings
are an important source of a child’s social attitudes, beliefs and behaviours.
What role do siblings play?
You may have listed the following:
• Acting as role models for both desirable and undesirable actions.

• Offering companionship and emotional support.
• Assisting each other in everyday tasks.
Sibling interaction decreases during teenage years as the

individual becomes more involved in friendship with peers.
It is through interaction with siblings that children develop expectations about the
way that other people behave.
Your school has invited you to address parents on

“parent-child relationship”. What would be the main
highlights of your speech? Write down your answers and
discuss with a colleague.

Section 2: The Influence of the Community
In the previous section, we looked at the influence of a family on a growing child. In
this section, we are going to see how the community affects the growing child. In
this regard, community include:
• The peers or agemates

• The school
• The media
• Community and cultural influence.
Let us now discuss how each of the above influences the development of a child.
Influence of the Peers

Apeermaybeviewedasacompanionofapproximatelythesameageanddevelopmental
level. When children are in their adolescence ages (12 – 18 years) they spend more
time with peers than any other social agent. Peer interactions provide a child with
opportunity for play as well as learning of social behaviour.
What role do peers play in the development of an individual?
Peers’ role is to:

• Give opportunity to interact with equals.
• Promote the spirit of competition and co-operation.
• Teach self–evaluation of physical, social and intellectual skills realistically.
• Learn to appreciate others point of view.
• Reinforce gender – role behaviour.
• Teach leadership roles.
• Encourage independence of family support and regulation.
As peers interact and grow they form peer groups.

Let us briefly explain peer group formation
Peer Group Formation
If you watch children at school or in a community, you are likely to note that groups
of threes or more children often gather.
In the peer groups children are likely to develop :
• Own sets of values and goals

• Social structures of leaders and followers
• Standards for behaviour
• Inter-dependence
When the above characteristics are present, we then say that a peer group has been
formed. Members of a peer group however must earn acceptance by adhering to the
standards and values of the group.
Children are likely to develop emotional problems if they are

rejected or are unable to interact with peers.
Influence of the School
Having examined how peers influence the developing child, let us now look at the
influence of school on the developing child. Children spend a major part of their
childhood in school. At school, children are exposed to new information, and
experiencesthrough the academic and the non - academic curriculum.There is a greater
opportunity to interact with peers and significant new adult models are provided by
teachers. Consequently, teachers play a significant role in the development of a child
by:
• Motivating the children to perform well in both academic and non-academic
tasks.
• Encouraging healthy competition among children.
• Training children to observe school rules and regulation.
• Acting as the role model for children to copy.
Your Individual characteristics as a teachers also influences children’s attitude towards

learning and their sense of autonomy. Apart from being powerful role models, teachers
are figures of authority who are trained to develop children’s skills and attitudes. This
implies that, their method of instruction and their relationship with a child is of great
significance.
How do teachers affect the development of a Child?

Teachers affect the developing child by the kind of:
• Expectations they may have on a child

• Instructional and classroom management strategies
• Classroom climate
• Classroom seating arrangement
Let us discuss each of the above factors briefly.
Teachers Expectations on a Child
Teachers tend to treat learners differently. For example, pupils who are high achievers
may be given more opportunity to lead others in a group of activities, answer
questions and therefore receive more praise. Such a teacher ignores the students
who actually require attention and encouragement especially students with specific
learning difficulties. However, there are some teachers who mistreat pupils who are
high achievers as they view them as trouble makers and “know it all”. It is therefore
important that you treat all pupils equally by fully exploiting the abilities of high
achievers and addressing, encouraging and supporting those pupils who may have
difficulties in the learning process.
Instructional and Classroom Management Strategies
What are instructional strategies?
Instructional strategies are the different methods and techniques employed by the
teacher in managing his or her class.
Some teachers may fail to plan well for their lessons, ignore children’s participation
in the learning process or rely on traditional methods of instruction. For example,
rote learning which denies child opportunities for higher-level thinking should be
applied only on very simple, low level content. In addition when teachers use very
punitive behaviour management techniques they make children hate schooling.
Classroom Climate
A teacher, who constantly criticises, ridicules and mocks the pupils, prevents learn-
ing from taking place. The children are unlikely to participate for fear of teacher’s
reaction. Therefore you should create a classroom climate that:

• Encourages participation and interaction
• Responsibility and freedom of expression
• Respect for other pupils opinion
Classroom Seating Arrangement
The common row and column - seating plan is considered to be undesirable, the
desirable seating arrangement should allow for free movement and free interaction
by the learners(round table seating). The reason being that teachers tend to interact
mostly with those learners who occupy the front and centre positions. Children who
are not seated in these favoured positions therefore lack proper interaction with the
teacher during the lesson.
You will learn more about teachers’ attitudes, and appropriate teaching strategies in
Module 16: (Teaching and Learning Strategies)
Many attitudes, feelings and beliefs are created, maintained

or altered by the school environment.
Influence of the Media
As you are aware the media plays a powerful role of providing entertainment,
information and also has potential to support a child’s development. The general
purpose of the media is to educate, inform, and entertain. These three aspects of the
media are very crucial to the development of the child.
There are two different types of media and all of them can impact positively or
negatively on the adolescents.
Media can be divided into two:
• Electronic media
• Print media
Let us now examine each of these
Electronic Media
Electronic media includes:

• Television
• Radio
• Computer/Internet
Let us now look at each of them.
The Television
Although there are various forms of media, none can equal the popularity of the TV
among children and adolescents. It is for this reason that we will examine the television
in greater depth.
How does television affect the developing child?
As you may be aware many television programmes are very educative and also
provide very valuable entertainment to children. The television may provide both
positive and negative influences on the child.
Positive influence
Some positive ways that the television can influence children include teaching, role
modelling, socialization, fostering creativty and talent development.
Negative Influence
Negative influence may include; corrupting their morals by misleading them for
example when they watch programmes that are not appropriate for their age.
What steps can parents take to regulate what their

children view
You may regulate television viewing by:
• Limit TV viewing by providing clear rules that limit what children can
watch.
• Encourage children to watch age appropriate programs that promote
pro-social behaviours.
• Link television content to meaningful experiences. Guiding the children to
watch programmes that are educative in nature. For example, a program on
“growing of vegetables” may motivate a child to start a garden in the home
backyard.
• Being role models by ensuring that children do not spend too much time
watching TV.
Radio
The radio just like the TV can influence children positively or negatively. The radio
has many educative programmes, which are also quite informative. They make them
keep abreast with the current trends in the society and the world at large. It may also
provide role models, entertain and present musical progress that are for relaxation.
Some radio programmes can impact negatively on children’s behaviour for example,
they may cause them not to perform their duties as expected by spending to much
time on listening to the radio.
Computer and Internet
How can computers and the internet influence

children’s behaviour?
As we have already seen, the media can influence children’s behaviour either positively
or negatively, computers and the internet have positive contributions to make in
the cognitive development of children for example e-learning, eases accessibility of
information and communication.
Negative influence from the computer and internet may include internet addiction,
waste of time and degrades moral development through watching phonographic
materials.
Discuss the positive and negative influences of mobile phones,

videos, VCRS and DVDs with a colleague.
Print Media
Print media include both newspaper and magazines

What are some of the negative influence of newspapers and
magazines?
I hope some of these are the suggestions you have given.
• Some adverts put in the newspapers can give wrong or misleading

information to the youth e.g. those on cigarettes and alcohol might just
promote the vices of smoking and drinking.
• They waste productive time which could otherwise be used constructively.
• Can make them antisocial.
Parents and teachers should also limit children’s access to

certain magazines that promote pornography and anti-social
behaviours. Newspapers and magazines when used well are a
rich source of education and information. They can also provide
entrainment and create interest in reading.
Identify any three negative and positive influence of journals,

posters and photographs to a developing child.
Discuss with a colleague.
Community and Cultural Influence
As you already know every community world-wide has its own set of guidelines for
various behaviours. These guidelines may be on matters related to:
• Morality
• Religious practices
• Rituals or ceremonies
• Roles for both sexes
• Feeding
• Dressing
• Leisure activities
The above factors when combined give rise to a pattern of life or what we commonly
refer to as culture. Culture is comprised of beliefs and practices.

Traditional African communities had their own culture and own ways of rearing
children. Children grew up within the context of the extended family (grandparents,
aunts and uncles). Thus, the agent of socialisation was not just the biological parents
but all members of a community.
How did the traditional African society influence the

developing child
In the traditional African society, children were moulded through:

• Story telling sessions
• Use of proverbs
• Direct teaching
• Peer modelling
• Responsibility training
• Rituals/ceremonies
• Leisure activities like traditional dances
However, the African society has undergone many changes that have gradually
influenced their traditional child-rearing practices. Some of the factors that have
contributed to the new ways of rearing children include:
• Religion
• Urbanisation
• Formal education
Let us now examine each factor.
Religion
Religion has had its influence on socialisation of the African child. This is because
certain practices have been discouraged, as they are not in keeping with religious
principles. You may notice, for example that many children especially in urban areas,
prefer to be called by their religious names. In a way, religious baptism has overtaken
the traditional naming ceremony.
Urbanisation
Employment is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. Thus the towns are a home

to people of diverse ethnic backgrounds. This kind of set-up does not allow cultural
practices. A good example is the circumcision ceremony, which has ceased being a
public affair and is instead confined to the immediate family. The traditional method
whereby a child belonged to the community is no longer respected due to the different
parenting styles and the dynamism in the society.
Formal education
The education system has greatly influenced the way people act and react to issues
within the society. For instance, the community respects a parent who is learned
irrespective of their gender because they understand the benefits of such issues as;
immunization, family planning and hygiene among others.
Let us now examine how sex roles and culture influence child growth and
development.
Sex Roles and Culture
Although sex is genetically determined, masculine and feminine roles are determined
by culture. It is from the society that we actually learn sex appropriate roles. Even as
a child as you can recall gender roles were so defined that there were certain tasks that
girls and boys were expected to perform.
The traditional African society has always had specific expectations from either sex.
For example, a woman was expected to remain at home and take care of children
and household chores while the man was out hunting. The western society too has
always portrayed women as the “weaker sex”.
When does culture first begin to shape children’s

sex roles?
As you are aware, this may begin as early as before birth, when mothers start preparing
colour schemes for clothing. For example, girls are usually dressed in pink or bright
attractive colours, while blue is considered to be a suitable colour for boys.
The upbringing of children also influences development of sex roles. It should be

noted that parents and significant others do perpetuate sex – roles, when they:
• Cuddle girls more than boys.

• Discourage boys from crying.
• Encourage certain play activities among the sexes.
• Encourage girls to plait hair.
• Buy certain toys for specific sexes.
• Provide role models for acceptable behaviour.
Finally, you should note that reinforcement, observation and imitation play significant
role in the development of sex-roles.
Collect articles from newspapers and magazines that

portray sex-roles stereotypes. Suggest how these
stereotypes may be changed and discuss with a colleague.

Section 3: The Adolescent
Who is an adolescent?
An adolescent is a person who is between the ages of 13 and 19 years. Such a

person is regarded as being in a period of transition from childhood to adulthood.
This transition period is what is referred to as adolescence. It is a period marked
by noticeable physical changes for both boys and girls. Just like in other areas of
growth and development, individual differences exist among individuals and among
the sexes. Girls tend to mature earlier than boys and some children also mature earlier
or later than the expected chronological age. The adolescence period is divided into
three sub-stages as indicated in the table 4 below:
Table 1.4: Sub-stages of Adolescent Development
Stage Age for girls Age for boys Expected trend

of development
Early adolescence 10-12 12-13 Process of sexual
maturity begins
Mid - adolescence 13-16 14-16 Sexual maturity
is reached.
Late adolescence 16-18 18 -21 Sexual, emotional
and social maturity
is reached.
In this section, you are going to examine the adolescent and the various changes and
challenges of this stage of development. These include:
• Physical development.
• Psychological effects of physical changes.
• Influence of religion.
• Challenges of adolescence period.
Let us now examine each of these stages and their challenges.

Physical Development
During the adolescence period, marked physical changes occur in both boys and
girls. These physical changes are related to sexual functioning during puberty.
What is puberty?
Puberty is the developmental milestone attained when a young person gains ability
to reproduce i.e. sexual maturity. It involves changes in the reproductive organs of
both sexes.
We shall examine the changes that occur during puberty under the following
headings:
• Primary sexual characteristics

• Secondary sexual characteristics
Let us briefly discuss each characteristic
Primary Sexual Characteristics
These refer to changes that involve the reproductive organs, for example ovaries and
uterus in females and scrotum and testes in males.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
These refer to visible changes on the outside of the body that serve as signs of sexual
maturity. For example breast development in girls and broadening of shoulders in
boys.
From your experience with adolescents, what other

primary and secondary characteristics can you identify?
Table 4.1 summarises the sexual characteristics of both boys and girls at puberty.

Table 4.1: Pubertal Changes
Sexual characteristic Males Female
Primary • Testes and scrotum • Vagina and clitoris

enlarge. increase in size.
• Penis size increases. • Uterus increases in size.
• Increase in sperm • Onset of menstruation.
production.

Secondary • Deepening of voice • Development of breasts
• Appearance of facial and • Widening of hips
underarm hair
• Broadening of shoulders • Growth of pubic hair
• Increase in height • Increase in weight
• Growth of pubic hair • Skin becomes oilier
• Skin becomes oilier
Psychological Effects of Physical Changes During Adolescent
Puberty is closely linked to how one views about oneself and how he/she interacts
with parents and peers. We shall therefore discuss some psychological effects of this
period. They include the following:
• Dissatisfaction with physical appearance

• Early and late maturation
• Parent – child relationship
• Sex and the adolescent.
Let us briefly examine each
Dissatisfaction with Physical Appearance
Adolescents do not easily accept the bodily changes that they experience due to various
reasons. Many may have grown with a fixed image of how they would want to look
like. This image in most cases may have been drawn from what the society regards
as attractive in terms of size and shape. For example, a girl may have looked forward
to having medium sized breasts but instead her breasts grow to be too large for her
comfort. Similarly, a boy may have looked forward to growing tall only to attain an
average height. These feelings of disappointment are likely to affect how they feel
about themselves.

The strong emphasis on physical attractiveness in our society implies that adolescents
with disabilities also experience problems with their image. Those with physical
impairments may develop more anxiety in their desire to meet the standards of
attractiveness. There is need to stress on activities of daily living both in school and
at home. Subjects such as activities of daily living skills minimize the effects of
disabilities.
Early and Late Maturation
The youth vary in the age at which they reach puberty. Boys who mature early are
likely to hold leadership positions at school such as being the Headboy. However,
they may have problems in meeting the expectations of the society on how a mature
person ought to behave. Girls who mature early on the other hand, tend to be self-
conscious about their physical changes and are likely to experience discomfort. They
usually feel uneasy about associating with their age mates and in some cases may end
up isolating themselves.
Boys and girls who mature early tend to seek companions

who are older and this can lead to unfavourable consequences
such as teenage pregnancy in girls and drug and alcohol use
among the boys.
Boys and girls who mature late are likely to feel uncomfortable about the delay.
They usually feel anxious about lagging behind and this may lead them to feel out of
step with their classmates and even affect their manhood as adults.
Parent-Child Relationship
As the adolescent acquires new powers in reasoning, problems begin to arise with
the parents. A new relationship emerges which may be described as a kind of push
and pull. That is, the adolescent desires to push away the parent so that he or she can
make independent decisions. The parent on the other hand, desires to hold onto the
adolescent and offer protection. The source of conflict could arise due to the following
reasons:
• grooming
• studying,
• choice of friends
• difference in opinion.
• choice of career

How can these conflicts be resolved?
As a parent, you are likely to resolve these conflicts by:
• amicable dialogue.
• listening to each other.
• allowing one to express views freely.
• sharing experiences.
Parents need to appreciate that their children are adults after

they attain 18 years.
Sex and the Adolescent
It is during the adolescence period that interest in members of the opposite sex begins.
This is the time when girls and boys form intimate relationships with members of
the opposite sex, which may expose them to greater risks of contracting sexually
transmitted diseases including HIV and AIDS and teenage pregnancy.
Although adolescent girls may find themselves attractive to older males, they often
lack emotional maturity to deal with situations that may result. You should remember
that some girls aged 10 years are physically capable of having children but emotionally
and economically are not ready to maintain and support a family.
Emotionalmaturitydevelopsmoreslowlythanphysical maturityandmanyadolescents
experience difficulty in living up to the new demands made by the society.
What is the role of parents and teachers on adolescent sexuality
Parents and teachers need to combine forces so that they can assist adolescents to
deal with their sexuality. The traditional African society had an established system of
guiding and counselling youth on such matters. Furthermore, the rites of passage such
as circumcision ceremonies that were used to acknowledge the changed status of the
individual also served to educate the young on expectations of the society. However,
despite with the breakdown of traditional society, our youth still require guidance.
Parents and teachers are in the best position of providing it.

How can parents and teachers guide the adolescent?
Parents and teachers can succeed in their guidance role if they:

• Provide the youth with opportunities for positive use of leisure time.
• Train and encourage youth to be morally upright.
• Become good role models.
• Have open discussions with the youth on matters related to sex.
• Help the youth to develop self- control in matters related to sex.
• Teach children to respect their bodies so that they avoid viewing it
as a sex object.
• Solve conflicts amicably through dialogue.
An adolescent who feels unwanted, neglected or victimised

is likely to engage in all sorts of antisocial behaviours so as to
draw attention to himself/herself.
Influence of Religion
In Unit 3, you learnt that it is during adolescence that one is capable of reasoning
in abstract terms. Thus, an adolescent is capable of analysing own thoughts and
those of others. This helps the adolescent to interpret and monitor the social world.
An adolescent’s ability to reason abstractly also contributes to the development of
interest in religion and spiritual beliefs.
How does religion influence the adolescent?
Most religious groups discourage premarital sex. Adolescents who frequent religious
functions are constantly reminded of this issue. In turn, it influences their sexual
behaviour or conduct. It is in religion that the adolescence is reminded of the need to
be a good and responsible adult and they are discouraged from anti-social behaviours
such as violence, use of drugs and engaging in sex. In religion they are encouraged to
succeed in education and training, and the choice of careers they may make.
Challenges Faced by the Adolescent.
As a result of changes in physical, cognitive and social development, an adolescent

is faced by various challenges that include:
• Searching for identity

• Coping with peer pressure
• Drugs use and abuse
Let us examine each of the above factors.
Search for Identity
In Unit 3, you learnt about, identity Vs identity diffusion, as the fifth stage of the
psychosocial theory. This is a period of development during which the adolescent
has to choose among meaningful alternatives. To progress successfully an individual
requires to answer the following basic questions:
• Who am I?
• What is my goal in life?
• What is my place in the society?
Identity formation is a process that takes time. You should encourage adolescents to
attain meaningful academic and vocational goals so as to develop a sense of identity.
Those who fail to measure up to demands of acceptable social rules are likely to
develop a negative identity. Adolescents with negative identities are likely to be
rebellious. In most cases, they attempt to do the opposite of what parents and others
think is proper. Consequently they may engage in:
• anti-Social Activities such as excessive drinking and careless, unprotected

sex.
• delinquent behaviours such as stealing, truancy, vandalism and assault.
Coping with Peer Pressure
In section 2 of this Unit, you learnt about peers and peer group formation. It was also
mentioned that for one to be accepted in a peer group the individual must be ready
to abide by the standards set by the specific group. It is as a result of the need to
belong that adolescents find themselves agreeing to follow group decisions blindly
rather than individual decision. The idea of doing things so as to please members of
a peer group is what is known as peer pressure. In this respect, peer pressure among
adolescents may be observed in:

• Manner of dressing : Teenagers will normally go for the most
fashionable clothes of their time.
• Hairstyles: Their hair too has to reflect what is considered as

appealing by their peers.
• Use of language: Their desire to communicate privately makes

them to develop their own jargon, which cannot
be understood by parents. “Sheng language”
commonly used by youth in Nairobi is a case in
point.
• Use of drugs : In an effort to belong the youth will often engage

in experimenting with drugs and alcohol.
• Sexual conduct : Some youth are also pressurised to start boy – girl
relationships.
What are the problems associated with peer pressure and how
can we address them.
Some of them are drug abuse, delinquency, school drop out, immoral behaviours.
Theproblemsofdelinquency,schooldropout andimmoralbehaviourscanbeaddressed
by parents being more keen and interested in their children, listening to them, being
available to provide moral guidance and counselling. Parents and teachers should
teach children through examples by being good role models.
Let us now discuss drug use and abuse.
Drug Use and Abuse
The use of drugs in Kenya is a cause for concern to the government, parents, teach-
ers and members of the society in general. It is with this in mind that we will address
this issue in greater details.
Drug abuse is the overuse of substance that may cause harm to the human body
while drug use is the dependence of chemical substances by a person. Overuse of
these substances may lead to addiction.

Is drug abuse a problem in Kenya?
Drug abuse is currently a serious problem in Kenya with many youths and school
going children indulging in drugs.
Refer to Module 18: Introduction to Contemporary issues

in Education.
The problem of drug abuse does exist in both primary and secondary schools. This
implies that teachers and parents must be on the look out if this vice is to be minimised
from the community.
Doctors normally prescribe drugs to relieve one from pain or for prevention and
cure of body ailments. However, when drugs are taken for non- medical reasons we
talk of drug abuse. Apart from prescribed drugs, there are other types of drugs taken
for pleasure some of which have the effect of altering one’s mood and psychological
mind set, hence affecting body functioning.
What are some of the drugs that are taken for

non-medical reasons.
Some of the drugs taken for non medical reason are:

• Alcohol.
• Cigarettes.
• Bhang (Cannabis Sativa.).
• Khat (Miraa).
• Nacotics
Some adolescents commonly abuse the above drugs. In order to come up with a
strategy for arresting this problem we need to first see why an adolescent is likely to
engage in drug taking.
Why do adolescence engage in drug taking?

Reasons for drug taking among adolescent vary from individual to individual, but
include some of the following:
• A desire to escape from reality

• Spirit of adventure
• Identification with peers
• Lack of useful leisure activities
• Rebelling against parental and school authorities
• Coping with frustrations from academic, family or social life.
• Poor role models.
As you are aware, youth who take drugs experience greater problems with adult
roles.
From your experience, what other factors may lead a

teenager to engage in drug use and abuse. Write down your
answers and discuss with a colleague.
Now that the factors that lead to the problem of drug abuse have been identified let
us discuss measures that parents and teachers may put in place to prevent the youth
from drug misuse and abuse.
What is the role of parents and teachers in the prevention of

drug misuse and abuse?
The saying, “prevention is better than cure” is very relevant in the context of drug
taking. Newspaper articles and medical personnel always stress that it is extremely
difficult to get a drug addict to stop the habit. It is important therefore that parents and
teachers take preventive measures so that children and youth do not acquire the habit
in the first place.
What can teachers and parents do to prevent drug taking

by children and youth?
Parents and teachers can:

• Train and encourage adolescents to be assertive so as to avoid peer
influence/pressure.
• Treat each adolescent as a person with unique needs.
• Provide relevant information on dangers of drug and drug abuse.
• Be good role models.
• Provide opportunities for spending leisure time constructively
Let us look at how parents and teachers can determine that one is mature
Early Adulthood
The word mature in the Greek language means, “to ripen”. In the context of ado-
lescent development, we are interested in assessing whether they are of age. If you
recall the psychosocial theory studied in Unit 3, maturity continues up to adulthood.
It does not come in all areas of development at the same time, for example in height,
sexual reproduction and leadership ability. Consequently, everyone shows some
kind of maturity in some areas at certain times. Therefore, there is need to show
understanding regarding the adolescents road to maturity. Maturity can be inferred
from ones behaviour through assessing how one performs a certain developmental
task.
Which are these developmental tasks?
Some of the developmental tasks include:
• Learning to control ones emotions – an individual should be able to express

emotions without hurting oneself or others. Emotions like fear, anger,
frustration and anxiety should be controlled as they can be destructive.
• All-childhood behaviour must be dropped – an individual should be able
to disagree on an issue without resorting to a display of temper tantrums
or physical fights.
• Mastery of skills that involve learning and communication – one should
be able to express views orally, in written form or through calculations.
Other tasks include: remembering what has been taught and being able to
use knowledge acquired to reason out.Thinking in the long term needs
rather than immediate needs. For example, if your long-term goal is to pass an
examination, you learn to control impulses of watching movies or attending a
football match.
• Acquiring a sense of identity – as you learnt in the previous section, this is
strengthened when one succeeds in academic and vocational goals.
A mature individual thinks sensibly, performs tasks

with confidence and efficiency and relates well with others.

Summary
In this Unit, you learnt the roles of parents and siblings, teachers and peers, culture
and community, and the media in growth and development of a child. Parents can
influence the developing child in the way they study, choice of friends, decision
making and choice of career. The siblings too can influence the developing child in
forming good self esteem and confidence in life.
Teachers who spend most the time with the developing child plays a big role in shaping
the lives of the child. Their attitudes towards the child can influence a confident and
assertive person in life positively or negatively.
Media is a powerful tool in the life of the developing child and it can impact positively
or negatively on the adolescent it may make the adolescent loose interest in the
academics and other related school activities.
Culture is comprised of beliefs and practices. Culture determines the gender roles and
also influences the development of the child rearing practices.
It was stressed that as agents of socialisation, the above have potential to build or
destroy a child’s life. You also learnt the strategies that can be employed by parents
and others in the community to assist in positive development of children. Some
of the strategies is guiding the child towards positive activities and making sound
judgements on issues.
You also learnt about the adolescent in relation to physical, cognitive and social
changes. The challenges of adolescence period included drug misuse and abuse, sex
and the adolescent, and peer pressure were also discussed.
Finally, we examined the characteristics of a mature individual which are inferred

from ones behaviour. Emphasis was placed on performance in developmental tasks,
control of ones emotions, ability to communicate clearly, developing an identity and
setting long-term goals.
You have now come to the end of this unit. I hope you have enjoyed reading it and
that you will effectively use the knowledge gained.
You may now attempt the following self-test.

Self Test - Unit 4
1. Mention four ways in which parents can contribute to the development of

sex-roles in children? (4 marks)
2. Give 4 reasons to show why adolescents engage in drug use and abuse.
(4 marks)
3. What do you understand by the term, “peer pressure”? (2 marks)
4. Describe any 3 characteristics of parents that may negatively affect the

developing child. (6 marks)
5. Identify 4 methods that were used by the African traditional society to

assist their children’s socialisation process. (4 marks)
(Total 20 marks)
Score board
20 - 25 Very Good
16 - 19 Good

Learning Outcomes
1. I can now explain the influence of family, peers, and

the community on the developing child.
2. I can now describe the various changes that occur

during puberty in both sexes.
3. I can now describe the various challenges of

adolescence period.
If you have put a tick in Not Sure box, turn to the relevant section and study it again. If you are
Sure
Congratulations!
You have now come to the end of this Module. You can now proceed to Module 3.

Answers to Self Test-Unit 1
1. Definition of the following terms:
• Growth – This is an increase in the size of an individual for example, height,

weight or length. (2 marks )
• Development – Any age related change in body or behaviour of an individual.

(2 marks )
2. Stages of prenatal development:
• Germinal (1 mark )
• Embryonic (1 mark )
• Foetal (1 mark )
3. False – (Two Weeks)

(1mark )
4. Effect of the following on foetus:
• Prolonged labour – long labour may result in lack of oxygen for the foetus.
Consequently, brain damage may occur.
(2 marks )
• X- ray – if foetus is exposed to radiation during X – ray process, it’s

central nervous system may be damaged. Resulting in poor
physical growth and underdeveloped brain. (2 marks )
5. False - she should feed on a balanced diet (1 mark )
6. Neonatal reflexes: (Any of the following)

• Babinski (1 mark )
• Moro (1 mark)
• Rooting (1 mark)
• Sucking (1 mark)
7. To protect children from early childhood diseases
(2 marks)

8. Any two
• Poliomyletis
• Diptheria
• Tuberculosis
• Whooping cough
• Measles (2 marks for any two)
9. Four factors that may interfere with child’s growth and development during
postnatal period: (Any four of the following).
• Postnatal anoxia.
• Malnutrition
• Diseases
• Contact with chemicals
• Head injuries
(1 mark each for any four)
10. Any two
}
• Rh Disease
• Phenlyketonuria
• Down’s syndrome
(2 marks )
(Any other relevant conditions)

1. Factors that can affect physical growth:
• Nutrition
• Heredity
• Diseases
• Home environment
• Economic cirumstances (1 mark each)
2. Motor development enhancement:
• Early stimulation
• An enriched environment (1 mark each)
3. Educational implications of cognitive theory:

• Curriculum to have simple to complex approach
• Teachers to encourage children to manipulate objects and environment
• Children to be encouraged to play
• Self-discovery method of teaching
• Child centred approach in teaching
• Children to be provided with concrete teaching aids
• Involve children in tasks that will enhance classification and seriation
(2 marks each)
4. Enhancing acquisition of first and second language:
• Avoiding over criticisms
• Providing enough practice
• Providing enough reading materials
• Providing opportunities
• To listen and speak
(Any other relevant answer - 1 mark each)


5. Problems likely to be exhibited by children with motor problems:
• Poor balance.
• Poor posture
• Body deformity
• Poor head/neck control.
• Stiff or weak muscles.
(1 mark each)
6. Four contributors to individual differences
• Heredity
• Maturation
• Age
• Early Stimulation
• Socialisation Practice
(Any Four 1 mark each)

1. The five psychosocial stages :

• Trust Vs Mistrust
• Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt
• Initiative Vs Guilt
• Industry Vs Inferiority
• Identity Vs Identity Diffusion
(1 Mark each)
2. The three principles:
• Id operates on the pleasure principle seeking immediate gratification
• Ego operates on the reality principle
• uperego operate on ideal/conscience principle and acts as the judge
(2 marks each)
3. Piaget’s stages of moral development:
• Morality of realism
• Morality of co-operation
(1 mark each)
4. (i) Levels of moral development:
• Pre-conventional
• Conventional
• Post-conventional
(1 mark each)
(ii) Stages of moral development
• Obedience and punishment
• Individualism, instrumentalism
• Good boy/good girl
• Law and order
• Social contract
• Principled conscience
(1 mark each)
5. Parents and teachers can guide children:
• By setting good examples
• By teaching them
• By providing opportunities where children can discuss moral issues
• Exposing children to positive materials
(Any other relevant answer – 1 mark each)

Answers to Self Test- Unit 4
1. How parents can contribute to sex – role:

• Buy certain toys for specific sexes.
• Encourage girls to plait hair
• Encourage certain play activities among the sexes.
• Discourage boys from crying.
• Cuddle girls more than boys.
• Provide role models for acceptable behaviour. (1 mark each)
2. Reasons why adolescents engage in drug use and abuse:

• A desire to escape from reality.
• Spirit of adventure.
• Identification with peers.
• Lack of useful leisure activities.
• Rebelling against parental and school authorities.
• Poor role models. (I mark each)
3. Peer pressure – when an individual conforms to what the age mates would like
him/her to be or do. (2 marks)
4. Characteristics of parents that may negatively affect the developing child:

• Parents who neglect children.
• Parents who abuse children.
• Permissive parents.
• Parents in a relationship that lacks harmony.
• Parents who enforce rules rigidly.
(2 marks each for any two)
5. Methods used by traditional African society to develop child’s socialisation

process:
• Story telling sessions.
• Rituals /ceremonies.
• Responsibility training.
• Peer modelling.
• Use of proverbs.
• Direct teaching. (1 mark each for any four)

Glossary
Autonomy: A feeling of self - control and self - determination.
Babbling: A repetition of consonant - vowel combinations made by babies at six

months of age.
Child development: A field of study devoted to understanding all aspects of human

growth from conception through adolescence.
Classification: Grouping objects into distinct categories on the basis of shared

characteristics e.g. shape.
Communication: All ways that we convey our feelings, reactions and objections
to other people.
Creativity: Ability to produce new forms of art or mechanics or to solve problems

in a novel method.
Development: Any age related change in body or behaviour from conception to

death.
Drug: Any substance that has potential to alter ones mood.
Fallopian tube: Tube through which ova passes from the ovary to the uterus
Foetus: A term that is used to describe a baby during the prenatal stage and
particulary during the second and third trimester (4 – 9 months).
Identity: In the psychosocial theory it refers to a sense of self that develops during
adolescence.
Interaction : Attention towards each other. Working together, communication

Libido: Psychosexual energy
Maturation : A genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.
Prosocial behaviour: Actions that benefit another person without any expected
reward for oneself.
Reversibility: The ability to mentally reverse an action. For example going through
a series of steps in a problem and the reverse direction, and return to
the starting point.
Seriation: The ability to arrange items along a quantitative or progression

dimension such as length or weight or sequence of activities.
Socialisation: The process through which an individual acquires appropriate

values, attitudes behaviours and roles in a given community.
Stereotype: A means of categorising people on the basis of assumptions made

about the behaviours of the group to which they belong.
Teenager: A person who is between 13 and 19 years of age.
Theory: An orderly explanation of behaviour observations.

References
Berk, E. L. (2001). Child Development. New Dehli: India. Prentice - Hall.
Brisbane, H. E. (1994). The Developing Child.New York: McGraw Hill inc.
Clarke – Stewant, Alison, Koch, Joanne Barbara (1983). Children:

Development Through Adolescence New York, John Wiley & Sons. Inc
Coon, Dennis, (1989). Introduction to Psychology. New York: West Publishing

Co.
Bukatko, D. & Daehler, M.W. (1998). Child Development: A thematic

Approach. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Dworetzky, J. P. (1981). Introduction to Child Development. New York: West

Publishing Co.
Farrant, J. S. (1999). Principles and Practice of Education. London: Longman

group.
Haith, M. M., Miller, S.A. & Vasta Ross. (1995). Child Psychology: The Modern
Science. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Hetherington, E. M., Parke, R. D. (1993). Child Psychology: A Contempory

Viewpoint. New York: Mcgraw Hill Inc.
IEDP, Primary Teacher Education Syllabus (Somaliland), 2004
Ingule, F.O., Rono, R. C. & Ndambuki, P.W.(1996). Introduction to Educational

Psychology. Nairobi: E A E P.
KISE & UNISE (2000). Distance Learning Programme, Module 1: Barriers to

learning and development. Kampala: Distance Education Department, UNISE.
Mundia, A. (1993). Modern Educational Psychology for Teachers Colleges.

Machakos, Kenya: Triton publishers.

Mwamwenda, T. S. (1989). Educational Psychology: An African Perspective.
Johannesburg: Butterworths.
Ndurumo, M. M. (1993). Exceptional Children: Developmental consequences

and Intervention. Nairobi: Longman Kenya Ltd.
Santrock, J.W. (1997). Child and adolescent development. Dubuque, Iowa:

Mcgrawhill Co.
Schickedanz, Judith A., Schickedancz, David I. and Forsyth, Peggy D (1982).

Toward Understanding Children Toronto, Little, Brown and
Company.
Spreen, OtFried. Risser Anthany J.; Edgell, Dorothy. (1995). Developmental

Neuropsycholo.g New York: Oxford University Press.


Id 002

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Id 002

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Id 002

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Open, Distance & Electronic Learning

Child Growth and Development.

Kenya Institute of Special Education

“To be a Regional Centre of Excellence

Eunice Millicent Keta is a trained teacher. She holds a Diploma in

Kenya Institute of Special Education

(Special Needs Education)

Child Growth and Development

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION i

Author : Margaret Githang’a

Editor : Stephen Mwaura

Reviewers : Ms. Eunice Millicent Keta

Publisher : Kenya Institute of Special Education

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION iii

Our gratitude also go to the following institutions whose members participated

iv Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Unit 1: Human Reproduction and Stages of Child

Unit 2: Theories of Child Growth and

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION v

Unit 3: Theories of Personality Development

Section 1: Psychosocial Development………………………….......................... 66

Section 2: Psychosexual Development ………………………........................... 72

Section 3: Moral Development………………………........................................ 77

Unit 4: Influence of Family and

Section 1: The Family…………………………………….................................... 86

Section 2: The Community……………………………….................................... 91

Section 3: The Adolescent ………………………………................................... 101

Summary ………………………………………….……..................................... 112

Self Test ………………………………………………….................................... 113

Learning outcomes ……………………………………….................................. 114

Answers to Self Tests ……………………………………................................... 115

References ………………………………………………..................................... 123

vi Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Please use the attached module evaluation form.

We look forward to your feedback.

Please send your comments to:

Deputy Academic Registrar

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION vii

Welcome to Module 2: Child Growth and Development. This Module covers

This Module aims at increasing your knowledge on important aspects of child

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• explain the human reproductive system;

• describe the various stages of development;

• recognise differences among children at different age levels;

• describe the influence of the family, community and adolescence on the

viii Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Unit 1: Human Reproduction and Stages of Growth and Development

Unit 2: Theories of Child Growth and Development and their

Unit 3: Theories of Personality Development and implications

Unit 4: Influence of Family, Community and Adolescence on the

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION ix

Enjoy your reading!

x Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Note this point

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION xi

xii Open, Distance and E-Learning (Module 2)

Human Reproduction and Stages of

KENYA INSTITUTE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION 1

Welcome to Unit 1, Human Reproduction and Stages of Growth and Development.