KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

NAMAKKAL- TRICHY MAIN ROAD, THOTTIAM

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
EE 8401–ELECTRICAL MACHINES – II

HANDOUT

UNIT – I SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Principle

Synchronous generator worked based on the principle of Faradays law of

Electromagnetic induction.
Construction:

Stator:

 It is the stationary part of the machine built up of sheet-steel laminations.

 A three phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of the
alternator.
Rotor:

 The salient poles are made of thick steel laminations riveted to rotor by a dove tail joint.
 The pole faces are usually provided with slots for damper windings.
 These damper windings are useful in preventing hunting.
 The field coils are placed on the pole-pieces and connected in series.
 The ends of the field windings are connected to a d.c source through slip rings carrying
brushes and mounted on the shaft.
Diagram:

Operation :

Like the dc generator, a synchronous generator functions on the basis of Faraday's law, which state if the
current carrying conductor placed on a magnetic field which experiences the force .The rotor winding is
energized from the d.c. exciter and alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the three phase supply is
given to the stator, the stator or armature conductors experience the force due to electromagnetic induction. Then the rotor
starts to rotate. The speed of the motor is given by;

N = 120f / P

Where N = speed of rotor in r.p.m. ,

P = number of rotor poles.

Armature Windings

The stators (armatures) of most synchronous generators are wound with three distinct and independent
windings to generate three-phase power. Each winding is said to represent one phase of a three-phase
generator. The three windings are exactly alike in shape and form but are displaced from each other by
exactly 120o electrical in order to ensure that the induced emfs in these windings are exactly 120 o in time
phase.

Figure : A 4-pole cylindrical rotor.

The three-phase windings may be connected to form either a star (Y) or a delta () connection. If the
windings are internally connected to form a Y connection, the neutral point is also brought out so that it
can be properly grounded for safe operation.

The double-layer winding is often used to wind the armature of a synchronous generator. As you
may recall, a double-layer winding requires as many identical coils as there are slots in the stator. One
side of each coil is placed at the bottom half of a slot, and the other side of the same coil fills the top half
of another slot. In order to place the coils in this fashion, the coils must be pre-wound on the winding
forms and then inserted into the slots.

The number of coils per phase (or the number of slots per phase for a double-layer winding) must
be an integer. Since the coils must be distributed equally among the poles, the number of coils (slots) per
pole per phase must also be an integer. In other words, if S is the number of slots in the armature, P is the
number of poles, and q is the number of phases, then the number of coils per pole per phase is

S
n
Pq
where n must be an integer. The number of coils per pole per phase, n, is usually referred to as a phase
group or phase belt. When the stator of a three-phase, 4-pole synchronous generator has 24 slots, the
number of coils in each phase group is 2. There are 12 phase groups (poles x phases). All coils in a phase
group (2 in this case) are connected in series.

Each coil in a phase group can be wound as a full-pitch coil. In other words, each coil in the
armature can be made to span 180o electrical. Since the induced emfs in both sides of a full-pitch coil at
any time are exactly in phase, theoretical yearning mandates the placement of full-pitch coils from the
induced emf point of view. However, a full-pitch coil is rarely used. Instead, the generators are wound
with fractional-pitch coils for the following reasons:

1. A properly designed fractional-pitch coil reduces the distorting harmonics and produces a truer
sinusoidal waveform.

2. A fractional-pitch coil shortens the end connections of the windings and thereby not only saves copper
but also reduces the copper loss in the coil.

3. A shorter coil is easier to manage and reduces the end-turn build-up on both sides of the stator’s stack.
This slims down the overall length of the generator and minimizes the flux leakages.
4. The elimination of high-frequency harmonics also cuts down the magnetic losses in the generator.

The drawback of a fractional-pitch coil is that the induced emf in it is smaller than in a full-pitch
coil. The reason is that the total flux linking the fractional-pitch coil is smaller than that of the full-pitch
coil. The ration of the flux linking the fractional pitch coil to the flux that would link a full-pitch coil is
called the pitch factor. Later, we will develop an equation to determine the pitch factor. To illustrate the
placement of the phase windings in the slots of a synchronous generator, we make the following
assumptions:

(a) All coils are identical.

(b) Each coil is a fractional-pitch coil as long as a phase group contains more than one coil. All
the coils in a phase group are connected in series.

(c) Each phase group spans 180o electrical (one full pitch). Thus, the n coils in a phase group
must be placed in such a way that the beginning end of the first coil is under the beginning of
a pole and the finishing end of the nth coil is under the trailing end of the pole.

The electrical angle from the center of one slot to the center of an adjacent slot is known as the
slot span or slot pitch. The coil span or coil pitch, the number of slots spanned by each coil, can be
expressed in terms of either electrical degrees of the number of slots, as illustrated by the following
example.

Induced emf Equation

Let us assume that the total flux emanating per pole of a round rotor revolving at an angular velocity of s
is p. The maximum flux linking the fractional pitch coil is p kp where kp = sin (/2) is the pitch factor
and  is the coil span in electrical degrees. As the flux revolves, the flux linking the coil at any time t can
be expressed as

c   p k p cos t
where  = 2f is the angular frequency in rad/s.

For a coil with Nc turns, the induced emf in the coil, from Faraday’s law is

ec  N c k p   p sin t
The maximum value of the induced emf is

Em  N c k p  p
and its rms value is

1
Ec  Em  4.44 f N c k p  p
2

where the factor

2 has been approximated as 4.44

Since a phase group usually has more than one coil connected in series and each coil is displaced
by a slot pitch, the induced emf in the phase group,

E pg  nkd Ec  4.44 n N c k p kd f  p
where n is the number of coils in a phase group and kd is the distribution factor as given by Eq. (7.8). For
a given generator, the product kpkd is constant and is referred to as the winding factor. That is, the winding
factor, k, is

k  k p k d
The rms value of the induced emf in each phase group can be expressed in terms of the winding factor as

E pg  4.44 n N c k f  p
For a generator having P poles and a parallel paths, the induced emf per phase (phase voltage) is

P
Ea  4.44 n N c k f  p
a
The factor PnNc/a in the above equation represents the actual number of turns per phase connected in
series when there are a parallel paths. By taking into account the winding factor, k, we can define the
effective turns per phase as

Pn N c k
Nc 
a
Finally, we obtain an expression for the per-phase (no-load) voltage as

Ea  4.44 f N e  p
Note that Eq. (7.19) is very similar to the one obtained for a transformer. In the case of a transformer, the
effective number of turns is the same as the actual number of turns because each transformer winding
consists of one coil that embraces the total flux in the magnetic core. The winding factor for a
synchronous generator could also have been unity if (a) we used a full-pitch coil and (b) all the coils in a
phase group were placed in the same slots.

The Equivalent Circuit

During our discussion of dc generators, we discerned that the terminal voltage of a dc generator is smaller
than the generated voltage owing to (a) the voltage drop across its armature winding and (b) the decrease
in the armature flux caused by the armature reaction. However, the terminal voltage of an ac generator
depends upon the load and may be larger or smaller than the generated voltage. In fact, we aim to show
that the terminal voltage may actually be higher than the generated voltage when the power factor (pf) is
leading. For unity and lagging power factors, the terminal voltage is smaller than the generated voltage.

Armature Resistance Voltage Drop

~ ~
Let
Ea be the per-phase generated voltage of a synchronous generator and
I a the per-phase current
~
I R
supplied by it to the load. If Ra is the per-phase resistance of the armature winding, then a a is the
~ ~
voltage drop across it. The
I a R a I
voltage drop is in phase with the load current a . Since Ra also causes
a power loss in the generator, it is kept as small as possible, especially for large machines.

Armature Leakage-Reactance Voltage Drop

~
I
The current a in the armature winding produces a flux. A part of the flux, the so-called leakage flux,
links the armature winding only and gives rise to a leakage reactance Xa. The leakage reactance causes a
~ ~
voltage drop
jI a X a , which leads I a by 90o. The phasor diagrams depicting relationships between the
 ~ ~ ~
per-phase generated voltage
Ea , the per-phase terminal voltage Va , and the voltage drops I a Ra and
~
jI a X a for three types of loads are shown in Figure .
Armature Reaction

The flux

produced by the armature winding reacts with the flux set up by the poles on the rotor, causing the total
flux to change. Such an interaction between the two fluxes is known as the armature reaction. To
understand the effect of armature reaction on the terminal voltage of a synchronous generator, let us
examine a sequence of events when the generator delivers a load at a unity power factor.

Figure 7.12 (a) The per-phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator without armature reaction
while depicting the revolving field produced by the rotor. The phasor diagrams for a (b) lagging pf, (c)
unity pf, and (d) leading pf.

(a) If p is the flux per pole in the generator under no load, then the generated voltage Ea must
lag p by 90o, as shown in Figure 7.13.
~
(b) Since the power factor is unity, the phase current
Ia is in phase with the terminal phase
~
V
voltage a .
~
(c) s the phase current I a passes through the armature winding, its magnetomotive force (mmf)
~
produces a flux ar which is in phase with
I a . The effective flux e per pole in the generator
is the algebraic sum of the two fluxes; that is, e = p + ar, as shown in the figure.
Figure 7.13 Phasor diagram depicting the effect of armature reaction when the power factor is unity.
~ ~
(d) The flux ar, in turn, induces an emf
Ear in the armature winding.
Ear is called the
~
armature reaction emf. The armature reaction emf
Ear lags the flux ar by 90o. Hence the
~
effective generated voltage per-phase
Ee is the algebraic sum of the no-
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
(e) load voltage E a and the armature reaction emf Ear . That is, Ee  Ea  Ear .

(f) An equivalent circuit showing the armature reaction emf is given in Figure 7.14.
Figure 7.14 A per-phase equivalent circuit showing the induced emf in the armature winding due to the
armature reaction.
~ ~
V
(e) The per-phase terminal voltage a is obtained by subtracting the voltage drops
I a Ra and
~ ~
jI a X a from E e . In other words,
~ ~ ~
Ee  Va  I a ( Ra  j X a )

From the phasor diagram, it should be obvious that the armature reaction has reduced the effective flux
per pole when the power factor of the load is unity.

Also, the terminal voltage is smaller than the generated voltage.

Figure 7.15 The phasor diagram showing the effect of armature reaction when the power factor is lagging.

By following the above sequence of events, we can obtain the phasor diagrams for the lagging
(Figure 7.15) and the leading (Figure 7.16) power factors. From these figures it is evident that the
resultant flux is (smaller/larger) with armature reaction for the (lagging/leading) power factor than
~ ~
V
without it. In addition, the terminal voltage a is (higher/lower) than the generated voltage
Ea when the
power factor is (leading/ lagging). Since the flux per pole p is different for each of the three load
conditions, the field current If must be adjusted each time the load is changed.
~ ~
Since the armature reaction emf
Ear lags the current
Ia by 90o, we can also express it as
~ ~
Ear   jI a X m

where Xm, a constant of proportionality, is known as the magnetization reactance.

Figure 7.16 The phasor diagram showing the effect of armature reaction when the power factor of the
load is leading.

Both the magnetization reactance and the leakage reactance are present at the same time. It is
rather difficult to separate one reactance from the other. For this reason, the two reactances are combined
together and the sum
Xs  Xm  Xa
is called the synchronous reactance. The synchronous reactance is usually very large compared with the
resistance of the armature winding. We can now define the synchronous impedance on a per-phase basis
as

Zs  Ra  j X s
The Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Diagrams

The exact equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator on a per-phase basis embodying the synchronous
reactance is given in Figure 7.17. The per-phase terminal voltage is

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 
Va  Ea  I a ( Ra  j X s )  Ea  I a Zs
and the corresponding phasor diagrams for three types of loads are given in Figure 7.17.

Voltage Regulation

The voltage regulation of a synchronous generator is defined as the ratio of the change in the terminal
voltage from no load to full load to the full-load voltage. Since Ea is the no-load voltage and Va is the
terminal voltage at full load, the percent voltage regulation is

Ea  Va
VR%   100
Va
7. 9 Power Relationships

The rotor of a synchronous generator is connected to a prime mover which may, in fact, be a dc motor, a
steam turbine, a gas turbine, a diesel engine, or the like. If the prime mover exerts a torque Ts at the shaft
at an angular velocity of s, the mechanical power supplied to the rotor is Ts s. Consequently, the
mechanical power input to the generator is

Pinm  Ts  s
The dc power input to a wound rotor is Vf If , where Vf is the dc voltage across the field winding
and If is the dc current through it. Thus, the total power input is

Pin  Ts  s  V f I f
The losses in a synchronous generator consist of rotational loss (mechanical loss and magnetic
loss), the copper loss in the armature winding, the field-excitation loss in the field winding, and the stray-
load loss, if any. We subtract the rotational loss, the field-winding loss, and the stray-load loss from the
input power to obtain th power developed by the armature. By subtracting the cooper losses in the
armature from the developed power, we obtain the output power of a synchronous generator, as illustrated
by the power-flow diagram of Figure 7.18.

If Va is the per-phase load voltage, Ia is the per-phase load current, and  is the phase angle
between Va and Ia, the power output of a synchronous generator is

P0  3Va I a cos 
The copper loss in the armature winding is

Pcu  3 I a2 Ra
If Pr is the rotational loss of a synchronous generator and Pst is the stray-load loss, then the power input is

Pin  3Va I a cos   3I a2 Ra  Pr  Pst  V f I f

Since the rotor revolves at a constant speed, the rotational loss is constant. The field-winding loss is
constant. Assuming the stray-load loss to be a constant, we can group these losses together and treat them
as a constant loss. Thus, the constant loss is

Pc  Pr  Pst  V f I f
Since the copper loss in the armature depends upon the load current, it is considered a variable loss.

The efficiency of the generator is

3Va I a cos 

3Va I a cos   Pc  3I a2 Ra
From the above equation we obtain a condition for the maximum efficiency as

3I a2 Ra  Pc
Determination Of Voltage Regulation:
It is not usually possible or desirable to determine the voltage regulation by direct testing,
indirect methods being adopted which do not need the alternator loading. For this purpose OC and SC
tests are performed to give OC and SC characteristics. The various methods used for determination of
voltage regulation are given below:

1. Synchronous EMF or Impedance Method:

After determining Re and Xs from OC and SC tests the open circuit voltage can be determined
form the following relation

E0 = √(V cosØ + IRe)2 + (V sin Ø + IXs)2

And %age regulation = Eo - V /v X 100
For leading pf Ø is taken negative and for unity pf Ø is taken zero.
The synchronous impedance obtained by this method is always higher than actual value owing to the fact
that the synchronous impedance Zs at short-circuit condition is too large due to very low degree of
saturation. Hence this method is called the pessimistic method.

2. Amp-Turn or MMF Method:

From the OC and SC characteristics determined from OC and SC tests the field
currents If1 and If2 are determined to give rated voltage V on no-load (neglecting armature resistance drop)
and cause short-circuit current, equal to full load current, on short-circuit. If1 gives full load rated voltage
and If2 gives demagnetizing ampere-turns at full load.
This method of determination of synchronous impedance is known as optimistic method since it gives
values lower than actual values. The reason of it is that the excitation to overcome armature reaction is
determined on unsaturated part of the saturation curve.

Zero Power Factor or Potier Method:

For this method, open circuit characteristic and terminal voltage-excitation
characteristic at full load and zero pf are determined. This method is more accurate since it is based
on the separation of armature leakage reactance and armature reaction effects.

The A S A Modification of MMF Method:

This method, also known as AIEE method, gives reliable results for the
magnitude of open circuit voltage and regulation for both salient and non-salient pole machines.

Parallel Operation of Alternators:

In most power stations it is necessary to supply power from several small units
(alternators) than that from a large single unit. There are a number of good reasons for this practice. The
reasons for this practice are given below:

1. Local or regional load may exceed the rating of the largest alternator available.

2. High efficiency of operation-the machines are inefficient on part loads and shutting down of one or
more alternators allows the remaining machines supplying the load to operate on full load or near full
load.

3. Increased reliability – in case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by other
units.
4. Repair of units is more economical and convenient.
5. Small cost of standby unit.
6. Load growth can be handled by additional units without disturbing the original installation.

Conditions for Proper Synchronizing:

The process of connecting an alternator in parallel with another alternator or with
common bus-bars is called the synchronizing.
The following conditions must be fulfilled for proper synchronizing of alternators.

1. The terminal voltage of the incoming machine must be approximately equal to bus-bar voltage.
2. The frequency of the incoming machine must be equal to that bus-bars.
3. The phase of the incoming machine voltage must be the same as that of the bus-bar voltage relative to
the load i.e. the phase voltages of the incoming machine and the bus-bar should be in phase opposition.
This implies that there will be no circulating current between the windings of the alternators already in
operation (the bus-bars) and the incoming machine.

In the case of 3-phase alternators an additional requirement is that phase sequence of the
incoming machine voltages must be the same as that of the bus-bars.

The methods used for synchronization of 3-phase alternators are

1. Three dark lamp method.
2. Two bright lamp and
3. One dark lamp method synchroscope method. Synchroscope method is considered the best method.

Conditions Necessary For Parallel Operation of Alternators:

For successful parallel operation, reactances in the armatures are essential so
that in case of any disturbance in the parallel operation, the synchronizing power or torque may come in
operation to restore synchronism.
Part-A
1. Two reaction theory is applied only to salient pole machines. State the reason.(A/M-2018), (N/D-
2014, R-08)
2. What are the advantages of salient pole type construction used for synchronous machines? (A/M-
2018)
3. What is the necessity of chording in the armature winding of a synchronous machine?(N/D-2017)
4. Distinguish between transient and sub-transient reactance. (N/D-2017)
5. What do you mean by single layer and double layer winding?(A/M-2017)
6. Define voltage regulation. (A/M-2017), (A/M-2017, R-08 , (M/J-2016), (N/D-2015), (N/D-2013,
R-08)
7. Define synchronous impedance in alternator.(A/M-2017, R-08)
8. Distinguish between full-pitch coil and short-pitch coil.(N/D-2016)
9. What are the conditions of parallel operation of alternators? (N/D-2016), (M/J-2013, R-08)
10. Distinguish the use of salient pole and round rotor synchronous machines. (N/D-2016, R-08),
(A/M-2015, R-08)
11. Draw typical open circuit and short circuit characteristics of synchronous machine. (N/D-2016, R-
08), (A/M-2015, R-08)
12. How can you distinguish between the two types of large synchronous generator from their
appearance?(M/J-2016), (M/J-2014, R-08)
13. What is meant by armature reaction in alternator?(N/D-2015), (N/D-2015, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-
08), (N/D-2013, R-08)
14. What are all the various methods to determine the voltage regulation? (N/D-2015, R-08)
15. What are the essential elements for generating emf in alternators? (N/D-2014, R-08)
 16. What is meant by alternator on infinite bus-bars? (M/J-2014, R-08)
17. What are the types of synchronous machines with respect to its rotor construction? (M/J-2013, R-
08)
18. State the causes of voltage drop in an alternator when loaded. (N/D-2012, R-08)
19. Why is the field system of an alternator made as a rotor? (M/J-2012, R-08)
20. What is synchronizing power of an alternator? (M/J-2012, R-08)
Part – B
1. Explain the procedure for POTIER method to calculate voltage regulation of alternator.(13)
(A/M-2018), (A/M-2017), (M/J-2013, R-08)
2. Explain clearly the ZPF method of determining the regulation of an alternator? (10) (A/M-2017,
R-08), (M/J-2012, R-08)
3. Explain the Ampere-Turn method of finding voltage regulation of an alternator.(8) (N/D-2017)
4. List the methods used to predetermine the voltage regulation of synchronous machine and explain
the MMF method.(16) (N/D-2016), (N/D-2013, R-08)
5. Explain the EMF method of determining the regulation of an alternator. (8) (N/D-2012, R-08)
6. Describe the method of determining the voltage regulation of an alternator by synchronous
impedance method.(10) (N/D-2014, R-08)
7. Describe the principle and construction of slow speed operation generator with neat
diagram.(13) (A/M-2018)
8. Describe with neat sketches, the constructional details of a salient pole type alternator. (10)
(N/D-2016), (N/D-2012, R-08)
9. Derive the EMF equation of a 3-phase synchronous machine.(6) (N/D-2017)
10. Derive the emf equation of an alternator. (8) (N/D-2016) , (N/D-2015), (N/D-2012, R-08)
11. Develop the formula for the induced emf in an alternator.(6) (N/D-2014, R-08), (N/D-2013, R-
08)
12. Describe how the direct and quadrature-axis reactance of a salient pole synchronous machines
can be estimated by means of slip test.(7) (N/D-2017) (16) (M/J-2014, R-08)
13. Illustrate a method for determining the direct and quadrate axis reactance of a salient pole
synchronous generator. (6) (N/D-2016, R-08), (A/M-2015, R-08) , (M/J-2013, R-08)
14. Explain the phenomena of armature reaction in alternator for different load power factors. (8)
(A/M-2017, R-08), (N/D-2015),(M/J-2012, R-08),
15. Explain the concept of armature reaction and mention the methods to reduce this effect. (8)
(M/J-2016)
16. What is meant by Synchronizing? State the conditions for paralleling alternator with infinite bus
bars. (5) (N/D-2017)
17. Describe a method of synchronizing the three phase alternator to the infinite bus giving the
relevant circuit diagram. (8) (A/M-2017, R-08), (M/J-2012, R-08)
18. What is synchronizing power of an alternator? Derive an expression for the synchronizing power
between the two alternators connected in parallel. (8) (A/M-2017, R-08), (M/J-2012, R-08)
19. State and explain the conditions for parallel operation of Alternators. (8) (N/D-2012, R-08)
 20. Explain the EMF and MMF method of evaluating the synchronous reactance. (N/D-2016, R-
08),(A/M-2015, R-08)
21. Derive an expression for real and reactive power outputs of asynchronous generator.(10) (N/D-
2016, R-08), (A/M-2015, R-08)
22. Explain the two reaction theory of salient pole alternator. (16) (N/D-2015, R-08)
23. Describe the salient constructional features of ac generators driven by (1) diesel engines. (2)
Steam engines. (12) (N/D-2014, R-08)
Problems
1. A 30MVA, 15KV, 60Hz ac generator has a synchronous reactance of 1.2pu and a resistance of
0.02pu. Calculate
(1) The base voltage, base power and base impedance of the generator
(2) The actual value of the synchronous reactance,
(3) The actual winding resistance, per phase
(4) The total full-load copper losses. (8) (A/M-2017)
2. A 3 phase, Y-connected, 1000 KVA, 2000 V, 50Hz alternator gave the following open-circuit and
short circuit test readings:

Field current (A): 10 20 25 30 40 50

OCVoltage(KV): 800 1500 1760 2000 2350 2600
S.C armature current (A) - 200 250 300 - -

The armature effective resistnce per phase is 0.2Ω. Draw the characteristics curves and determine the full
load percentage regulation oat (i) 0.8 p.f lagging, (ii) 0.8 p.f leading by MMF method. (16) (A/M-2017) ,
(N/D-2015)

3. A 220 V, 50 Hz, 6-pole star connected alternator with ohmic resistance of 0.06 ohm per phase,
gave the following data for open circuit, short-circuit and full load zero-power-factor
characteristics. Find the percentage voltage regulation at full-load current of 40A at power-factor
of 0.8 lag by (1) emf method (2) mmf method and zpf method. Compare the results so obtained.
(N/D-2016, R-08), (A/M-2015, R-08)

Field current (A): 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

OC Voltage, Emf (V): 29.0 58.0 87.0 116 146 172
S.C current ISC (A): 6.6 13.2 20.0 26.5 32.4 40.0
ZPF terminal voltage(V) - - - - - 0
Field current (A): 1.40 1.80 220 2.60 3.00 3.40
OC voltage Emf (V) 194 232 261.5 284 300 310
SC current, ISC (A) 46.3 59.0 - - - -
APF terminal voltage (V) 29 88 140 177 208 230
 4. In a 50-KVA, Y-connected, 440-V, 3-phase, 50Hz alternator, the effective armature resistance is
0.25Ω / phase. The synchronous reactance is 3.2 Ω/phase and leakage reactance is 0.5 Ω/phase.
Determine the rated load at unity power factor : (a) Internal e.m.f Ea , (b) No-load e.m.f, E0, (c)
Percentage regulation on full load, (d) value of synchronous reactance which replaces armature
reaction. (8) (M/J-2016)
5. A 3-phase, 11kV star connected alternator delivers a current of 80A at
(i) 0.8 power factor leading,
(ii) Unity power factor and
(iii) 0.75 power factor lagging. Full load current of 80A is produced on short circuit by afield excitation of
2.8A. An EMF of 400V per phase is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. The armature
resistance is 0.7 ohm per phase. Determine the voltage regulation in each phase. (16) (N/D-2015, R-08)
6. A 3-phase star-connected salient pole synchronous generator is driven at a speed near
synchronous with the field circuit open, and the stator is supplied from a balanced 3-phase
supply. Voltmeter connected across the line gave minimum and maximum readings of 2800 volts
and 2820 volts. The line current fluctuated between 360 A and 275 A. Find the direct and
quadrature-axis reactance per phase. Neglect armature resistance. (4) (N/D-2014, R-08)
7. A 3-phase, star-connected, 1000KVA, 11,000V alternator has rated current if 52.5A. The ac
resistance of the winding per phase is 0.45 Ω. The test results are given below:
OC Test: field current = 12.5A, voltage between lines=422V.
SC Test: field current = 12.5, line current = 52.5 A
Determine the full load voltage regulation of the alternator
(i) 0.8 pf lagging and
(ii) 0.8 pf leading. (16) (M/J-2014, R-08)
8. A 3-phase 16 pole alternator has star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per
slot. The flux per pole is 0.04wb and is distributed sinusoidally. The speed is 375rpm. Find the
frequency, phase emf, and line emf. The coil span is 1200 electrical. (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
9. A 3.3kV alternator gave the following results:

Field current (A): 16 25 37.5 50 70

OC voltage (kV): 1.55 2.45 3.3 3.75 4.15

A field current of 18A is found to cause the full load current to flow through the winding during
short circuit test. Predetermine the full load voltage regulation at (1) .8 pf lag and (2) 0.8 pf lead
by MMF method. (8) (M/J-2013, R-08)
10. Two similar, 3 phase alternators work in parallel and deliver a total real power of 1800
kW at 11 kV and at 0.85 pf lagging to the load. Each alternator initially supplied half the
load power. the excitation of the first alternator is then increased such that its line current
becomes 60A lagging. Find the line current delivered by the second alternator. (8) (M/J-
2013, R-08)
 UNIT – II - SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

INTRODUCTION:

A synchronous machine is an ac rotating machine whose speed under steady state condition is
proportional to the frequency of the current in its armature. The magnetic field created by the armature
currents rotates at the same speed as that created by the field current on the rotor, which is rotating at the
synchronous speed, and a steady torque results.

Synchronous motors, especially those with permanent magnet rotors, are widely used for variable
speed drives. If the stator excitation of a permanent magnet motor is controlled by its rotor position such
o
that the stator field is always 90 (electrical) ahead of the rotor, the motor performance can be very close
to the conventional brushed dc motors, which is very much favored for variable speed drives. The rotor
position can be either detected by using rotor position sensors or deduced from the induced emf in the
stator windings. Since this type of motors do not need brushes, they are known as brushless dc motors.

Construction of Synchronous motors

Synchronous motors, in construction, are similar to synchronous generators. It requires two

sources of supply viz an ac source to supply the power for driving the armature and a dc source to excite
the field.The essential parts of a3-phase synchronous motor are (i) laminated stator core with 3-phase
armature winding 9ii) rotating field structure complete with damper winding and slip-rings (iii) brushes
and brush-holders and (iv0 two end shields to house the bearings that support the rotor shaft.
The stator core and windings of a synchronous motor are similar to those of an alternator. The
rotor of the synchronous motor usually has salient field poles connected to give alternate polarity. The
number of rotor field poles must be the same as that of stator field poles. A squirrel cage or damper
number of rotor field poles must be the same as that of stator field poles. A squirrel cage or damper
winding (armortissuer winding) is provided for making the motor self-starting and prevent its hunting.
Principle of Operation

When the stator windings of a 3-phase synchronous motor are supplied with rated 3-phase supply,
a rotating field of constant magnitude travelling at synchronous speed, given by the expression 120f/P is
developed. As the rotor is excited from dc supply, so the poles of the rotor retain the same polarity
throughout but the polarity of the stator poles changes as it is connected to an ac supply. As a result the
torque acting on the rotor is not unidirectional but pulsating one (the direction of instantaneous torque on
the rotor reverses every half cycle0 and due to inertia of rotor, it does not move in any direction. So
synchronous motor has got no self starting torque. But if onece the rotor starts rotating at synchronous
speed, which is possible by external means, the rotor poles get locked magnetically with stator poles and
the rotor also rotates at synchronous speed. Thus electrical power is converted into mechanical power.

EFFECT OF LOAD ON SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

At the instant of synchronizing the induced emf across the motor stator circuit (also called the
back or counter emf or excitation voltage), E is equal to the applied line voltage V but opposite in
direction, as shown in fig. 4.13 (a). Since V=E, hence the resultant voltage is zero and so is the armature
current. Motor intake is zero, as there is neither load nor losses to be met by it. Under these conditions
motor is said to be floating. After synchronizing the external means is removed and the motor tends to
slow down. There is no change in speed; there is merely a shift in relative positions of the two poles-the
rotor pole falls back a little relative to the stator pole. As a result the counter emf E falls back, say by an
angel and Re being the stator synchronous reactance and effective resistance respectively. Thus on no-
load motor draws power equal to VI0 cos Ø0 per phase from the supply mains which is sufficient to make
the motor running continuously at synchronous speed.
 Now when the motor is loaded, it slows down momentarily to adjust itself to the change in
loading conditions, so the rotor pole falls back a relative more to the stator pole resulting increase in load
or torque angle δ δ, the resultant voltage across the armature circuit increases, and, therefore, current
drawn from the supply mains increases, as illustrated in above fig. Thus a synchronous motor supplies
increased mechanical load, not by reduction in speed, but by shift in relative positions of the rotor and
stator rotating magnetic field. If too great mechanical load is applied to a synchronous motor, the rotor
will pull out of synchronism, after which it will come to stand-still. The maximum value of torque,
varying from 100% to 350% of full load torque depending upon the applications that a motor can develop
without losing synchronism is called the pull out torque.

Effects of Varying Excitation on Armature Current and Power Factor.

The change in field excitation neither affects the speed of the motor nor the output of the motor
but does affect power factor and consequently armature current for constant supply voltage and constant
input to the motor. When the excitation is weak, the stator takes a magnetizing current, lagging behind the
supply voltage by 90°, from 3-Ø ac supply mains to strengthen the weak dc field. The magnetizing
component of current being a large part of the total input current results in low lagging pf. With the
increase in excitation to 100%, the magnetizing current drawn from 3-Ø ac supply is reduced i.e. the
magnetizing component becomes a smaller part of the total input current and so the pf improves.
This causes reduction in armature current, I, drawn from 3-Ø ac supply main. If the excitation is
further increased such such that pf becomes unity, the stator drawns only energy or active current, and the
dc field circuit supplies all the current necessary to magnetize the rotor field. For unity pf, the armature
current drawn will be minimum. On increasing the excitation further, the rotor field becomes stronger
(over – strong) and the motor drawns demagnetizing (or leading) current to make the rotor field weaker.
This makes the power factor leading but lesser than unity and consequently the armature current is
increased. The effect of variation in field excitation on armature current and pf can also be explained as
below:
For 100% excitation, E=V; Armature current I Lags behind ER by a fixed angle θ given as θ = tan-
1
Xs/Re and lags behind v by an angle ØPower Factor Angle, θ is called the internal angle and δ is called
the load or torque angle.
 Fig. (a); (b)

For under-excitation E is lesser than V, ER is advanced clock-wise and so the armature current I, θ
being fixed. Thus power factor angle increases, power factor decreases and armature current increases,
the active component of armature current being fixed for constant supply voltage and constant load.

Fig. (c)

For over-excitation E is more the V, ER vector is pulled counter clock-wise and so the armature
current I. It may be noted that now motor draws a leading current. It may also happen that for certain
value of excitation, the armature current I is in phase V, the power factor unity and the armature current
drawn is minimum in magnitude as shown in fig. (d). With the further increase in field current the power
factor decreases and armature current increases.

Fig. (d)
POWER DEVELOPED OF SYNCRONOUS MOTOR

power developed per phase of a synchronous motor is given by the expression

Pmech = EV/Zs cos ( θ - δ ) - E2/Zs cos θ
Where E is excitation voltage or back emf, V is supply voltage, Zs is synchronous impedance, θ is the
internal angle and is equal to tan-1Xs/Rs and δ is the load or torque angle.
The power developed will be maximum where δ = θ and its value is given as
(Pmech)max = VE/Zs
The value of excitation or induced emf E to give maximum power developed possible is given as
E = V/2cosθ

And (Pmech)max = V2/4Re

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

(i) Synchronous motor operates only at one speed, known as synchronous speed. This speed is
independent of load and can be varied either by varying the supply frequency or by changing the number
of poles.

(ii) It has got no self starting torque and, therefore, before connecting it to ac supply it is to be run up to
the synchronous speed by some external means.

(iii) It can operate under a wide range of power factor both leading and lagging. Power factor can be
varied by varying the excitation.

SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS

A synchronous motor operated with over-excitation and supplying no mechanical load and used
exclusively for power factor correction is called the synchronous condenser or capacitor. As compared
with a synchronous motor with equal armature voltage and current rating a synchronous capacitor
requires more copper in the field winding to carry large field current. The synchronous capacitor does not
require so large shaft and bearings as the synchronous motor because no shaft torque is
required. Synchronous condensers are sometimes operated at power factors ranging from lagging through
unity to leading for voltage control. When operated in this manner a synchronous condenser is called the
synchronous reactor.
STARTING METHODS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Since the synchronous motor is inherently not self starting, therefore it is necessary to employ
some external means to start the motor and bring its speed near synchronous speed. Various methods of
starting are given below.

1. D C Source
The synchronous motor is coupled to a small dc compound motor, whose speed is
adjusted by a speed regulator. The synchronous motor is then excited and synchronized with as
supply mains. At the moment of synchronizing the synchronous motor is then excited and
synchronized with ac supply mains. At the moment of synchronizing the synchronous motor is
switched on with the ac mains, and either the dc motor is disconnected from the dc supply mains
or the field of the dc machine is strengthened until it begins to function as a generator.

2. By means of AC Motor
A small direct-coupled induction motor, called the pony motor, may be used for starting
the synchronous motor unless the motor is required to start against full-load torque. The induction
motor frequently has two poles less than the synchronous motor and so is capable of raising the
speed of the latter to synchronous speed. Before switching the ac supply to the synchronous
motor, it may be synchronized with the bus-bars. After normal operation is established, the pony
motor is sometimes un-coupled from the synchronous motor. This method is not very satisfactory
and not suited to industrial needs. Modern machines are usually of the self starting type and
arranged to start as inducting motors.

3. Self-starting
The synchronous motor is made self starting by providing a special winding on the rotor
poles, known as damper winding or squirrel cage winding. AC supply given to the stator
produces a rotating magnetic field which causes the rotor to rotate, therefore, in the beginning
synchronous motor provided with damper winding starts as a squirrel cage induction motor. The
exciter moves along the rotor. When the motor attains about 95%of synchronous speed, the rotor
winding is connected to exciter terminals and the rotor is magnetically locked by the rotating field
of the stator and the motor runs as a synchronous motor. While starting a synchronous motor, the
field winding must be shorted through a suitable resistance so that the induced voltage is
distributed throughout the whole winding and no part is subjected to the high voltage induced in
the entire winding.
Advantages of Synchronous Motors
1. These motors can be made to operate at leading power factor and thereby improve the pf of an
industrial plant from one that is normally lagging to one that is close to unity.

2. This motor operates at a constant speed, irrespective of load, from no-load to full load.
3. Electromagnetic power varies linearly with the applied voltage.
4. These motors can be constructed with wider air gapes than induction motors making them
mechanically better.
5. Efficiency of operation is usually high, especially in the low speed and unity power factor ranges.

Disadvantages of Synchronous Motors

1. These motors cannot be used for variable speed jobs as there is no possibility of speed adjustment
2. It requires external source for supplying dc excitation

3. It cannot be started under load, the starting torque being zero

4. It has a tendency to hunt.
5. It may fall out of synchronism and stop when over-loaded.
6. Collector rings and brushes are required.
7. For some applications these motors are not desirable as for driving shafts in small work-shops having
no power available for starting and in cases where frequent starting or strong starting torque is required.

Applications of Synchronous Motor

These are used

(i) As synchronous condensers in power houses and substations in parallel to the bus-bars for
improvement of power factor

(ii) As synchronous reactors for control of voltage at the end of the transmission lines by varying their
excitation
(iii) In factories having a large number of induction motors or other power apparatus operating at lagging
power factor, for power factor correction and
(iv) In rubber mills, textiles mills, cement factories, mining industries and other big industries for power
applications. These motors are most widely used to drive continuously operating and constant speed
equipment such as centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, ammonia and air compressors and motor-generator
sets.
Part-A

1. How does a change of excitation affect its power factor? (A/M-2018)

2. A 3-phase synchronous motor driving a constant load torque draws power from infinite bus at leading
power factor. How power angle and power factor will change if the excitation is increased? (N/D-
2017)
3. What is the role of damper winding in synchronous motor? (N/D-2017), (N/D-2016)
4. What are V-curves? (A/M-2017), (M/J-2013, R-08)
5. What is synchronous condenser? (A/M-2017), (N/D-2014, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-08)
6. What about slip in synchronous motor? (A/M-2017, R-08)
7. List the starting methods of synchronous motor. (A/M-2017, R-08), (N/D-2015, R-08), (M/J-2014, R-
08), (M/J-2013, R-08)
8. What is meant by hunting? (N/D-2016), (N/D-2016, R-08), (N/D-2013, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-08), (M/J-
2012, R-08)
9. What are the causes of hunting? (N/D-2015)
10. What are the uses of damper winding in synchronous motor? (N/D-2016, R-08), (N/D-2013, R-08)
11. List the inherent disadvantages of synchronous motor. (M/J-2016)
12. How can we change the operating speed of synchronous motor? (M/J-2016)
13. When is synchronous motor is said to receive 100% excitation? (N/D-2015)
14. What are the applications of synchronous motor? (N/D-2015, R-08)
15. Draw the typical torque angle characteristics of synchronous machine. (A/M-2015, R-08)
16. Why can’t the synchronous motors self start? Explain. (A/M-2015, R-08)
17. What could be the reasons if a 3-phase synchronous motor fails to start? (N/D-2014, R-08)
18. Name any two important characteristics of a 3 phase synchronous motor not found in 3 phase
induction motor. (M/J-2014, R-08)
19. Why a synchronous motor is a constant speed motor? (M/J-2012, R-08)

Part – B
24. Explain the working of synchronous motor with different excitations.(13) (A/M-2018)
25. Describe the principle of operation of synchronous motor.(5) (N/D-2017)
26. What are the methods of starting a synchronous motor? Explain any one of them with a circuit
diagram.(8) (N/D-2017)
27. Describe the various methods of starting the synchronous motor. (16) (A/M-2017, R-08), (16) (N/D-
2016), (8) (M/J-2016), (6) (N/D-2015, R-08), (10) (N/D-2014, R-08), (16) (N/D-2012, R-08)
28. What are ‘constant excitation circles and constant power circle’ for a synchronous motor? How are
they derived?(8) (N/D-2017)
29. Explain how synchronous motor can be used as a synchronous condenser. Draw the phasor diagram.
.(5) (N/D-2017), (8) (M/J-2012, R-08)
30. Explain V-curve and inverted V curve. (8) (A/M-2017), (8) (N/D-2016, R-08), (M/J-2016), (N/D-
2015), (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
31. Discuss in detail how V curves is obtained for a synchronous motor. (6) (A/M-2017, R-08), (6) (N/D-
2014, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-08)
32. Draw the V and inverted V-curves and explain the effect of excitation on armature current and power
factor of synchronous motor. (16) (N/D-2016)
33. Derive the expression for power delivered by a synchronous motor in terms of load angle (α). (8)
(A/M-2017), (8) (N/D-2015)
34. Derive the expression for power developed in a synchronous motor. Also find the condition for
maximum power developed. (8) (M/J-2013, R-08)
35. Describe in detail about the effect of load change on load angle and power factor of a three phase
synchronous motor operating on infinite bus bar and constant excitation. (10) (A/M-2017, R-08) (N/D-
2012, R-08)
36. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor synchronous
motor operating at different power factors. (8) (N/D-2016, R-08)
37. Enumerate in detail the effect of varying excitation on armature current and power factor of
synchronous motor. (8) (M/J-2016)
38. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a synchronous motor operating at lagging and leading power
factor. (8) (N/D-2015)
39. Draw the simplified equivalent circuit of synchronous motor and explain the effect of loading in
synchronous motor at various power factors with help of phasor diagrams. (16) (N/D-2015, R-08)
40. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor synchronous motor
operating at different power factors. (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
41. Illustrate through neat phasor diagram, the functioning of synchronous machine with varying
excitation under constant real power load. (16) (A/M-2015, R-08), (16) (M/J-2014, R-08)
42. Explain the effect of variable excitation of the behavior of the synchronous motor under constant load
conditions. (10). (N/D-2015, R-08), (10) (M/J-2012, R-08)
43. Illustrate the phenomenon of hunting and the use of damper winding with the help of dynamic
equations. (16) (A/M-2015, R-08)
44. What are constant excitation circles and constant power circle for a synchronous motor? How are
they derived?(10) (N/D-2014, R-08)
45. Draw and explain the current loci of synchronous motor for (i) constant power input and (ii) constant
excitation. Also obtain the minimum and maximum excitation for given mechanical power. (16) (M/J-
2013, R-08)
46. Why synchronous motors are not self starting? Explain. (6) (M/J-2012, R-08)
47. Derive an expression for the maximum torque developed per phase of a synchronous motor. (8)
(M/J-2012, R-08)

Problems

11. A 5kW, Three-phase Y-connected 50Hz, 440 V, cyclindrical rotor synchronous motor operates at
rated condition with 0.8 pf leading. The motor efficiency excluding field and stator losses is 95% and
Xs = 0.25Ω. Calculate: (i). Mechanical power developed, (ii). Armature current, (iii). Back emf, (iv).
Power angle, (v). Maximum or pull out torque of the motor. (13) (A/M-2018)
12. A 500 hp, 720 rpm synchronous motor connected to a 3980V, 3phase line generates an excitation
voltage E0 of 1790V (line to neutral) when the dc exciting current is 25A. The synchronous reactance
is 22Ω and the torque angle between E0 and E is 300, calculate
(1) The value of Ex
(2) The ac line current
(3) The power factor of the motor
(4) The approximate horsepower developed by the motor
(5) The approximate torque developed at the shaft. (8) (A/M-2017)
13. A 1000 KVA, 11000 V, 3-phase star-connected synchronous motor has an armature resistance and
reactance per phase of 3.5Ω and 40Ω respectively. Determine the induced emf and angular retardation
of the rotor when fully loaded at 0.8 p.f. lagging and 0.8 p.f. leading. (8) (A/M-2017), (8) (N/D-2015)
14. The synchronous reactance per phase of a 3-phase, star connected 6600 V synchronous motor is 20 Ω.
For a certain load the input is 900 kW at normal voltage and the induced line emf is 8500 V.
Determine the line current and power factor. (16) (N/D-2016, R-08), (16) (N/D-2013, R-08)
15. A 3300 V, delta connected motor has a synchronous reactance per phase of 18 Ω. It operates at a
leading power factor of 0.707 when drawing 800KW from the mains. Calculate its excitation emf. (8)
(M/J-2016)
16. A 3-phase, star-connected synchronous motor rated at 187 kVA, 2300V, 47A, 50Hz, 187.5rpm has an
effective resistance of 1.5Ω and synchronous reactance of 20Ω per phase. Determine the internal
power developed by the motor when it is operating at rated current and 0.8 power factor leading. (6)
(N/D-2014, R-08)
17. A 75 KW, 400V, 4-pole, 3-phase, star-connected synchronous motor has a resistance and synchronous
reactance per phase of 0.04 Ω and 0.4 Ω respectively. Compute for full load 0.8 pf lead the open-
circuit emf per phase and gross mechanical power developed. Assume and efficiency of 92.5%. (16)
(M/J-2014, R-08)
18. A 6 pole, 3 phase, star connected synchronous motor has synchronous impedance of (0.5+j0.8)Ω per
phase. When operating on 2.2 kV, 50 Hz bus bars, its field current is such that the induced emf is 1.8
kV. Calculate the maximum torque that can be developed at this excitation condition. (8) (M/J-2013,
R-08)
 UNIT-III - THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Introduction

The polyphase induction motor is the most widely used ac motor due to its low cost, simple and
extremely rugged construction, high reliability, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, low
maintenance cost and simple starting arrangement. It differs from other types of electric motors in that
there is no electrical connection from the rotor winding to any source of supply. The necessary current
and voltage in the rotor circuit are produced by induction from the stator winding. This is the reason that
it is called the induction motor.
Construction

Stator:

 The stator is made up of a number of stampings with alternate slot and tooth.
 Each stampings is 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick.
 Number of stampings are stamped together to build the stator core.
 The slots house the three phase winding just like the three phase alternator. the three
phase winding is called stator winding.

Rotor: Squirriel cage rotor

 This is made up of a cylindrical laminated core with slots to carry the rotor conductors.
 The rotor conductors are heavy bars of copper or aluminium, short circuited at both ends
by end rings.
 Hence this rotor is also called a short circuited rotor.
 External resistance cannot be connected in the rotor circuit.
 Entire rotor resistance is very small.
Slip ring Rotor.

 In this type of rotor, rotor windings are similar to the stator winding.
 The rotor winding may be star or delta connected distributed winding, wound for as many
number of poles as the rotor.
 Variable external resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit,with the help of
brushless and slip ring arrangements.
 By varying the external resistance in the rotor circuit, the motor speed and torque can be
controlled.

Operating principle.

i. The three phase supply is given to the stator winding. Due to this, current flows
through the stator winding. This current is called stator current.
ii. It produces a rotating magnetic field in the space between stator and rotor.

iii. As a result of the rotating magnetic field cutting the rotor conductors, an emf is
induced in the rotor. Then the induced emf produces current.
iv. This current produces a rotor field (rotor mmf). The interaction of stator and rotor
fields develops torque.
 v. Then the rotor rotates in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field.
vi. The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called the slip
speed.

Frequency of Rotor Current or EMF. The frequency of both the rotor emf and rotor current depends
upon the rate of cutting flux by the rotor conductors i.e. on the relative speed between the stator revolving
magnetic field and rotor and is given by the expression.
F = Sf
Where S is the slip and f is the supply frequency.

Rotor EMF. When the rotor is at standstill, the motor is equivalent to a 3-phase transformer with
secondary short-circuited and so emf induced per phase in the rotor is given as
E2 = E1 X N2/N1

Where E1 is the applied voltage per phase to the stator winding and N1 and N2 are the number of turns per
phase on stator and rotor respectively.

While the motor is running with slip S,m the induced emf in the rotor will be S times the induced emf in
the rotor at standstill.
Rotor Current. If R2 and L2 are the resistance and inductance per phase of rotor and E2 is the induced
emf at standstill, then rotor current per phase at standstill
I2 = E2/Z2 = E2/√R22 + X22
While the motor is running with slip S, ten the rotor phase reactance and rotor phase emf will be SX 2 and
SE2 respectively and rotor current will be as
I2 = SE2/√R22 + S2 X22
And power factor, cos Ø2 = R2/√R22 + S2 X22

Rotor Torque. The torque of an induction motor being due to interaction of the rotor and stator fields
depends upon the strength of of those fields and phase relation between them and is given as
T = KSR2 E22 / R22 + S2 X22

At start S = 1 and, therefore, starting torque is given as

Tst = KR2 E22 / R22 +X22
The operating or running torque will be maximum when slip S = R2/X2 and is given by the expression
Tmax = KE2/2X2

Starting torque will be maximum when = R2/2X2

 Since the rotor resistance is not more than 1 or 2 per cent of its leakage reactance, otherwise
efficiency will be low hence to increase the starting torque, extra resistance must be added in the rotor
circuit at start and cut-out gradually as the motor speeds up. This is possible with wound rotor motors
only.

Torque-slip and Torque-speed Curves

For rotor torque it is obvious that
i. At synchronous speed slip S is zero and so the torque is zero.

ii. At speeds near synchronous speed, the slip is very small, the term SX 2 is very small in comparison to
R2 and the torque is approximately proportional to slip S.

iii. With the increase in slip, speed decreases, torque increases and reaches its maximum value when S =
R2/X2 . The maximum torque is also known as breakdown or pull-out torque.

iv. With the further increase in slip or decrease in speed due to increase in load beyond the point of
breakdown or pull-out the torque decreases causing slow-down of motor. The motor will eventually stop.

v. With higher slip R2 becomes negligible in comparison to SX2 and the torque varies as 1/s i.e. torque-
speed or torque-slip curves are rectangular hyberbola with the slip or speed beyond pull out or break-
down point. These curves are shown in fig (a) and (b) respectively.

Torque-Speed Curves Torque-Slip Curves

Fig. (a) Fig (b)

It is seen that although maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance R 2’ yet the exact location of
Tmax depends upon rotor resistance R2’. Greater the value of R2’ greater is the value of slip at which the
maximum torque occurs.
From expression above it is also obvious that
i. Starting torque varies asV2 i.e. starting torque is proportional to the square of supply voltage.
ii. While running, the torque varies as SV2 since S2 X22 can be neglected in comparison to R22
Tf/Tmax = 2as/a2 + s2
iii. Ratio of full load torque and maximum torque is given as Where a is the ratio of rotor resistance to
rotor standstill reactance.
iv. Ratio of starting torque and maximum torque is given as
TST/Tmax = 2a/a2 + 1
Power Stages in an Induction Motor

ROTOR OUTPUT
When an induction motor is operating normally, the slip is so small that the frequency of the
magnetic reversals in the rotor core is only of the order of one or two per sec, therefore iron losses
occurring the rotor are very small and can be neglected. Hence output of stator = input to rotor = output of
rotor + copper losses in rotor and rotor copper losses are given as

Rotor copper losses = S X input power to rotor

Rotor output = (1-S) Rotor input power
And slip S = Rotor copper losses / Rotor input power
Rotor efficiency, ηR = Rotor Output/ Rotor Input = N/Ns = 1 - S
SYNCHRONOUS WATT
It is new unit of torque and is defined as the torque which develops a power of 1 watt at the
synchronous speed of the motor. When we say that the motor is developing a torque of 100 synchronous
watts, we mean that the rotor input is 100 watts and that the torque is such that the power developed
would be 100 watts provided the rotor is running synchronously and developing the same torque.

Tsy = Rotor input in walts / 2π Ns

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor is essentially a transformer. In the transformer the load on the secondary is
electrical where as in case of induction motor the load is mechanical which can be replaced by an
equivalent electrical load of load resistance RL given by RL = R2/K2 (1/s - 1)where R2 is the rotor phase
resistance and K is the turn-ratio of rotor to stator. The simplified equivalent circuit of an induction motor
is shown in fig.
Maximum Power Output. The gross mechanical power developed will be maximum when the
equivalent load resistance RL is equal to the standstill leakage impedance (Z1) of the motor where
Z1 = √(R1 + R2/K2 )2 + ( X1 + X2K2)2
Maximum gross mechanical power developed is given as
Pgmax = 3V2 /2(R1' + Z1')
The slip corresponding to maximum gross mechanical power output is given as
S = R2 /k2 /(R2/R2 + Z1' )
Testing of Induction Motors.

(a) No –load Test. This test is performed to determine no-load current I0, no-load power factor cos Ø0,
windage and friction losses, no-load core loss, no-load input, and no-load resistance R0 and reactance
X0. This test is performed with different values of applied voltage below and above rated voltage while
the motor is running light (without load)

(b) Short-circuit or Blocked rotor Test. This test is performed to determine the short-circuit current Isc
with normal applied voltage to stator; power factor on short-circuit; total equivalent resistance and
reactance of the motor as referred to stator. This test is just equivalent to short-circuit test on a
transformer and in this test rotor is held firmly with rotor short-circuited at slip-rings in case of wound
rotor induction motor and the stator connected across supply of variable voltage.
SYNCHRONOUS – INDUCTION MOTORS

This is fundamentally a wound rotor induction motor. The rotor slots are fewer and larger. The air
gap is that of synchronous motor since the machine operates as a synchronous motor at normal
loads. These machines are provided with a heavy rotor winding in order to have a low slip, which
facilitates in pulling it into synchronism. Also in order that the induced emf in the field at starting may not
be too high, the field turns provided are few in number and the excitation voltage is kept low. Although
such machines have excellent characteristics but they are expensive and have lower efficiency than
standard types. Synchronous induction motors are used where a high starting torque is required. They can
be made to operate at any desired pf by varying its dc excitation.
Induction Generator
If a polyphase induction motor while connected to constant voltage and frequency mains is
mechanically coupled to a prime-mover and is driven by it at a speed higher than synchronous speed, the
machine will operate as a generator and deliver electrical energy to the mains instead of taking it from the
mains. The induction generator differs from a synchronous generator in some respects such as 9i) it does
not need dc excitation (ii) it only generates when its stator is connected to the mains of constant
frequency, its exciting current being the reactive (lagging), magnetizing current drawn from the mains
(iii) the frequency is independent of the speed of the generator and (iv)it does not require synchronization.

Induction generator is simple and rugged in construction, cheaper in cost, easy in maintenance,
does not hunt or drop out of synchronism and when short-circuited it delivers little or no sustained power,
because its excitation quickly becomes zero. Inspite of all these advantages it is little used as it cannot be
operated independently and it can deliver only leading current. It is very useful for braking purpose in
railway work.

Induction Voltage Regulator

Single phase induction voltage regulator is similar in construction to single phase induction motor
except that the rotor is not allowed to rotate continuously but can be turned through one pole pitch usually
by worm and pinion gearing from a hand wheel or pilot motor drive. The primary winding is usually
wound on the rotor and the secondary is wound on the stator. Both windings are usually two pole and
spread over approximately 120°. The primary winding is connected across the circuit to be regulated and
the secondary is connected in series with the circuit. To have a voltage regulation of 20% or +10%, the
induction voltage regulator of rating 10% of the kva rating of the circuit is required. Three phase
induction regulators are some-what similar to single phase induction regulators in constructional features,
there being one series (secondary) and one shunt (primary) winding for each phase placed on circular
cores as in the single phase induction regulators. Induction voltage regulators like transformers are
available in air-cooled or non-inflammable liquid cooled designs for indoor use. Oil cooled regulators are
ordinarily used outdoors.
PHASE ADVANCE
It is a particular type of ac exciter which may be connected in the rotor circuit of an induction
motor to improve the power factor. The principle used is that of injection through the slip rings of the
motor a current which is leading with regard to the rotor voltage. This current relieves the stator circuit of
the duty of magnetizing the machine and as leading current is supplied to the rotor at the low voltage
corresponding to the slip of the rotor, the kva capacity of the phase advancer need be only 5% or less of
kva correction affected in the main supply circuit. The full corrective kva could have to be provided if a
static or rotary capacitor were used in the supply circuit. The phase advancer is thus very advantageous
for use with large motors. In its simplest form it consists of a rotor built as a dc machine armature and
provided with commutator, and of a stator assembled of steel laminations and acting only as the magnetic
circuit for the flux of the phase advancer. Three brushes are arranged on the commutator, 120° apart.
CRAWLING
It is observed that induction motors, particularly the squirrel-cage type, some-times exhibits a
tendency to run stably at speeds as low as one-seventh of their synchronous speed. This phenomenon is
called the crawling.A-3 phase winding carrying sinusoidal currents produces harmonics of the order n =
6N + 1 where N is an integer (+ means with the rotation and – means against the rotation). The
synchronous speed of nth order of harmonic is 1/n th of the synchronous speed of the fundamental. For
N=1, a 3-phase winding produces a forward rotating 7th harmonic and backward rotating 5th harmonic.
Considering 7th harmonic, the interaction between the fictitious stator and rotor 7th harmonic poles will
produce a positive torque and if the torque is sufficiently pronounced it may prevent the motor speed to
exceed one-seventh of normal speed. Thus the motor crawls at about one-seventh the normal speed.
COGGLING

When the stator slots and rotor slots are equal in number, the speeds of all the harmonics
developed by the stator slots coincide with the speed of corresponding rotor harmonics. This harmonics of
every order try to exert synchronous torques at their synchronous speeds and so the machine fails to
start. This is known as cogging or magnetic locking.
Part-A

1. Explain why an induction motor, at no-load, operates at very low power factor. (A/M-2018)
2. What measure can be taken for minimizing the effect of crawling in a 3-phase induction motor? (N/D-
2017)
3. Draw the torque-slip characteristics of double-cage induction motor? (N/D-2017)
4. Why are the slots on the cage rotor of induction motor usually skewed? (A/M-2017), (M/J-2016),
(N/D-2015), (N/D-2015, R-08), (N/D-2013, R-08)
5. What is the advantages of skewing the rotor slots? (N/D-2016)
6. A 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor operates from a supply whose frequency is 50Hz. Calculate the
frequency of the rotor current at standstill and the speed at which the magnetic field of the stator is
rotating. (A/M-2017)
7. Specify the developed torque in an induction motor at synchronous speed. (A/M-2017, R-08)
8. State a method by which starting torque of the induction motor can be increased. (A/M-2017, R-08)
9. How can the direction of rotation of 3 phase induction motor be reversed? (N/D-2016), (N/D-2016, R-
08), (M/J-2012, R-08)
10. What is an induction generator? (N/D-2016, R-08), (M/J-2012, R-08)
11. Write down the conditions to get maximum torque under running condition. (M/J-2016), (N/D-2015),
(M/J-2013, R-08)
12. What is the difference between squirrel cage type rotor and phase wound rotor? (N/D-2015, R-08)
13. How much is the developed torque in an induction motor at synchronous speed? Explain. (A/M-2015,
R-08)
14. State a method by which starting torque of the induction motor can be increased. (A/M-2015, R-08)
15. Define ‘slip’ of an induction motor. (N/D-2014, R-08), (N/D-2013, R-08), (M/J-2013, R-08), (N/D-
2012, R-08)
16. What are the merits and demerits of double squirrel cage induction motors) (N/D-2014, R-08), (N/D-
2012, R-08)
17. How do change in supply voltage and frequency affect the performance of a 3 phase induction motor?
(M/J-2014, R-08)
 UNIT-IV - STARTING AND SPEED CONTROL OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

NEED FOR STARTERS

At the time of starting of induction motor speed is zero,so back emf is also zero,as back emf is
zero & rotor coil is sorted(in case of squirrel cage rotor),starting current is about 5 to 6 times higher then
the rated current. so because of this high voltage drop gets created in the supply line & equipment
connected to this line will experience this.So to

reduce the high current generally we use star delta starter. At the time of starting we use star connection
so the voltage got reduce then at the time of run we use delta connection.. starters also increase the
starting torque & improves the power factor.

Starter is used to reduce starting current. starting current is usually large because of
inertia,charecteristics of motor winding(at starting slip=1,rotor resistance low implies less back emf).So
at starting we use starter .for example. STAR DELTA starter.by using a starter at least the switching is
improved which is much important for safe and longer life time use.simply a DOL can be used for lower
rated motors (up to 07 HP)in this case.for higher rated motors (up to 15 HP)we can use a star delta
connection.a delta connected motor takes 1.7 times line current than a star connected motor.think ! at
starting the current is almost halved .Now a days we use drives (power electronics products which not
only takes care of starting of a motor (improving power factor) also controls it as per requirement.

TYPES OF STARTERS

Four types of starting methods are employed:

1. Star-Delta

2. Auto transformer method

3. Primary resistor starting.

4. Direct On-line.

Low rating upto 7 H.P motors can be started directly.

Traditional Electromechanical Starters.

A.C. Induction motors are traditionally started and stopped by applying and removing
the A.C. supply. In some cases, a full voltage start is acceptable, but in many situations, the start current
must be reduced, and so a reduced voltage starter is employed.

i) Direct On Line starter.

The simplest form of motor starter for the induction motor is the Direct OnLine starter. The DOL
starter comprises a switch and an overload protection relay. The switch may be a manually operated load
break switch or circuit breaker, but more commonly it would be an electromagnetic contactor which can
be opened by the thermal overload relay under fault conditions. Typically, the contactor will be controlled
by separate start and stop buttons, and an auxiliary contact on the contactor is used, across the start
button, as a hold in contact. i.e. the contactor is electrically latched closed while the motor is operating.

Operation

When TPST switch is closed, the under voltage relay coil is energized and it will operate the main
contactors to close.

Hence the full voltage is given to the motor and it runs. Closing of contactor A retains the supply
to the UVRC.

Contactor S2 is used to disconnect the supply from the motor by manually pressing it. Remote
operation of the same can be achieved with the help of contactor S3.

No voltage protection

When the supply voltage either fails totally or falls below certain value, the holding power given
by UVRC comes down causing the main contactor to be opened. Thus the motor is protected from low
voltage operation.

Over load protection

 When the line current exceeds the preset value, OLRC is energized more and causes the contactor
S4 to open. When S4 opens, the UVRC is disconnected from the supply. Therefore it will release the main
contactors.

ii) Auto transformer starter.

An Auto transformer starter uses an auto transformer to reduce the voltage applied to a motor
during start. The auto transformer may have a number of output taps and be set-up to provide a singl stage
starter, or a multistage starter. Typically, the auto transformer would have taps at 50%, 65% and 80%
voltage, enabling the motor to be started at one or more of these settings.
There are two ways of connecting an auto transformer starter, the most obvious way is to
apply full voltage to the transformer via a contractor, and connect the motor to the tap by means of a
contactor. When the motor has accelerated to full speed, or has run out of acceleration torque, the tap
contactor opens, disconnecting the motor from the transformer and another contactor closes connecting
the motor to the supply. The transformer can now be disconnected from the supply. This format is known
as an open transition starter and is less than ideal due to the fact that the motor is disconnected for a short
period of time during the start period.

No voltage protection

When the supply voltage either fails totally or falls below certain value, the holding power given
by UVRC comes down causing the main contactor to be opened. Thus the motor is protected from low
voltage operation.
Over load protection

When the line current exceeds the preset value, OLRC is energized more and causes the contactor
S4 to open. When S4 opens, the UVRC is disconnected from the supply. Therefore it will release the main
contactors.

(iii) star-delta starter.

 The figure shows a star delta starter. This method is used in motors which are meant to
run normally with a delta connected stator winding.
 It consists of a two way swich which connects the motor in star for starting and then in
delta for normal running.
 When the two way switch is at START position, the stator windings are connected in
star. Therefore the applied voltage is reduced by a factor of .

 Hence the starting current is reduced. When the motor speed reaches 70 to 80% of normal
value. The switch is changed to RUN position where the motor is connected in delta.
Therefore full voltage is applied to the motor in the running condition.
 This motor is mainly used for small and medium size motors.

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

The speed of an induction motor is given as N = 120f/P (1-S). So obviously the speed of an
induction motor can be controlled by varying any of three factors namely supply frequency f, number of
pole P or slip S.

Frequency Control.

Though this method provides wide speed-control range with gradual variation in speed
throughout the range but the difficulty is how to get the variable supply frequency. That is why this
method is not used for general purpose speed control applications.
By changing of Number of Poles.

This method is generally not applied to slip-ring motors as in such machines this method would
involve considerable complications of design and switching, since the inter-connections of both primary
and secondary would have to be changed simultaneously in a manner to produce the same number of
poles in both windings. With two independent sets of stator windings, each arranged for pole changing, as
many as four synchronous speeds can be obtained in a squirrel cage motor. This method has the
advantages of simplicity, good speed regulation for each setting, high efficiency, and moderate first cost
and maintenance. This method is very satisfactory for applications such as ventilating fans, conveyors,
machine tools, or other applications which require operation at only two or four speeds.

Slip Power Recovery Scheme.

(i) Conventional Kramer system.

 The system consists of a three phase rotary converter and a dc motor.

 The slip power is converted into dc power by a rotary converter and fed to the armature
of a dc motor.
 The slip ring induction motor is coupled to the dc motor. The slip rings are connected to
the rotary converter
 The dc output of rotary converter is used to drive a dc motor. The rotary converter and dc
bus bars or from an exciter.
 The speed of slip ring induction motor is adjusted by adjusting the speed of dc motor with
the help of a field regulator.
 This system is also called the electromechanical cascade, because the slip frequency
power is returned as mechanical power to the slip ring induction motor shaft, by the dc
motor.

(ii) Static Kramer system.

Here the slip power can flow only one direction. This method of drive is called static Kramer
drive. The static Kramer drive offers speed control of sub synchronous speed only. Therefore speed can
be controlled less than the synchronous speed only.
ii) Scherbius drive.

a) Conventional Scherbius drive.

 In this drive the rotary converter converts slip power into dc power
and the dc power fed to the dc motor.
 The dc motor is coupled with induction generator. The induction
generator converts the mechanical power into electrical power and
returns it to the supply line.
 The SRIM speed can be controlled by varying the field regulator of
the dc motor.
a) Static Scherbius drive.

Part-A

1. What are the advantages of slip power scheme? (A/M-2018)

2. What is meant by slip power recovery scheme? (N/D-2013, R-08)
3. Why is rotor rheostat starter unsuited for a squirrel cage motor? (N/D-2017)
4. What are the conditions for regenerative braking of an induction motor to be reversed? (N/D-2017)
5. What is the effect of change in input voltage on starting torque of induction motor? (A/M-2017), (M/J-
2016), (N/D-2015)
6. State two advantages of speed control of induction motor by injecting an emf in the rotor circuit.
(A/M-2017)
7. Why are most of the three-phase induction motors constructed with delta connected stator winding?
(A/M-2017, R-08), (M/J-2012, R-08)
8. What are the starting methods of three phase induction motor? (N/D-2016), (N/D-2013, R-08)
9. What is the effect of increasing the rotor resistance on starting current and torque? (N/D-2016, R-08),
(N/D-2012, R-08)
10. List out the methods of speed control of cage type 3Φ induction motor. (N/D-2016, R-08), (N/D-2015),
(M/J-2013, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-08)
11. What are the different methods of speed control of three phase induction motor? (N/D-2015, R-08)
12. How can the direction of a capacitor run motor be reversed? (M/J-2016)
13. What is the effect of variation of supply voltage in an induction motor? (N/D-2015, R-08)
14. State an important distinguishing factor of induction generator and alternator. (A/M-2015, R-08)
15. Draw the torque speed characteristics of an induction motor whose rotor resistance is very large
compared to rotor inductance. (A/M-2015, R-08)
16. What type of protection is provided in the starter meant for 3-phase induction motors? (N/D-2014, R-
08)
17. While controlling the speed of an induction motor, how is super-synchronous speed achieved? (N/D-
2014, R-08)
18. Which is the cheapest method of starting a three phase induction motor? (M/J-2014, R-08)
19. What is meant by plugging? (M/J-2014, R-08)
20. Why it is objectionable to start large three phase induction motor by switching it directly on the line?
(M/J-2013, R-08)
 Part – B
1. Explain with neat diagram, the working of any two types of starters used for squirrel cage type three
phase induction motor.(13) (A/M-2018), (16) (A/M-2017, R-08), (16) (N/D-2013, R-08)
2. Explain the various method of starting of three phase squirrel cage type induction motor. (16) (N/D-
2015, R-08)
3. State the different methods of starting of 3-phase induction motor and discuss in detail any two
methods. (8) (N/D-2016, R-08), (8) (A/M-2015, R-08), (8) (M/J-2012, R-08)
4. With neat diagrams, explain the working of (i) Star-Delta Starter (ii) Auto Transformer Starter for
3 phase induction motor. (16) (N/D-2016)
5. Describe a starter suitable for a 3-phase slip-ring induction motor. (6) (N/D-2016, R-08), (8) (M/J-
2016), (6) (M/J-2012, R-08)
6. Explain the method of starting of slip ring Induction motor. (8) (M/J-2014, R-08), . (8) (N/D-2015)
7. With a neat diagram, Explain the working of a star-delta starter for a 3-phase induction motor.(8)
(N/D-2017), (10) (N/D-2014, R-08), (8) (M/J-2013, R-08)
8. Why starters are necessary for starting 3Φ induction motors? What are the various types of starters?
Explain star-delta type starter in detail. (16) (N/D-2012, R-08)
9. Explain the different methods by which speed control of induction motor is achieved. (13) (A/M-
2018), (16) (N/D-2015, R-08), . (8) (M/J-2016), (16) (N/D-2016)
10. Describe the method of speed control of a 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor by charging the
number of stator poles and state the applications of this method.(5) (N/D-2017), (6) (N/D-2014, R-08)
11. Explain the speed control of 3 phase induction motor with slip power recovery scheme. (16) (A/M-
2017), (16) (N/D-2015), (8) (M/J-2013, R-08), (16) (M/J-2014, R-08)
12. Explain in details the slip recovery scheme. (8) (A/M-2017, R-08), (8) (N/D-2013, R-08), (16) (N/D-
2012, R-08)
13. With neat diagrams, explain the slip-power recovery schemes as applied to wound-rotor induction
motors. (12) (N/D-2014, R-08)
14. Explain the speed control of three-phase wound rotor induction motor by rotor resistance method.
(8) (A/M-2017, R-08), (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
15. With aid of diagrams explain the principle of the following methods of speed control of a 3-phase
induction motor.
(1) Variable Frequency, (2) Cascade connection (8) (N/D-2016, R-08), (8) (M/J-2012, R-08), (8)
(M/J-2013, R-08)
16. With the aid of diagrams, explain the principle of the following methods of speed control of a three
phase induction motor (1) Variable frequency, (2) Pole changing. (8) (M/J-2013, R-08)
17. Explain the speed control of a 3 phase induction motor using voltage control and frequency control.
(8) (N/D-2015)
18. Explain the dc dynamic braking of a 3-phase induction motor.(6) (N/D-2017)
19. Draw and explain the schematic diagram of a static Kramer variable-speed drive system for a slip
ring induction motor.(7) (N/D-2017)
20. Explain in detail the scherbius system of speed control. (8) (M/J-2016)
21. Illustrate the phenomena of Cogging and Crawling in induction motor. (8) (A/M-2015, R-08)
 UNIT-V - SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS AND SPECIAL MACHINES

SINGLE PHASE AC MOTORS

Greater numbers of motors of comparatively small ratings are manufactured for operation on single
phase ac supply. Most of them, built in fractional horse power sizes, are technically termed as “small
motors, a small motor being defined as ‘a motor built in a frame smaller than having a continuous rating
of 1hp” An induction of the number of such motors can be had from the fact that the sum of total of all
fractional-horse power motors in use to-day far exceeds the total of integral horse power motors of all
types. Single phase motors perform a great variety of useful services in the home, the office, the factory,
in business establishment, on the farm and many other numerous applications where electricity is
available. These find interesting applications in automatic control devices of various types. Since the
requirements of the numerous applications differ so widely, the motor-manufacturing industry has
developed several types of such motors, each type having operating characteristics that meet define
demands.
Single phase ac motors may be divided into three general classes namely
 Induction Motors .
 Commutator Motors .
 Synchronous Motors.
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
The construction of single phase induction motor is more or less similar to that of a poly-phase
induction motor except that the stator is provided with a single phase winding. An induction motor with a
cage rotor and a single phase stator winding is represented schematically in fig. a. Instead of being a
concentrated coil, the actual stator winding is distributed in slots in order to give an approximately
sinusoidally distributed mmf in space. Such a motor inherently has no starting torque, but if started by
some auxiliary means, it no starting torque, but if started by some auxiliary means, it will continue to
operate.
Single phase induction motors suffer from the several drawbacks such as low overload capacity, low
efficiency, low power factor etc.

Single Phase Induction Motor

Fig. b
The explanation of single phase motor action may be given by any one of the following two theories
(i) Double revolving field theory is based on the idea that pulsating field produced in single phase motors
can be resolved into two components of half its amplitude and rotating in opposite directions with
synchronous speed.

3-φmotor runs from 1-φ power, but does not start.

The single coil of a single phase induction motor does not produce a rotating magnetic field, but a
pulsating field reaching maximum intensity at 0o and 180o electrical. (Figure below)

Single phase stator produces a non rotating, pulsating magnetic field.

 Another view is that the single coil excited by a single phase current produces two counter
rotating magnetic field phasors, coinciding twice per revolution at 0o (Figure above-a) and 180o (figure e).
When the phasors rotate to 90o and -90o they cancel in figure b. At 45o and -45o (figure c) they are
partially additive along the +x axis and cancel along the y axis. An analogous situation exists in figure d.
The sum of these two phasors is a phasor stationary in space, but alternating polarity in time. Thus, no
starting torque is developed.

However, if the rotor is rotated forward at a bit less than the synchronous speed, It will
develop maximum torque at 10% slip with respect to the forward rotating phasor. Less torque will be
developed above or below 10% slip. The rotor will see 200% - 10% slip with respect to the counter
rotating magnetic field phasor. Little torque (see torque vs slip curve) other than a double freqency ripple
is developed from the counter rotating phasor. Thus, the single phase coil will develop torque, once the
rotor is started. If the rotor is started in the reverse direction, it will develop a similar
large torque as it nears the speed of the backward rotating phasor.Single phase induction motors have a
copper or aluminum squirrel cage embedded in a cylinder of steel laminations, typical of poly-phase
induction motors.

Capacitor Start Motor.

This is an improved form of split phase motor. The capacitor start motors, like the resistance
start motors, are provided with two stator windings displaced 90 electrical degrees from each other. The
main winding is connected directly across the line and the starting winding is connected to the line
through a static capacitor of suitable value and centrifugal switch. The single phase induction motors
provided with capacitor for starting are known as capacitor start motors. The line current of a resistance
start motor was found to be two-third higher than the line current of a corresponding capacitor start motor
while the starting torque of the capacitor start motor was twice that of the resistance start motor. The
capacitor start motor, like resistance start motor has the starting winding disconnected by means of a
centrifugal switch as the motor picks up speed. This is necessary because (i) the capacitance that gives the
largest starting torque is about four times too big for the best running conditions and (ii) if the capacitor is
used only for starting, it can be an electrolytic type of capacitors. This type of motor had become popular
because of development cheap and reliable electrolytic condensers. Its common applications are in
refrigerator or compressor or other application involving a hard starting torque such as in small portable
hoists. The usual size be reversed by interchanging the connections to the supply of either the main or
auxiliary winding.
Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor.

In order to have the advantages that result from the use of capacitor during the normal running
operation as well as starting period, the capacitor start capacitor run motors have been developed. Since
the value of the capacitance which will result in optimum running performance is not the same as the
value which will produce the best starting torque conditions and also the capacitor employed for normal
running should by of continuous duty rating and that employed for starting should be of short-duty rating,
therefore, in this type of motor two capacitors-one of small value oil impregnated paper continuous rating
capacitor CR and another of much larger value electrolytic short duty capacitor Cs are connected, as
shown in fig.c .

When the motor attains 70% of synchronous speed the starting capacitor Cs is taken out of circuit
by the operation of centrifugal switch. Capacitor CR remains permanently in series with the starting or
auxiliary winding. Such motors operate as two phase motors from single phase supply, thereby, producing
constant torque and not a pulsating torque as in other single phase motors. Besides their ability to start
heavy loads, they are extremely quite in operation, have better efficiency and power factor when loaded
and develop u to 25% greater over-load capacities. These are indeed splendid machines where the load
requirements are severe.

The disadvantage of these machines is only high cost. These motors are often employed
requiring a quite operating motor. The motors of this type have become increasingly popular and are now
manufactured in the larger sized single phase motors where previously only the repulsion start motors
were available. The direction of rotation of motor may be reversed by interchanging the connections to
the supply of either the main or auxiliary winding.

SPECIAL MACHINES

REPULSION MOTORS
Repulsion motors are similar to series motors except that rotor and stator windings
are inductively couple i.e. the rotor current is obtained by transformer action from the stator. The stator
usually carries a distributed winding like the main winding of an ordinary single phase induction
motor. The rotor or armature is similar to a dc motor armature, with a drum type winding connected to the
commutator. However, the brushes fixed directly opposite to each other are not connected to the supply,
but are connected to each other or short circuited. The magnetic axis of the rotor is determined by the
brush position. If the rotor axis were in line with stator field axis, the short-circuited brushes would join
the points of maximum potential difference, current would flow between the brushes, but no torque would
be produced as the torque angle would be zero. If the rotor axis were in quadrature with stator field axis,
the torque angle would be at the optimum value of 90° but the emfs induced in the two sections of the
windings would be equal and the short circuited brushes would join the equipotential points, therefore, no
current would flow resulting there by no torque. Actually, the brushes are placed in an intermediate
position, as shown in fig. 4.23. The current induced in the rotor winding has component in time phase
with the flux and produces a torque.

The direction of rotation depends upon the position of the brushes. If the brushes are shifted
round the commutator, the direction of rotation will reverse. Speed control is affected by varying the
impressed voltage or by changing the position of brushes.
The characteristics of the repulsion motor are similar to those of a series motor i.e. high
starting torque and high speed at light loads. The motor is used where sturdy motor with the large starting
torque and adjustable but constant speed is required. Most common use, of this type of motor is in the coil
winders, in which the operator adjusts the speed by shifting the brushes; the motor is equipped with a
special lever mechanism that shifts the brushes when a foot treadle is pressed.
AC Series Motor

Direct current shunt or series motors rotate in the same direction regardless of the polarity
of the supply. Thus, it might be expected that either motor would operate on alternating current. It has
been found, however, that the shunt motor develops but little torque when it is connected to an ac supply.
The reason of it is that the field winding, owing to its high inductance, causes the field current to lag the
armature currents being the same, the main field and armature currents are in phase, therefore,
theoretically same torque is developed with a given alternating currents as with a like amount of direct
current in a series motor. If an ordinary dc series motor were connected to an ac supply, it would operate,
but not very satisfactorily. The reasons are (i) pulsating torque due to reversal of armature and field
current every half cycle, (ii) excessive eddy current losses in the field and yoke due to alternations in the
field flux, (iii) heavy sparking due to induced voltages and currents in the armature coils short-circuited
by the brushes when undergoing commutation and (iv) abnormal voltage drop and low power factor due
to inductance of field winding.
Hence some modifications are necessary for satisfactory operation on ac. These modifications are
 Series field with as few turns as possible in order to reduce reactance.
 Large number of armature conductors to compensate for reduced field and develop a given
torque .
 Compensating winding is provided to neutralize the armature reaction effect .
 Large number of poles with lesser flux per pole in order to lower transformer emf in the short-
circuited element of the armature winding.
 Very small ari gap due to weak field.
 Laminated all parts of magnetic circuits to reduce eddy current losses.
 Design for operation on low voltage and low frequency in order to give less inductance and so
to improve operating characteristics and
 Provision of commutating or inter poles in order to have good commutation, increased
efficiency and also increased output with a given size of armature core.
The single phase ac series motor has practically the same operating characteristics as dc series
motors. The torque or tractive effort varies nearly as the square of the current and the speed varies
inversely as the current nearly. The inductively compensated ac series motor also operates satisfactorily
on dc system and has increased output and efficiency. The speed of the motor while working on ac system
can be controlled efficiently by taps on a transformer.
The most important application of ac series motor is in electric traction service up to 1600 kw, 200 to 600
volts using 15-25 Hz.
UNIVERSAL MOTORS
For some applications, it is desirable to employ a motor that will operate on either ac or dc
supply. By a compromise design, fractional horse power series motors may be built to operate
satisfactorily on either 50 Hz or direct current at 15 or 230 volts. Such motors are known as universal
motors.
Universal motor is a series wound motor, which operates at approximately the same speed
and output on either dc or ac of approximately same voltage.
The armature of universal motors is of the same construction as ordinary series motor. In the
small sizes the voltage induced by transformer action in a coil during its commutation period does not
tend to produce sufficient current to cause any serious commutation problem. High-resistance brushes are
employed to aid the commutation. In large motors compensating winding is provided to improve the
commutation. The stator core and yoke are laminated to reduce eddy currents produced by alternating
flux.
The motor is simple less expensive and is used for lower rating (up to 1/6 kw) and higher
speeds. The characteristics of universal motors are very much similar to those of dc series motors.

Universal Motor

These motors are suitable for sewing machines, table fans, vacuum cleaners, portable
drills, hair dryers, blowers and kitchen appliance etc. direction of rotation can be changed by
interchanging connections to the field with respect to the armature as in a dc series motor.
Hysteresis Motor.
When the rotor of an induction motor is built up of a group of specially hardened steel
rings instead of usual thin silicon steel laminations, the effect of hysteresis is magnified. As a result, the
rotor will operate at synchronous speed because the hysteresis property of the rotor steel strongly opposes
any change in the magnetic polarities once they are established. Effective synchronous motor action is,
therefore, produced because the rotor poles lock in step with the revolving poles of opposite polarities.
The fact that the rotor has no teeth or winding of any sort makes the motor extremely quiet in operation; it
is not subject to the mechanical and magnetic vibrations that must always be present when there are teeth
and cut away sections in the rotor. Resilient mountings further reduce other possible noises so that,
virtually noiseless hysteresis motors are particularly useful for sound equipment applications.

Stepper motor

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can
divide a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlled precisely
without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors (which are very large stepping
motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.)

Fundamentals of operation
Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage
is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed"
electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by
an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn, first one
electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's
teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the
next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear
rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight
rotations is called a "step", with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor
can be turned by a precise angle.

Stepper motor characteristics

1. Stepper motors are constant power devices.

2. As motor speed increases, torque decreases. (most motors exhibit maximum torque when
stationary, however the torque of a motor when stationary 'holding torque' defines the ability of
the motor to maintain a desired position while under external load).
3. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving
voltage (sometimes referred to as a 'chopper' circuit, there are several off the shelf driver chips
capable of doing this in a simple manner).
4. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor
from one position to another (called a detent). The vibration makes stepper motors noisier than
DC motors.
5. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose torque or lose
direction. This is because the rotor is being held in a magnetic field which behaves like a spring.
On each step the rotor overshoots and bounces back and forth, "ringing" at its resonant frequency.
If the stepping frequency matches the resonant frequency then the ringing increases and the motor
comes out of synchronism, resulting in positional error or a change in direction. At worst there is
 a total loss of control and holding torque so the motor is easily overcome by the load and spins
almost freely.
6. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speeds range, physically
damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a micro-stepping driver.
7. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with fewer
phases (this can also be achieved through the use of a micro stepping drive)

Open-loop versus closed-loop commutation

Steppers are generally commutated open loop, i.e. the driver has no feedback on where
the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if the load
inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the motor will lose steps.
This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but expensive
servomechanism system and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper.

A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback (e.g.

an encoder or resolver), so that the commutation can be made optimal for torque generation according to
actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with
exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An advance on this technique is to normally run the
motor in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large
— this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a common servo problem.

Types

There are three main types of stepper motors.

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper (can be subdivided in to 'tin-can' and 'hybrid', tin-can being a cheaper
product, and hybrid with higher quality bearings, smaller step angle, higher power density)
2. Hybrid Synchronous Stepper
3. Variable Reluctance Stepper

Applications
 Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems.
They are typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system, and are simpler and more
rugged than closed loop servo systems.
 Industrial applications are in high speed pick and place equipment and multi-axis machine CNC
machines often directly driving lead screws or ballscrews. In the field of lasers and optics they are
frequently used in precision positioning equipment such as linear actuators, linear stages, rotation
stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts. Other uses are in packaging machinery, and positioning
of valve pilot stages for fluid control systems. Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy
disk drives, flatbed scanners, computer printers, plotters, slot machines, and many more devices.
Part-A

1. Why single phase induction motor is not self starting? Mention any one method of starting. (A/M-
2017), (M/J-2016), (N/D-2015)
2. What is the principle of reluctance motor? (A/M-2018), (N/D-2014, R-08)
3. How is the direction of rotation of a single phase induction motor reversed? (N/D-2017), (N/D-2014,
R-08)
4. How can the direction of a capacitor run motor be reversed? (N/D-2015), (M/J-2014, R-08)
5. How can the direction of rotation of capacitor-start motor be reversed? (N/D-2015, R-08)
6. What is a linear induction motor? (N/D-2015, R-08)
7. What is the principle of operation of a linear induction motor? (N/D-2017)
8. Define double field revolving theory. (A/M-2017), (N/D-2013, R-08)
9. What is meant by single phasing? (A/M-2017, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-08)
10. Name the methods of starting single phase induction motors. (A/M-2017, R-08), (N/D-2012, R-08)
11. State the application of shaded pole motor. (N/D-2016)
12. What will be the direction of rotation of a shaded pole single phase induction motor? (N/D-2016, R-
08), (M/J-2013, R-08)
13. State the limitations of shaded pole motors. (A/M-2015, R-08)
14. Define the term step angle in a stepper motor. (N/D-2016)
15. Draw the torque slip characteristics of single phase induction motor. (N/D-2016, R-08), (M/J-2013, R-
08)
16. Name the motor being used in ceiling fans. (M/J-2016), (M/J-2014, R-08)
17. Distinguish the terms rotating and pulsating magnetic fields. (A/M-2015, R-08)
18. What are inherent characteristics of plain 1-phase induction motor? (N/D-2013, R-08)
19. What is the advantage of capacitor start induction motor over split-phase induction motor? (M/J-2012,
R-08)
20. Why centrifugal switches are provided in many 1-phase induction motors? (M/J-2012, R-08)

Part – B
48. Give the classification of single phase motors. Explain any two types of single phase motor.(13)
(A/M-2018)
49. What is the principle and working of hysteresis motor and AC series motor? Explain briefly.(13)
(A/M-2018)
50. Describe the constructional features and principle of operation of hysteresis motor and AC series
motor. (16) (A/M-2017), (N/D-2016), (16) (M/J-2014, R-08)
51. Write the brief note about the following:
(i) Repulsion motor (5) (N/D-2015, R-08), (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
(ii) Hysteresis Motor (5) (N/D-2015, R-08), (8) (N/D-2012, R-08)
(iii) AC series motor (6) (N/D-2015, R-08), (8) (N/D-2013, R-08), (8) (M/J-2013, R-08), (8) (N/D-
2016, R-08), (8) (M/J-2016)
52. Describe the principle operation of Hysteresis motor.(5) (N/D-2017), (8) (M/J-2016), (8) (N/D-2015)
53. Explain the constructional details, principles of operation and the applications of Hysterisis motor.
(10) (N/D-2014, R-08)
54. Explain the theory of AC series motor. (8) (A/M-2017, R-08)
55. Explain the two field revolving theory for a single phase induction motor.(8) (N/D-2017), (16) (N/D-
2012, R-08)
56. Illustrate the operation of single phase induction motor with double field revolving theory.(8) (A/M-
2017, R-08) . (8) (N/D-2016), (8) (A/M-2015, R-08)
57. Using double revolving field theory explain why a single phase induction motor is not self starting.
(8) (N/D-2016, R-08), (8) (M/J-2013, R-08), (8) (M/J-2012, R-08)
58. Using double field revolving theory, explain why a single phase induction motor is not self starting.
Also obtain the equivalent circuit of single phase induction motor with necessary equations. (16)
(N/D-2015), (16) (M/J-2014, R-08)
59. Derive the equivalent circuit of single phase induction motor with the help of double field revolving
theory. (8) (N/D-2014, R-08)
60. Explain, why single phase induction motor is not self starting? Also explain about the Double
revolving field theory. (16) (N/D-2015, R-08)
61. Explain the no-load and blocked rotor tests on a single phase induction motor.(7) (N/D-2017)
62. Explain the no-load test and blocked rotor test for obtaining the equivalent circuit parameters of a
single phase induction motor. (8) (N/D-2014, R-08)
63. Describe the working principle of any one type of stepper motor.(6) (N/D-2017)
64. Write a short note on Stepper Motor. (8) (A/M-2017, R-08), (8) (A/M-2015, R-08)
65. Using double field revolving theory, explain why a single phase induction motor is not self starting.
Also obtain the equivalent circuit of single phase induction motor with necessary equations. (16)
(A/M-2017)
66. Discuss with neat diagram the operation of shaded pole IM. (8) (N/D-2016), (8) (N/D-2012, R-08),
(4) (M/J-2012, R-08)
67. Explain the operation and constructional features of (i) Capacitor start single phase induction motor
(8) (N/D-2016, R-08, (4) (M/J-2012, R-08), (8) (M/J-2013, R-08), (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
68. Explain in detail the operation of capacitor start and run induction motor. (8) (M/J-2016),
69. Explain the operating principle of Linear Induction motor with neat diagram. (8) (M/J-2016), (8)
(N/D-2015)
70. Explain the theory of Brushless DC Machine. (8) (A/M-2015, R-08)
71. What modifications have to be done on a DC series motor to make it to work with single phase AC
supply? State the applications of AC series motors. (6) (N/D-2014, R-08)
72. Explain with suitable diagram the working principle of split-phase (8) (N/D-2013, R-08)
73. Describe the construction and working principle of linear reluctance motor and repulsion motor.
(16) (M/J-2012, R-08)

Faculty Incharge HoD