Single-Phase Transformers

The transformer is one of the most widely used and useful electrical devices available. It can be
used to transform an ac voltage or current in a circuit from one level to another and it can provide
electrical isolation between circuits. By using transformers we can efficiently transmit electricity
over a great distance at a high voltage and then reduce the voltage to safe level at the point of use
(Q: Why is it more efficient to transmit electricity at a high voltage?). The voltage can then be
further reduced and used to obtain the low voltage dc power supplies used in appliances such as
computers, printers and CD players.

The Ideal Transformer

The transformer works by electromagnetic induction. If a sinusoidal ac voltage of is applied to a

coil then it will produce a magnetic field where the flux will alternate at the same frequency as the
voltage. Conversely if a coil is placed in an alternating magnetic field then a voltage will be
induced in the coil that will alternate at the same frequency as the magnetic field. This is Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, which can be expressed as:

dΦ dλ
e= N =
dt dt

Where: e = voltage induced in the coil

N = number of turns in the coil
Φ = flux within the coil in Webbers (Wb)
λ = flux linkage = NΦ (Wb)
t = time in seconds

If we now consider two coils that are closely coupled and we apply a sinusoidal voltage to one of
the coils where the voltage is defined as:

v = Vmax cos(ωt )

Where: v = the instantaneous value of the voltage

Vmax = the peak value of the voltage
ω = 2лf

The magnetic field produced by the first coil will induce a voltage in the second coil. This is
transformer action. To ensure that the coils are closely coupled the coils should be wound on an

1 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

iron core, which will provide a path for the mutual flux linking the coils (Q: Why will this be better
than air?), to further improve the coupling the second coil should be wound on top of the first coil.
For now the coupling between the coils will be assumed to be ideal.

Apply Lenz’s law to the coils gives:

di dλ
e=L = = Vmax cos(ωt )
dt dt
V
∴ i = max sin(ωt ) + C
ωL

Where: L = the self inductance of the coil = N2/(reluctance)

i = current producing the mutual flux
C = a constant of integration that will be zero in this case

The current that produces the mutual flux will be a sine wave that lags the voltage by 900, the flux
will be in phase with the current. In the case of the ideal transformer the reluctance of the core will
be zero (μr = ∞) and the current required to produce the mutual flux will be zero.

With reference to figure 1and by applying Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws, we can say:

dΦ dΦ
v1 = N 1 and v 2 = N 2
dt dt

v1 N N2
∴ = 1 or v 2 = v1
v2 N2 N1

Figure 1. Transformer representation.

2 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: If we have N1 = 100 and N2 = 50 and we connect the primary winding (coil 1) to a
230V, 50Hz supply then the voltage on the secondary winding (coil 2) will be 115V (Q: What will
the expressions be for the primary and secondary voltages defined as time varying quantities?).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

So far the secondary of the transformer has been open circuit, so in this ideal case no current will
flow. If a load is connected to the secondary then a current will flow due to the secondary voltage
acting across the load impedance. This current will produce a magnetomotive force (mmf) in the
transformer core of F2 = N2i2. This must be counteracted by an mmf produced by the primary
winding F1 = N1i1 (this must be the case as the flux in the core has already been defined by the
voltage relation).

N1
Hence: i2 = i1
N2
Which is the inverse of the voltage relation.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example: A load resistance of Rl = 10Ω is connected across the secondary winding of an ideal
transformer that has N1=100, N2= 50 and V1= 230 V (@50Hz). Calculate the current in the primary
winding of the transformer.

I2 = 11.5A, which will be in phase with V2.

Using the relation derived to relate the primary and secondary currents we can calculate I1 = 5.75A,
which will be in phase with V1.

As a check consider the power flow in the transformer. The primary and secondary power must be
equal as there are no losses. In this example the voltages and currents must be in phase as the load
is purely resistive:

P1 = P2 = V1I1 = V2I2 = 230x5.75 = 115x11.5 = 1322.5 W

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The transformer that we have defined so far is an ideal transformer as shown in figure 2. The
windings have zero resistance, the primary and secondary are perfectly coupled and the core has
zero reluctance and no magnetising losses.

3 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

 Figure 2. The Ideal Transformer.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exercise:
An ideal transformer has N1=90, N2= 2250 and V1= 230 V (@50Hz). A load impedance consisting
of a resistance of 2kΩ connected in series with an inductance of 4.8H is connected across the
secondary. Calculate V2 , I2, I1, the real power PL and the power factor.

{ V2 = 5750V, I2 = 2.3A, I1 = 57.5, PL = 10.58kW, power factor = 0.8}

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Real Transformer

In practice the transformer windings will have resistance they will not be perfectly coupled, the
transformer core will not have zero reluctance and the alternating flux in the core will result in core
losses. In a real transformer these all need to be included in the analysis. To take these factors into
account the equivalent circuit of the transformer will be of the form shown in figure 3. This takes
into account differences between the ideal and the real transformer as follows:

Winding Resistance (R1 and R2)

Both the primary and the secondary winding will have resistance. These are represented by R1 and
R2 in the equivalent circuit. There will be a voltage drop and a power loss associated with these
resistances. The power loss is often referred to as the copper loss of the transformer.

Leakage Inductance (l1 and l2)

As the windings are not perfectly coupled some of the flux in the primary will not link the
secondary and some of the flux in the secondary will not link the primary. This can be taken into
account by introducing the primary and secondary leakage inductance’s l1 and l2. These represent a
voltage loss (loss of flux) but not a power loss.

4 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

Magnetising Inductance (Lm)
As the transformer core will have a finite value of reactance (μr ≠ ∞) then the self inductance of the
windings will be finite. This will result in a magnetising current flowing in Lm to produce the
mutual flux.

Magnetising Resistance (Rm)

The process of producing an alternating flux in the transformer core produces loses in the core.
These losses are a result of the hysteresis of the core material and the production of eddy currents in
the core. The combined loss is called the iron loss of the transformer (Q: What form will the iron
loss take?). This is represented in the equivalent circuit by a resistance Rm.

Hysteresis: Figure 4 shows the form of the hysteresis loop for a transformer core. When the
transformer winding is connected to an alternating supply the flux in the core will alternate at the
same frequency as the supply. For each cycle of the supply the flux density in the core will traverse
the hysteresis loop. The area enclosed by this loop is proportional to the loss associated with
hysteresis. Transformers use core materials that minimise the size of this loop (Q: What are B and
H?).

Eddy Currents: The alternating flux in the transformer core can produce currents in the core
material through transformer action. These unwanted currents are referred to as eddy currents and
they produce losses in the core. To minimise eddy currents the transformer core is laminated. Each
lamination will be less than 0.5 mm thick and a layer of insulating material separates each
lamination.

I1 R1 l1 l2 R2 I2

V1 V2
Lm Rm

Figure 3. Transformer equivalent circuit.

5 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

 Figure 4. Transformer core hysteresis loop.

Referred Equivalent Circuit

To make performing calculations easier it is usual to refer the equivalent circuit parameters to either
the primary or the secondary. In figure 5 the equivalent circuit is referred to the primary winding
using the following relations that can be verified by considering the relation between the primary
and secondary voltage and current.
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
V2/ = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ V2 I 2/ = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ I 2
⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠

2 2 2
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
R = ⎜⎜ 1
/
2
⎟⎟ R2 x = ⎜⎜ 1
/
2
⎟⎟ x 2 Z = ⎜⎜ 1
/
L
⎟⎟ Z L
⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠

Where ZL is the load impedance.

The equivalent circuit can be further simplified by moving the magnetising branch to the primary
input terminals. This will introduce some error in the representation but, as the magnetising current
is small compared to the load current, the error will not be large (Q: Can you draw the approximate
equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the primary?).

I1 R1 x1 I2/ x2/ R2/

V1 V2/
Xm Rm

Figure 5. Transformer equivalent circuit referred to the primary.

6 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

Parameter Measurement
It is possible to obtain the approximate equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer by conducting
two tests, an open-circuit test and a short-circuit test. As the names of these tests imply they are
performed with the secondary of the transformer connected either in open-circuit or short-circuit.

Open-circuit test: This enables the magnetising branch parameters to be evaluated. The secondary
of the transformer is connected in open-circuit; measurements of the primary voltage, current and
power are taken (see figure 6). The secondary output voltage can also be measured to determine the
turns ratio. The measurements should be made at the normal primary supply voltage and frequency
(Q: Why?). Alternatively the secondary winding could be supplied and with the primary winding
on open-circuit.
I0

Im Ip

V1
jXM RM

Figure 6. Open-circuit test.

Short-circuit test: From this test the combined winding resistance and leakage inductance can be
found, the magnetising branch is neglected. The secondary of the transformer is connected in short-
circuit; measurements of primary voltage, current and power are made (figure 7). The secondary
current may also be measured. These measurements should be conducted at the rated transformer
current, which will be achieved at a lower voltage than the rated value. Alternatively the secondary
winding could be supplied and with the primary winding connected in short-circuit.

R1 + R2/ j(x1 + x2/ )

I1 = I2/

V1

Figure 7. Short-circuit test.

7 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

These tests do not enable the individual primary/secondary parameters of resistance and leakage
reactance to be calculated, it is usually assumed that they are equal. The winding resistances could
be measured using a dc supply. Once the equivalent circuit parameters are known standard circuit
analysis can be used to perform load calculations.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exercise: The following data was obtained for a 50kVA, 2400V primary, 240V secondary
distribution transformer:

Short-circuit test; V1 = 52V, I1 = 20.8A, P1 = 650W (calculate R1 + R2/ and x1 + x2/ from this).
Open-circuit test; V1 = 2400V, I1 = 0.485A, P1 = 173W (calculate Rm and Xm from this).

Use circuit analysis techniques to calculate the approximate equivalent circuit parameters of the
transformer referred to the primary. Remember that the circuit is complex.

{R1 + R2/ = 1.5Ω, x1 + x2/ = 2Ω, Rm = 33.3kΩ, Xm =5kΩ}

A load that can be represented by a resistance of 1Ω and an inductive reactance of 0.66Ω is

connected to the secondary of the transformer. Using the approximate equivalent circuit, calculate
the primary current, the input power factor, the load voltage and the efficiency (η) of the
transformer.
{I1 = (16.39 – j11.41) A, Power factor = 0.821, V2 = (235.36 – j1.62) V, η = 98.01%}
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Regulation
From the above exercise it can be seen that the output voltage of the transformer when loaded is not
the same as for the no-load condition. The voltage regulation is defined as:

⎡V2 ( no −load ) − V2 ⎤ ⎡V1 − V2/ ⎤

Voltage regulation = ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ V2 ( no −load ) ⎥⎦ ⎣ V1 ⎦
This is often quoted as a percentage evaluated at the full load condition. Loads with a lagging or
unity power factor will have a positive regulation (output voltage reducing), for loads with a leading
power factor the regulation may be negative. For high power transformers the regulation can be
better than 1%, smaller transformers will have a higher value which could be greater than 40%. In

8 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

some instances the leakage reactance of the windings is designed to be high, resulting in poor
regulation, to prevent excessive current if the transformer is accidentally short-circuited.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exercise: Using the results from the previous exercise, calculate the regulation of the transformer.
{1.93 %}
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Three-Phase Transformers
The theory developed for single-phase transformers can be extended to include three-phase
transformers. These are considered as per-phase equivalents with the usual relations used for line
and phase transformations. A three-phase transformer could be constructed using three single-
phase transformers or one combined unit with three or five legs where each of the phase windings
will occupy one leg.

High Frequency Transformers

The transformer that we have considered so far has been assumed to be suitable for operation at the
normal supply frequency of 50Hz. In applications such as electronic power supplies high frequency
transformers are used to enable the physical size of the supply to be reduced. This can be
demonstrated with reference to a standard 240V/24V, 50Hz transformer with a 36VA rating. The
transformer will be designed to operate with a maximum flux density in the core of about 1.5T,
corresponding to 750 μWb. If the operating frequency is increased to 5kHz then the supply voltage
can be increased to 24000V to obtain the same maximum flux (Q: Can you can verify this by using
the theory to show that V1 = 4.44fN1 Φmax? Assume an ideal transformer). This would result in a
secondary voltage of 2400V, the current rating of the windings will be unchanged. The transformer
will now have a rating of 3600VA yet it will have the same physical size. However it must be
realised that the core losses of the transformer will have greatly increased. At 50Hz the core loss
would have been approximately 1W. The majority of this loss will be due to hysteresis loss. As the
frequency has been increases from 50Hz to 5kHz then the flux density in the core will traverse the
hysteresis loop 5000 times a second rather than 50 times a second. Thus the hysteresis loss at 5kHz
will be 100x the value at 50Hz. This alone would increase the core loss to about 100W. When
operating at 5kHz the eddy currents in the transformer, with laminations designed for 50Hz
operation, will be dramatically increased and the total core loss can be expected to be about 700W.
Obviously this would result in the transformer rapidly overheating. To prevent this different core
materials (e.g. Nickel-steel with thinner laminations or ferrite) are used. The operating flux also
needs to be reduced as these materials saturate at a lower flux density (0.7T for nickel-steel, 0.2T

9 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)

for ferrite). At the same time the number of turns on the windings can be reduced, and the cross
section of the wire increased, to obtain the same operating voltages as the original. With these
modifications the 5kHz transformer with the same physical size as the 50Hz transformer will have a
rating that has increased by 12 - 15 times the original.

From this discussion it is apparent that for a given power output the size and weight of a
transformer can be reduced by designing it for operation at a higher frequency.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Exercise: A 120V primary (600 turns), 12V secondary 50Hz transformer operates with a maximum
flux density in the core of 1.3T. The transformer is to be redesigned, using a ferrite core, for
operation at 10kHz. The maximum core flux density for the redesigned transformer should not
exceed 0.2T and the core cross-sectional area is to be reduced by a factor of 5. How many turns
will the primary winding of the redesigned transformer require and what will the secondary voltage
be?

{98 integer number of turns, giving 12.24V on the secondary. Alternatively 100 turns could be
used on the primary giving 12V on the secondary, this would slightly reduce the flux density in the
core.}
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

R1 + R2/ j(x1 + x2/ )

I1 Io I 2/

V1 jXM RM V 2/ ZL/

The approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the primary

10 Machines, Drives and Power Electronics (EE2020)