Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117

www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

Crustal evolution in the East African Orogen:

a neodymium isotopic perspective
Robert J. Stern
Department of Geosciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Box 830688, Richardson, TX 75083-0688, USA
Received 15 December 2000; accepted 30 October 2001

Abstract
The East African Orogen (EAO) is one of Earth’s great collision zones, where East and West Gondwana collided to form the
supercontinent ‘Greater Gondwana’ or ‘Pannotia’ at the end of Neoproterozoic time. There is now sufficient Nd isotopic data for
basement rocks of the EAO to yield a useful summary. A total of 449 samples were gleaned from the literature, recalculated to a
common value for the La Jolla Nd standard, and entered in Excel spreadsheets. This data set was filtered to exclude samples with
147
Sm/144 Nd > 0.165, considered to yield unreliable model ages, leaving 413 suitable data. The crust of the Arabian–Nubian Shield,
including Egypt east of the Nile, Sudan east of the Keraf suture, Sinai, Israel, Jordan, most of Arabia, Eritrea, and northern
Ethiopia yields overwhelmingly Neoproterozoic model ages. Crust to the east, in the Afif terrane of Arabia, Yemen, Somalia, and
Eastern Ethiopia yields much older model ages, averaging 2.1 Ga, demonstrating an abundance of reworked ancient crust. This
provides an isotopic link with Madagascar (mean age of 2.4 Ga), which in pre-Jurassic reconstructions lies on the southern extension
of this older, remobilized tract. Crust in the far southern extreme of the EAO in Tanzania also yields ancient model ages, averaging
2.3 Ga. The central EAO, in southern Ethiopia and Kenya, yields intermediate ages (mean 1.1–1.2 Ga), interpreted to indicate
extensive mixing between Neoproterozoic mantle-derived melts and ancient crust. The Nd isotope data indicate that the northern
EAO is composed of juvenile Neoproterozoic crust sandwiched between reworked older crust, whereas the EAO farther south is
progressively dominated by ancient crust reworked during Neoproterozoic time. The distribution of juvenile and reworked ancient
crust suggests that the most intense collision between East and West Gondwana occurred in the southern part of the EAO.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: East African Orogen; Nd isotopes; Neoproterozoic; Crustal evolution

1. Introduction Work in the EAO over the past quarter century has
leapfrogged from country to country, with major ad-
The East African Orogen (EAO) marks one of earth’s vances in understanding which began 25 years ago in the
greatest collision zones, a global feature in space (about north (Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Sudan). Efforts to
6000 km long where it is preserved in Africa and Ant- understand the EAO are returning to focus on the areas
arctica and in time (350 million years of evolution; where Holmes’ (Holmes, 1951) original study was con-
Stern, 1994; Jacobs et al., 1998; Kr€oner et al., 2000a,b). centrated, and results are now coming out of Ethiopia,
The EAO marks the disappearance of a major ocean Eritrea, Tanzania, and Madagascar. In addition, new
basin (the Mozambique Ocean), the formation of a insights are resulting from studies in the Egyptian
vast tract of juvenile Neoproterozoic continental crust basement, and new initiatives are expected from the
(Vervoort and Blichert-Toft, 1999), and where East and newly formed Saudi Geologic Survey. The geographic
West Gondwana joined (Rogers et al., 1995). The great separation of nations where EAO studies are now more
rifts of Africa, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean itself vigorously advancing stimulates healthy competition
were spawned along the EAO. The EAO is hemispheric and dialog. The hemispheric scale of the EAO challenge
in scale, and understanding a feature of this magnitude indicates that leading ‘Pan-African’ geologists will be
is a tremendous challenge. those who are most knowledgeable of the geology of
neighboring nations as well as their own.
In this spirit, the present review focuses on the
E-mail address: rjstern@utdallas.edu (R.J. Stern). growing body of Neodymium isotopic data for the EAO.

0899-5362/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 9 - 5 3 6 2 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 1 2 - X
110 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117

This is one of the most promising and rapidly evolving It has been observed that the isotopic composition of
fields of inquiry for understanding the entire EAO. Most the upper mantle as inferred from modern volcanic rocks
of this data has been presented in the six years since my derived from asthenospheric sources has been depleted in
previous review (Stern, 1994). The database has grown to LREE relative to the bulk earth for a long time and thus
the point where such a review would be useful and of has evolved strongly positive eNd . For example, mid-
interest to a broader scientific audience, including those ocean ridge basalts typically have eNd ¼ þ8 to þ12,
interested in the global problem of crustal evolution as whereas lavas erupted from juvenile island arcs average
well as how the EAO formed. This approach also has the about þ8.5. Oceanic within-plate basalts have a wide
advantage of presenting the EAO in its entirety. range of Nd isotopic compositions but the largest vol-
umes cluster about þ8. The formation of juvenile con-
tinental crust today is concentrated at island arcs, with a
2. Nd isotopic mapping and the identification of juvenile subordinate proportion being added from accreted oce-
and remobilized crust anic plateaus, and so has a eNd þ8. This is also thought
to be the origin of the juvenile terranes of the EAO.
Although the technique has existed for a quarter of a
century, it is useful to review some fundamentals of Nd
isotopic applications. More detailed presentations can 3. Compilation of neodymium isotopic data for the EAO
be found in DePaolo (1988) and Dickin (1995). Sa-
marium-147 undergoes alpha-decay to Neodymium-143, Data necessary to calculate Nd model ages were
with an accepted decay constant of 6:54
1012 year1 . compiled from the literature, dissertations, and a few
Neodymium isotopic data are reported relative to unpublished results. All data that could be found for
Neodymium-144, which is a stable isotope. Rocks or Precambrian basement rocks from Jordan, Israel, Ara-
minerals which have had high Sm/Nd (approximately bia, Yemen, Madagascar, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia,
proportional to 147 Sm/144 Nd) for long periods of time Kenya, and Tanzania were included (Fig. 1). Data for
will have higher, more radiogenic 143 Nd/144 Nd than Egypt are limited to outcrops east of the Nile, while
rocks or minerals with low Sm/Nd. The Sm/Nd ratio samples from Sudan are limited to those from east of the
varies inversely with enrichment of the light rare earth Keraf zone (Abdelsalam et al., 1998). Data for the
elements (LREE), so that LREE-enriched samples have crustal tract west of the Arabian–Nubian shield are
relatively low Sm/Nd. A sample with a chondritic REE specifically excluded from this compilation but are dis-
pattern corresponds to 147 Sm/144 Nd ¼ 0:1967 and 143 Nd/ cussed in a companion paper (Abdelsalam et al., 2002).
144 A total of 449 samples were entered into a spreadsheet
Nd ¼ 0:512638, values which are also taken to be
those of the bulk earth. database (Excel) 1, which include other information as
The REE are strongly fractionated during formation well, such as eNd ðtÞ and 147 Sm/144 Nd.
of juvenile crust, either directly upon melting of the Nd model ages––sometimes referred to as ‘crust for-
mantle to form mafic crust or by two stage melting or mation ages’––should be calculated assuming derivation
melting and fractionation to form felsic crust (Ben Oth- of juvenile crust from depleted, asthenospheric mantle.
man et al., 1984). This results in strong enrichment of The model age is the time when the initial 143 Nd/144 Nd of
LREE in the crust, which greatly slows the growth of the sample equalled that of its depleted mantle source
radiogenic Nd. It is a simple matter to calculate the Nd (Fig. 2). These model ages are also known as depleted
isotopic composition of an igneous rock whose age is mantle model ages, denoted TDM . Nd model age cal-
known. This initial isotopic composition can be com- culations thus depend on the model for the depleted
pared with the isotopic composition of the mantle at the mantle, and there are several of these published in the
same time, using the epsilon (eNd ) notation. The eNd of literature (see Dickin (1995) for a discussion). Important
a sample at the time of its formation––denoted eNd ðtÞ, models are those of DePaolo and co-workers (Nelson
where t is the age of the sample––is calculated by com- and DePaolo, 1984; DePaolo, 1988) and that of Gold-
paring the initial 143 Nd/144 Nd of the rock with the iso- stein et al. (1984). The DePaolo and Goldstein models
topic composition of a chondritic bulk earth at that time differ in that the Goldstein model is linear between
ðeNd ðtÞ ¼ ½143 Nd=144 Ndsample ðtÞ  143 Nd=144 NdBE ðtÞ
eNd þ10 today and eNd 0 at 4.6 Ga, whereas the
104 Þ. Nd ‘model ages’ can also be calculated to estimate DePaolo model is a quadratic expression (eNd ðtÞ ¼
when important fractionations of Sm and Nd due 0:25t2  3t þ 8:5). Using these different algorithms yields
to mantle melting occurred; these calculations are dis- different model ages, with the Goldstein model ages being
cussed further below. All the data that is needed to ob- 100–200 million years older than DePaolo model ages for
tain the eNd ðtÞ of a sample is the age of the rock, its Neoproterozoic rocks. Clearly, any compilation of Nd
contents of Sm and Nd, and its present Nd isotopic
composition; only the last two are needed to calculate a 1
Electronic copies of these spreadsheets can be obtained from the
Nd model age. author upon request (rjstern@utdallas.edu).
 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117 111

Fig. 2. Illustration of how Nd model ages are calculated. The depleted

mantle evolution curve is that of Nelson and DePaolo (1984). The
intersection of the sample evolution line (dashed) and the mantle
evolution line (solid) yields the model age. Two examples with different
147
Sm/144 Nd are shown to highlight uncertainties attendant the calcu-
lation of model ages for samples with high Sm/Nd. The sample with
lower 147 Sm/144 Nd intercepts the mantle evolution curve at a high
angle, so uncertainties in the real isotopic composition of the mantle
source translate into relatively small differences in model ages. The
sample with the high 147 Sm/144 Nd intercepts the mantle curve at a low
angle, so that uncertainties in the composition of the mantle source
translate into relatively large differences in model ages. In general, the
Fig. 1. Pre-Jurassic configuration of the EAO in Africa and sur- lower the 147 Sm/144 Nd, the more robust the model age.
rounding regions, modified from Abdelsalam and Stern (1996). Re-
gions referred to in text and data sets shown on corresponding figures:
Egypt (Eg, Fig. 3a); Sinai–Israel–Jordan (SIJ; Fig. 3b); Afif terrane, Standard (eNd ¼ 15:2) reported by Pier et al. (1989)
Arabia (Aa, Fig. 4); Rest of Arabian Shield (Ar, Fig. 4); Sudan (Su, which is then used to calculate a Bulk Earth 143 Nd/144 Nd
Fig. 5a); Eritrea and northern Ethiopia (En, Fig. 5b); Eastern Ethio-
appropriate for the sample. In a few cases, only values
pia, Somalia, and Yemen (ESY, Fig. 6); Southern Ethiopia (Es, Fig.
7a); Kenya (K, Fig. 7b); Madagascar (M, Fig. 8); Tanzania (T, Fig. 9). for the Merck standard are reported. For these, we take
Numbers in italics beneath each region letter are the mean Nd-model a value of La Jolla 143 Nd/144 Nd ¼ 0:511863 as equivalent
ages shown in Figs. 3–9. to 143 Nd/144 Nd ¼ 0:511735 for the Merck standard, by
adjusting the results of Wasserburg et al. (1981) to a
model ages must recalculate all data using the same value of 0.7219 for 146 Nd/144 Nd.
model. The DePaolo model is selected here, for two rea- Another important point in this compilation is that
sons. First, it assumes a more realistic eNd of the source of samples with high Sm/Nd give unreliable Nd model ages
arc and oceanic plateau basalts (þ8.5 vs. þ10), so that and should be excluded. Nd model ages are most robust
extrapolation back in time can also be expected to be when the 147 Sm/144 Nd is low, as discussed in the figure
more realistic. Second, a wide range of well-dated, non- caption of Fig. 2. At what Sm/Nd data should be ex-
ophiolitic rocks from the Arabian–Nubian Shield which cluded is difficult to decide; samples with 147 Sm/144 Nd >
are thought to be juvenile, plot within
1 epsilon unit of 0:165 have been excluded from this compilation re-
the DePaolo curve––that is, their crystallization ages are ported. A total of 415 samples pass this filter, or about
very close to their model ages, as expected for juvenile 90% of the data. Excluded samples mostly come from
rocks, whereas Goldstein model ages are 100–200 million the Arabian–Nubian Shield. Another two samples, from
years older than the crystallization ages of magmatic the southern EAO, gave unrealistic model ages and so
rocks thought to be juvenile additions to the crust. were also excluded, leaving a total of 413 samples on
Isotopic data should be adjusted to a common value which the compilation is based.
for the laboratory standard so that interlaboratory bias A final note: Nd model ages should never be confused
can be overcome. Most labs report values for the La with crystallization age as inferred from geochronology,
Jolla standard, and with this information we have ad- or for that matter the actual time that the crust separated
justed the value for the ‘chondritic uniform reservoir’ from the mantle. It is an estimate that should be taken
needed to calculate eNd , using values for the La Jolla Nd with caution, especially considering the uncertainties in
112 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117

Fig. 3. Histograms of Nd model ages for E. Egypt, Sinai, Israel, and Fig. 4. Histogram of Nd model ages for the Arabian Shield. Data
Jordan. (a) Egypt east of the Nile, excluding Sinai (Eg in Fig. 1). Data sources: (Bokhari and Kramers, 1981; Duyverman et al., 1982; Stacey
sources: (Furnes et al., 1996; Harris et al., 1984; Sultan et al., 1990; and Hedge, 1984; Agar et al., 1992). Mean ages for Afif terrane (Aa in
Stern et al., 1991; Landoll and Foland, 1994; Brueckner et al., 1995; Fig. 1) and the rest of the Shield (Ar in Fig. 1) are also shown. Bold
Zimmer et al., 1995; Moghazi, 1999). (b) Sinai–Israel–Jordan (SIJ in numbers are means for the population,
1 standard deviation. Range
Fig. 1). Data sources: (Brook et al., 1990; Beyth et al., 1994; Stein and of model ages for the population is also given. Numbers separated by
Goldstein, 1996; Moghazi et al., 1998; Jarrar et al., submitted for ‘/’ denote samples with 147 Sm/144 Nd < 0:165 used in calculating the
publication; Stern, unpublished data). Bold numbers are means for the mean and 1 standard deviation and the total number of samples.
population,
1 standard deviation. Range of model ages for the
population is also given. Numbers separated by ‘/’ denote samples with
147
Sm/144 Nd< 0.165 used in calculating the mean and 1 standard de-
the abundance of non-radiogenic initial Sr isotopic
viation and the total number of samples.
compositions. The juvenile nature of the crust is con-
what the composition of the mantle was at the time of firmed by the Nd model ages from this region, which
interest, which we know to be very heterogeneous. Fur- show a tight clustering of crust formation ages which are
thermore, the simplifying assumption of a single stage very close to the crystallization ages of the same rocks
extraction of the crust from the mantle is inconsistent (Figs. 3–5). Data for Egypt (Fig. 3a) and Sudan (Fig. 5b)
with multi-stage processes known to be important in cluster tightly about 750 million years, and convincingly
generating granitic rocks, which dominate the data set. demonstrate that these crusts are dominated by juvenile
Nevertheless, if the composition of the mantle is rea- additions from the mantle during Neoproterozoic time.
sonably well known and if the time between extraction Note that one sample from Egypt has a Nd model age of
of the primitive (mafic) crust and development of evolved almost 2.0 Ga; this is a metasediment from near the Nile
granitic melts is relatively short, the Nd model age data in southern Egypt, probably shed from pre-Neoprote-
set can provide useful insights into how the crust of a rozoic crust to the west. Crust in the northernmost EAO
region formed. Histograms of Nd model ages are shown (Sinai, Israel, and Jordan; Fig. 3b) yields a similarly
in Figs. 3–9 and form the basis for the following dis- tight but slightly older cluster of Nd model ages. The
cussion. significance of the slightly older Nd model ages of the
Sinai–Israel–Jordan basement compared to that of E.
Egypt and Sudan is not clear, but it is consistent with
4. Variations in neodymium model ages for the EAO earlier inferences of a major Neoproterozoic crustal
boundary approximating the present Gulf of Suez (Stern
It has been known for some time that the Arabian– and Manton, 1987). Regardless of these differences, the
Nubian Shield is made up of juvenile crust, mostly from crust of the E. Egypt–Sinai–Israel–Jordan region must
 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117 113

Fig. 6. Histogram of Nd model ages for E. Ethiopia, Somalia, and

Yemen (ESY in Fig. 1). Data sources: (Lenoir et al., 1994; Windley
et al., 1996; Whitehouse et al., 2001; Teklay et al., 1998). Bold numbers
are means for the population,
1 standard deviation. Range of model
ages for the population is also given. Numbers separated by ‘/’ denote
samples with 147 Sm/144 Nd < 0:165 used in calculating the mean and 1
Fig. 5. Histogram of Nd model ages for Sudan, Eritrea, and N. and S. standard deviation and the total number of samples.
Ethiopia. (a) Sudan, east of the Keraf suture (Su in Fig. 1). Data
sources: (Kr€oner et al., 1991; Stern and Dawoud, 1991; Stern and
Kr€ oner, 1993; Reischmann and Kr€ oner, 1994; Stern and Abdelsalam,
1998). Dashed vertical line marks the Neoproterozoic–Mesoprotero-
zoic boundary. (b) Eritrea and N. Ethiopia (En in Fig. 1). Data
sources: (Beyth et al., 1997; Teklay, 1997; Tadesse et al., 2000). Bold
numbers are means for the population,
1 standard deviation. Range
of model ages for the population is also given. Numbers separated by
‘/’ denote samples with 147 Sm/144 Nd < 0:165 used in calculating the
mean and 1 standard deviation and the total number of samples.

be regarded as juvenile additions to the crust from the

mantle in mid-Neoproterozoic time.
The Arabian Shield (Fig. 4) can be subdivided into
older crust of the Afif terrane and juvenile Neoprote-
rozoic crust of the rest of the Arabian Shield. The Nd-
model ages for the Afif terrane cluster around 2.1 Ga,
with no Archean model ages. This is consistent with
zircon geochronological results indicating that Paleo-
proterozoic basement (1.6–1.8 Ga) underlies the Afif
Terrane (Stacey and Hedge, 1984; Agar et al., 1992). The
rest of the Arabian Shield yields mostly Neoproterozoic
model ages but includes a few of Mesoproterozoic age.
The significance of these older ages is not known, and in
spite of this, the mean age of the Arabian Shield other Fig. 7. Histogram of Nd model ages for S. Ethiopia and Kenya. (a) S.
than the Afif terrane is 0.85 Ga, similar to adjacent ju- Ethiopia (Es in Fig. 1). Data sources: (Worku, 1996; Teklay et al.,
venile terranes in Jordan, E. Egypt, E. Sudan, Eritrea, 1998). (b) Kenya (K in Fig. 1). Data sources: (Harris et al., 1984; Key
et al., 1989). Bold numbers are means for the population,
1 standard
and N. Ethiopia (Figs. 3 and 5a,b).
deviation. Range of model ages for the population is also given.
The status of Nd isotopic data from Arabia warrants Numbers separated by ‘/’ denote samples with 147 Sm/144 Nd < 0:165
comment. In spite of the fact that applications of modern used in calculating the mean and 1 standard deviation and the total
isotopic techniques to the EAO began here, progress number of samples.
114 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117

conducted in the mid-1980s. Much of the Nd data

shown on Fig. 4 was obtained in order to better define
the extent of the pre-Neoproterozoic Afif terrane in the
eastern part of the Shield, so the spread of ages probably
underemphasizes the abundance of juvenile crust. There
is a need for a dedicated effort of Nd-isotopic mapping
in the Arabian Shield to identify the regions underlain
by pre-Neoproterozoic crust.
There has been a great increase in the Sm–Nd isoto-
pic database for the EAO in Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia,
and Yemen. All of the data plotted in Figs. 5 and 6 were
published in the last 10 years, and there are now over
170 basement samples from this region for which Nd
isotopic data has been reported. Samples from E. Sudan
define a tight cluster of Neoproterozoic model ages,
Fig. 8. Histogram of Nd model ages for Madagascar (M in Fig. 1). with a mean of 0.76 Ga (Fig. 5b). Eritrea and northern
Data sources: (Paquette et al., 1994; Tucker et al., 1999; Kr€
oner et al., Ethiopia define a similar tight cluster, with a mean of
2000a,b). Bold numbers are means for the population,
1 standard 0.87 Ga (Fig. 5b). This region is clearly underlain by
deviation. Range of model ages for the population is also given. All 28 juvenile Neoproterozoic crust and on this basis should
samples have 147 Sm/144 Nd < 0:165, but one sample (with 147 Sm/
144
Nd < 0:1648) gives an unrealistic Nd-model age of 4.38 Ga and so
be considered part of the Arabian–Nubian shield. There
27 are plotted and used for calculating the mean and 1 standard de- are no model ages from W. Ethiopia yet, but this is
viation. likely to change in the near future.
Samples from E. Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen give
mostly older ages, with a mean of 2.0 Ga (Fig. 6), similar
to the mean for the Afif terrane in Arabia and only
slightly younger than the means for Tanzania and
Madagascar. The distribution of these ages is similar
to the data for Tanzania and Madagascar in having
Archean and Paleoproterozoic peaks. Mesoproterozoic
ages can be found for a few xenocrystic zircons from
much younger igneous bodies from E. Ethiopia and
N.Somalia dated with evaporation techniques (Kr€ oner
and Sassi, 1996; Teklay, 1997), but these ages could
simply be strongly discordant Archean or Paleoprote-
rozoic zircons which have a non-zero lower intercept.
An ion-probe study for samples from Yemen found
mixed zircon populations of Neoproterozoic and Arch-
ean age (Whitehouse et al., 1998). Clearly, a major
crustal boundary exists in Ethiopia which separates ju-
venile crust in the north and west from reworked Pa-
leoproterozoic and Archean crust to the east. The nature
of this boundary will be difficult to delimit further be-
cause of the extensive cover of Tertiary basalts forming
the Ethiopian Plateau.
Sparse data from Southern Ethiopia show a cluster of
Fig. 9. Histogram of Nd model ages for Tanzania (T in Fig. 1). Data late Mesoproterozoic ages (1.13 Ga; Fig. 7b). This in-
sources: (Maboko, 1995; Maboko and Nakamura, 1996; M€ oller et al., dicates that the crust of S. Ethiopia contains a signifi-
1998; Maboko, 2000). Bold numbers are means for the population,
1
cant proportion of remobilized older crust, and differs in
standard deviation. Range of model ages for the population is also
given. 77 samples out of a total of 79 have 147 Sm/144 Nd < 0:165, but this regard from juvenile crust to the north. Zircon ages
one sample gives an unrealistic Nd-model age of 4.92 Ga and so 76 are for rocks from this region provide little evidence for the
plotted and used for calculating the mean and 1 standard deviation. presence of Mesoproterozoic crust (Worku, 1996; Tek-
lay et al., 1998). An ion-probe study found mixed zircon
since then has lagged to the point that there is a no- populations of Neoproterozoic and Archean age (Yib-
ticeable deficiency in data from this area compared to bas, 1999). Because there is no evidence for igneous or
other parts of the EAO. Most of the Nd isotopic work high-grade metamorphic activity in S. Ethiopia during
done on the juvenile parts of the Arabian Shield was Mesoproterozoic time, the abundance of such Nd model
 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117 115

ages is interpreted to reflect mixing of dominantly across the EAO. The region to the west of the Nile in
Neoproterozoic mantle-derived melts with pre-Meso- Egypt and to the west of the Keraf Suture in Sudan is
proterozoic crust. Certainly further geochronologic and known to contain pre-Neoproterozoic crust that was
isotopic work is needed to verify or refute this inference. reworked during the Neoproterozoic, and such crust
The Nd data set for Kenya is also scant, with only 7 can be traced southward towards the Congo and Tan-
Nd model ages (Fig. 7b). These are quite variable but zanian cratons (Sultan et al., 1990; Stern, 1994; Harms
are like those of southern Ethiopia in having a Meso- et al., 1994). Abdelsalam et al. (2002) argue that the
proterozoic mean Nd model age (1.21 Ga). At present enigmatic crustal tract west of the Nile should be re-
no zircon ages exist for basement rocks from Kenya, ferred to as the ‘Saharan Metacraton’. The Saharan
complicating interpretations of the Nd data, but it is Metacraton is flanked to the east by a vast region on
reasonable to tentatively adopt an interpretation similar both sides of the Red Sea, stretching in the north
to that for the basement of southern Ethiopia. Such an from Jordan and Israel to northern Ethiopia in the
interpretation is consistent with Rb–Sr whole rock ages south. The tight clustering of Neoproterozoic Nd model
for Kenya, which also show no evidence of Mesopro- ages demonstrates that this region is overwhelmingly
terozoic crust (Key et al., 1989). composed of crust that was extracted from depleted
Although Madagascar today lies southeast of Tan- mantle during Neoproterozoic time. Details of the ex-
zania, its position up to Jurassic time was much farther traction process remain to be elucidated, particularly
north, adjacent to Kenya (Fig. 1). Reconstructed, those which occured over timespans shorter than the
Madagascar lay south of the E. Ethiopia–Somalia–Ye- 100–200 Ma resolution of Nd-model ages. This in-
men region, where the basement is dominated by pre- cludes the important issue of whether granitic rocks are
Neoproterozoic crust that was remobilized during the result of fractionation of more mafic melts or ana-
Neoproterozoic time. The paleogeographic reconstruc- tectic melts of juvenile lower crust, mafic volcanics, or
tions are consistent with the isotopic data. The basement sediments.
of Madagascar yields mostly Paleoproterozoic and The region defined by Neoproterozoic Nd model ages
Archean Nd model ages, with a mean age of 2:40
0:54 approximates the traditional outlines of the Arabian–
Ga (Fig. 8). These old Nd model ages contrast with the Nubian Shield. There appear to be subtle variations
abundance of Neoproterozoic zircon ages obtained from within the region identified as juvenile crust, with Neo-
the basement of Madagascar. Combined Nd isotopic proterozoic ages >0.8 Ga characterizing Sinai, Israel,
and zircon age data suggest that Neoproterozoic igne- Jordan, Eritrea, northern Ethiopia and the juvenile part
ous rocks of Madagascar largely result from remelting of the Arabian Shield, whereas Neoproterozoic ages
Archean crust during Neoproterozoic time. 0.75 Ga characterize Egypt and Sudan. The signifi-
In contrast to the abundance of juvenile crust in the cance of these second-order variations is not understood
northern EAO, crust in the southern EAO is mostly re- but worthy of further investigation. It would be useful in
mobilized older material. This is clear from the data for particular to undertake regional Nd isotopic mapping in
Tanzania (Fig. 7), which yield a mean of 2.26 Ga but Arabia, especially to see if there is any correspondence
with a lot of variability (1 standard deviation ¼ 0:71 Ga). between well-defined terrane boundaries (Stoeser and
The Tanzanian data can be further subdivided into Camp, 1985) and Nd model ages. Nevertheless, the
three groups. Samples from the Tanzanian craton clus- correspondence of the traditional limits of the Arabian–
ter tightly around a mean Nd model age of 2:82
0:08 Nubian Shield with distribution of Neoproterozoic Nd
Ga. Gneisses and amphibolites from the EAO to the east model ages (using the DePaolo model) suggests a new
of the craton yield a younger but still Archean mean way to define the Arabian–Nubian Shield and to sub-
model age of 2.54 Ga, which is also variable (1 standard divide the EAO.
deviation ¼ 0:42 Ga). These rocks are mostly reworked An extensive tract of ancient crust defines the eastern
Archean igneous rocks or sediments derived almost en- flank of the EAO, from the Afif Terrane in south-central
tirely therefrom. Rocks from the Eastern Granulites are Arabia as far south as Tanzania and Madagascar. Along
the youngest and most variable, with a mean model age this stretch, mean model ages are commonly 2.1–2.4 Ga.
of 1:44
0:57 Ga. Because most of these rocks are Neo- It is not yet clear whether this indicates remobilized Pa-
proterozoic igneous rocks, this should also be interpreted leoproterozoic crust or mixing between Archean crust
as mostly due to mixing between juvenile Neoproterozoic and subordinate Neoproterozoic mantle-derived melts
melts and Archean crust and sediments. (Maboko and Nakamura, 1996; Maboko, 2000). In spite
of these uncertainties, it seems likely that the boundary
between the juvenile crust in the northern part of the
5. Discussion and conclusions EAO and the much older tract to the east marks the
western margin of East Gondwana. The pre-Jurassic
The data set reviewed above demonstrates striking position of Madagascar, on the eastern side of Kenya,
and systematic variations in Nd model ages along and and its isotopic similarity with crustal tracts on the
116 R.J. Stern / Journal of African Earth Sciences 34 (2002) 109–117

eastern flank of EAO juvenile crust, indicates that Mad- comagmatic-type sanukitoid monzodiorite and alkali granite
agascar was part of East Gondwana. magma. Lithos 31, 103–124.
Beyth, M., Stern, R.J., Matthews, A., 1997. Significance of high-grade
A final, very interesting point emerges from the Nd metasediments from the Neoproterozoic basement of Eritrea.
model age data set. That is the enigmatic nature of the Precambrian Research 86, 45–58.
crust in the transition between the juvenile crust in the Bokhari, F.Y., Kramers, J.D., 1981. Island arc character late
northern EAO and the Archean-Paleoproterozoic crust Precambrian age of volcanics at Wadi Shwas, Hijaz, Saudi Arabia;
in the southern EAO. This is the region of southern geochemical and Sr and Nd isotopic evidence. Earth Planetary
Science Letters 54, 409–422.
Ethiopia and Kenya, where a limited database is dom- Brook, M., Ibrahim, K., McCourt, W.J., 1990. New geochronological
inated by Mesoproterozoic model ages. This scarcity of data from the Arabian Shield area of southwest Jordan. Proceed-
data makes it difficult to evaluate with any confidence ings of the Jordanian Geological Conference 3, 361–394.
the possibility that the region may be dominated by Brueckner, H.K., Elhaddad, M.A., Hamelin, B., Hemming, S.,
Mesoproterozoic Nd model ages, and a related problem Kr€oner, A., Reisberg, L., Seyler, M., 1995. A Pan African origin
and uplift for the gneisses and peridotites of Zabargad Island, Red
is that there is very little zircon geochronological data to Sea: a Nd, Sr, Pb, Os isotope study. Journal Geophysical Research
constrain interpretations. B 100, 22, 283–22, 297.
DePaolo, D.J., 1988. Neodymium Isotope Geochemistry. New York,
Springer-Verlag (187p).
Note added in Proof Dickin, A.P., 1995. Radiogenic Isotope Geology. Cambridge, Cam-
bridge University Press (452p).
Duyverman, H.J., Harris, N.B.W., Hawkesworth, C.J., 1982. Crustal
Granitic rocks of apparent Cambro-Ordovician age accretion in the Pan African; Nd and Sr isotope evidence from the
(541–490 Ma) in the Central Eastern Desert of Egypt are Arabian Shield. Earth Planetary Science Letters 59, 315–326.
reported by Hassanen and Harraz (1996, Precambrian Furnes, H., El-Sayed, M.M., Khalil, S.O., Hassanen, M.A., 1996. Pan-
Research 80, 1–22) to yield Nd model ages of 0.97–1.7 African magmatism in the Wadi El-Imra district, Central Eastern
Desert, Egypt: geochemistry and tectonic environment. Journal
Ga. Although younger than the rocks of interest here, Geological Society London 153, 705–718.
this suggests that some pre-Neoproterozoic crust may be Goldstein, S.L., O’Nions, R.K., Keith, R., Hamilton, P.J., 1984. A
preserved in the northernmost EAO. Sm–Nd isotopic study of atmospheric dusts and particulates from
major river systems. Earth Planetary Science Letters 70, 221–
236.
Harms, U., Darbyshire, D.P.F., Denkler, T., Hengst, M., Schandelme-
Acknowledgements ier, H., 1994. Evolution of the Neoproterozoic Delgo suture zone
and crustal growth in northern Sudan: geochemical and radiogenic
The author wishes to thank the conveners of the 18th isotope constraints. Geologische Rundschau 83, 591–603.
Colloquium on African Geology, Eckhart Wallbrecher Harris, N.B.W., Hawkesworth, C.J., Ries, A.C.., 1984. Crustal
and Sospeter Muhongo, for inviting me to deliver this evolution in north-east and east Africa from model Nd ages.
Nature 309, 773–776.
keynote address. Thanks also to U.B. Andersson and Holmes, A., 1951. The sequence of Pre-Cambrian orogenic belts in
Andreas M€ oller for thoughtful reviews. I apologize for south and central Africa. International Geological Congress.
inadvertently overlooking any pertinent dataset and Jacobs, J., Fanning, C.M., Henjes-Kunst, F., Olesch, M., Paech, H.-J.,
encourage those who generate future Nd data in the 1998. Continuation of the Mozambique into East Antarctica:
EAO to send me a copy for inclusion in updated data- Grenville-age metamorphism and polyphase Pan-African high-
grade events in central Dronning Maud Land. Journal Geology
sets. This is UTD Geosciences contribution #955. 106, 385–406.
Jarrar, G.H., Manton, W.I., Stern, R.J., submitted for publication.
Late Neoproterozoic A-type granites in the Northernmost Ara-
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