The document describes procedures for measuring absolute permeability using both liquids and gases. With liquids, permeability is measured by flowing the liquid through a core sample and measuring flow rate and pressure drop. With gases, permeability is determined using gas flow rate, inlet/outlet pressures, and accounting for gas compressibility and Klinkenberg slippage effect, which causes gases to yield higher permeability values compared to liquids. Experiments are described where permeability was measured on a core sample first with water to demonstrate the liquid method, and second with nitrogen gas to demonstrate the gas method.
The document describes procedures for measuring absolute permeability using both liquids and gases. With liquids, permeability is measured by flowing the liquid through a core sample and measuring flow rate and pressure drop. With gases, permeability is determined using gas flow rate, inlet/outlet pressures, and accounting for gas compressibility and Klinkenberg slippage effect, which causes gases to yield higher permeability values compared to liquids. Experiments are described where permeability was measured on a core sample first with water to demonstrate the liquid method, and second with nitrogen gas to demonstrate the gas method.
The document describes procedures for measuring absolute permeability using both liquids and gases. With liquids, permeability is measured by flowing the liquid through a core sample and measuring flow rate and pressure drop. With gases, permeability is determined using gas flow rate, inlet/outlet pressures, and accounting for gas compressibility and Klinkenberg slippage effect, which causes gases to yield higher permeability values compared to liquids. Experiments are described where permeability was measured on a core sample first with water to demonstrate the liquid method, and second with nitrogen gas to demonstrate the gas method.
The document describes procedures for measuring absolute permeability using both liquids and gases. With liquids, permeability is measured by flowing the liquid through a core sample and measuring flow rate and pressure drop. With gases, permeability is determined using gas flow rate, inlet/outlet pressures, and accounting for gas compressibility and Klinkenberg slippage effect, which causes gases to yield higher permeability values compared to liquids. Experiments are described where permeability was measured on a core sample first with water to demonstrate the liquid method, and second with nitrogen gas to demonstrate the gas method.
5.1. Introduction Laboratory measurement of absolute permeability usually involves the direct application of the Darcy equation, based on the measurement of individual variables such as flow rate, pressure drop, sample dimensions, and fluid properties 𝑞𝜇𝐿 𝑘= 𝐴 ∆𝑝 where
q is the flow rate (m3/s)
k is the absolute permeability (m2) A is the cross-sectional area (m2) P1 – P2 = ΔP is the flowing pressure drop (N/m2) μ is the fluid viscosity (N s/m2) L is the length (m) Prior to using core plug samples for permeability measurements, the residual fluids or in situ formation fluids are removed so that the sample is 100% saturated by air. Considering the fact that absolute permeability can only be measured by conducting a flow experiment in a porous media, gases or nonreactive liquids are commonly used as a fluid phase. Several commercial benchtop permeameters or minipermeameters that use gases or nonreactive liquids for permeability measurement are available. However, the following sections discuss a step-by-step, practical procedure for the measurement of absolute permeability using nonreactive liquids and gases. The apparatus used for conducting flow experiments on core plug samples is a core flooding rig or a displacement apparatus. The schematic of a typical displacement apparatus capable of using both liquids and gases for permeability measurement is shown in Figure 11. Figure 11 schematic of permeability measuerment device
Figure 12 schematic of core Hassler core holder
5.2. MEASUREMENT OF ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY USING LIQUIDS The most common liquids used for the measurement of absolute permeability are formation waters (sometimes called brine) or degassed crude oil. Formation water or crude oil used is generally from the same formation for which the absolute permeability measurement is desired. The typical steps involved in performing an absolute permeability measurement are as follows:
1. The dimensions (length and diameter) of the core plug are recorded. 2. The core plug sample is normally housed a Hassler core holder (see Figure 10). 3. An appropriate net overburden or confining pressure is applied radially to the core, via a hydraulic hand pump. 4. A constant reservoir temperature is maintained using the climatic air bath. 5. A displacement pump and floating piston sample cylinder (for storage of fluids) combination is used to initiate the flow of brine or degassed crude oil at either a constant rate or constant differential pressure. 6. The pressure drop across the core plug is monitored using a computerized data logging system, and a constant or steady pressure drop across the sample is recorded for calculations. 7. The flow experiment is sometimes repeated by varying the liquid flow rates in order to determine the rate dependency, if any, on the absolute permeability. 8. The viscosity of the brine or the oil is measured at the flooding pressure and temperature conditions if unknown from other sources. 9. Finally, the absolute permeability of the core plug sample is determined using the Darcy equation.
Experiment No. 2: Absolute Permeability determination by using water
The theory and general procedure discussed above
The device that use is PERG-200TM for liquid permeability which shown in figures (13, 14)
The dimensions of core that used are 2.5(in) length and 1 (in) diameter The water that used has viscosity of 1.1155 cp at experiment temperature. Figure 13 schematic of the front panel of PERG-200TM device which used in measurement of core permeability
Figure 14 PERG-200TM device with the core holder which used in measurement of core permeability
Experiments results Delta P (atm) Time (s) 0.2 60 0.3 43 0.42 30 0.59 21 0.78 15 Calculations 1. Calculate the flow rate (where the volume is constant 10 cc) 2. Plot q vs ∆𝑝 on linear scale, where the slop of plot represent by: 𝐴𝐾 𝑚= 𝜇𝐿 (from Darcy equation the flow rate related linearly with the pressure differences) 3. Calculate permeability K, where, 𝜇𝐿𝑚 𝐾= 𝐴 5.3. MEASUREMENT OF ABSOLUTE PERMEABILITY USING GASES Quite frequently, absolute permeability measurements of core plug samples are carried out using gases instead of liquids. Dry gases such as nitrogen, helium, or air are commonly used as the fluid medium in permeability measurements. Choosing a gas is simply convenient and practical because a gas is clean, nonreactive, and does not alter the pore network; in other words, absolute permeability measurements are not influenced by any rock–fluid interactions. The experimental setup and procedure for absolute permeability measurement using gases is similar to the one presented in the previous section. For example, the operation of the displacement apparatus shown in Figure 11 can be slightly modified by switching the fluid source from liquid to a gas by opening and closing the appropriate valves. Another minor variation is the use of constant differential pressure for performing the flow tests. A constant differential pressure can be easily maintained by setting a certain inlet pressure on the gauge of the gas cylinder and by keeping the downstream or outlet pressure atmospheric (sometimes under a back pressure), while monitoring gas flow rate via a gas meter (at atmospheric conditions), as shown in Figure 11.
Even though the experimental procedures for permeability measurement using
liquids and gases are basically similar, one major difference exists between liquids and gases in the approach used for the determination of absolute permeability, and that is the compressible nature of gases. So far, issues related to the compressibility of the fluids have not been addressed because the original Darcy equation was developed under the assumption of an incompressible fluid flow the flow rate of gas is normally measured at the outlet of the core plug, Q2. As: where Q2 is the gas flow rate measured at the outlet of the sample (m3/s) k is the absolute permeability (m2) (can be converted to mD or darcy. A is the cross-sectional area (m2) P1 is the inlet pressure (N/m2) P2 is the outlet pressure (N/m2) μ is the gas viscosity (N s/m2) L is the length of the sample (m)
Another artifact associated with the use of gases for absolute permeability measurement is the higher permeability value obtained in comparison to the liquid flow for the same core sample. Kinkenberg first reported this particular artifact in 1941 when he discovered that there were variations in the absolute permeability as determined using gases as the flowing fluid from those obtained when using nonreactive liquids. Klinkenberg’s observations were based on the measurement of absolute permeability for a certain core sample for which liquid (isooctane) permeability was reported as 2.55 mD; on the other hand, the same core sample showed a trend of increasing permeability as a function of increasing reciprocal mean pressure {1/[(P1 + P2)/2]} when hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide were used. These particular variations in permeability were ascribed to a phenomenon called gas slippage that occurs when the diameter of the capillary openings approaches the mean free path of the gas. The Klinkenberg observations are schematically illustrated in Figure 15 and summarized in the following points: • A straight line is obtained for all gases when gas permeabilities are plotted as a function of reciprocal mean pressures. • The data obtained with the lowest molecular weight gas (hydrogen) result in a straight line with greater slope that indicates a higher slippage effect, whereas the highest molecular weight gas (carbon dioxide) data yield a straight line with the lowest slope indicative of a lesser slippage effect. The data for nitrogen (gas B in Figure 4.10) lie in between hydrogen and carbon dioxide. • The straight lines for all gases, when extrapolated to an infinite mean pressure or zero reciprocal mean pressure, that is, {1/[(P1 + P2)/2]} = 0, intersect the permeability axis at a common point. This common point is designated as a Klinkenberg-corrected or equivalent liquid permeability because gases tend to behave like liquids at such high pressures. • The previous point is also validated by the permeability value, directly measured by using a liquid (isooctane) found to be similar to the Klinkenberg- corrected or equivalent liquid permeability.
The Klinkenberg effect can also be mathematically correlated by a straight-line fit
of the relationship between the observed gas permeability data and the reciprocal mean pressure: where kgas is the measured gas permeability kliquid is the equivalent liquid permeability or the Klinkenberg-corrected liquid permeability m is the slope of the straight-line fit
Experiment No. 3: Absolute Permeability determination by using gas nitrogen
The theory and general procedure discussed above
The device that use is PERG-200TM for gas permeability which shown in figures (15) The dimensions of core that used are 10 (cm) length and 3.81 (cm) diameter. The nitrogen that used has viscosity of 0.025 cp at experiment temperature. Results of experiment
Run Qg (cm3)/s Upstream pressure(atm)
1 4.05 1.13 2 17.94 1.5 3 34.78 1.86 4 61.79 2.33
Calculations 1. Calculate gas permeability by using Darcy equation. 2. Calculate the mean pressure (Pmean) 3. Plot gas permeability versus reciprocal mean pressures (Kg vs 1/Pmean). 4. Find the slop and intercept. 5. The intercept point represents the equivalent liquid permeability
