AS 3978—2003

AS 3978

Australian Standard™

Non-destructive testing—Visual
inspection of metal products and
components
This Australian Standard was prepared by Committee MT-007, Non-destructive
Testing of Metals and Materials. It was approved on behalf of the Council of
Standards Australia on 29 September 2003 and published on 24 November 2003.

The following are represented on Committee MT-007:

Australasian Railway Association
Australian Aerospace Non-Destructive Testing Committee
Australian Industry Group
Australian Institute for Non-Destructive Testing
Australian Nuclear Science & Technology Organization
Australian Pipeline Industry Associations
Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
Institution of Engineers Australia
NATA
Testsafe Australia
Victorian Workcover Authority
Welding Technology Institute of Australia

Keeping Standards up-to-date

Standards are living documents which reflect progress in science, technology and
systems. To maintain their currency, all Standards are periodically reviewed, and
new editions are published. Between editions, amendments may be issued.
Standards may also be withdrawn. It is important that readers assure themselves
they are using a current Standard, which should include any amendments which
may have been published since the Standard was purchased.
Detailed information about Standards can be found by visiting the Standards
Australia web site at www.standards.com.au and looking up the relevant Standard
in the on-line catalogue.
Alternatively, the printed Catalogue provides information current at 1 January each
year, and the monthly magazine, The Global Standard, has a full listing of revisions
and amendments published each month.
We also welcome suggestions for improvement in our Standards, and especially
encourage readers to notify us immediately of any apparent inaccuracies or
ambiguities. Contact us via email at mail@standards.com.au, or write to the Chief
Executive, Standards Australia International Ltd, GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW
2001.

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 03228.

 AS 3978—2003

Australian Standard™

Non-destructive testing—Visual
inspection of metal products and
components

Originated as AS 3978—1991.
Second edition 2003.

COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia International
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written permission of the
publisher.
Published by Standards Australia International Ltd
GPO Box 5420, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia
ISBN 0 7337 5575 5
AS 3978—2003 2

PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Australian members of the Joint Standards
Australia/Standards New Zealand Committee MT-007, Non-Destructive Testing of Metals
and Materials to supersede AS 3978—1991, Non-destructive testing—Visual inspection of
metal products and components. After consultation with stakeholders in both countries,
Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand decided to develop this Standard as an
Australian, rather than an Australian/New Zealand Standard.
The objective of this Standard is to establish requirements for the visual inspection for
purchasers of metal products and components and the requirements for the qualification of
personnel.
The objective of this revision is to incorporate new requirements for specifying procedures
for visual inspection.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
 3 AS 3978—2003

CONTENTS

Page
1 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................ 4
2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS .................................................................................. 4
3 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................ 5
4 INSPECTOR REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................ 5
5 EQUIPMENT.............................................................................................................. 5
6 ILLUMINATION........................................................................................................ 7
7 INSPECTION SCOPE AND CRITERIA .................................................................... 8
8 PREPARATION OF SURFACES PRIOR TO INSPECTION..................................... 8
9 REQUIREMENTS OF A PROCEDURE FOR VISUAL INSPECTION ..................... 9
10 INSPECTION REPORT............................................................................................ 11

APPENDICES
A PURCHASING REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................... 12
B NOTES ON VISUAL ACUITY................................................................................. 13
C INSPECTION AIDS AND MEASURING DEVICES ............................................... 14
D CHECKLIST OF ITEMS TO CONSIDER WHEN BRIEFING
INSPECTION PERSONNEL..................................................................................... 15
E VISUAL INSPECTION GUIDELINE FOR WELDS ................................................ 16
F CASTINGS—DESCRIPTIONS OF TERMS FOR SURFACE TEXTURE
AND DISCONTINUITIES ........................................................................................ 21
AS 3978—2003 4

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA

Australian Standard
Non-destructive testing—Visual inspection of metal products and
components

1 SCOPE
This Standard specifies procedures for visual inspection of metal products and components,
with specific reference to welded components, steel castings, and corroded metal surfaces.
Procedures for conducting visual inspection under water may also be developed from this
Standard.
This Standard specifies requirements for the qualification of inspectors, for the viewing and
illumination of items being inspected, and makes recommendations for the use of approved
visual aids to optimize recognition of surface features.
The qualifications for personnel to perform visual examinations are specified in AS 3998.
Requirements on information to be supplied by the purchaser at the time of inquiry or order
are contained in Appendix A.

2 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
AS
1171 Non-destructive testings—Magnetic particle testing of ferromagnetic
products, components and structures
1627 Metal finishing—Preparation and pretreatment of surfaces
1627.1 Part 1: Removal of oil, grease and related contamination
1627.2 Part 2: Power tool cleaning
1627.4 Part 4: Abrasive blast cleaning
1627.5 Part 5: Pickling
1627.9 Part 9: Pictorial surface preparation standards for painting steel surfaces
1680 Interior lighting (series)
1988 Welding of steel castings
2062 Non-destructing testing—Penetrant testing of products and components
2177 Non-destructive testing—Radiography of welded butt joints in metal
2177.1 Part 1: Methods of test
2207 Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of fusion welded joints in
carbon and low alloy steel
2812 Welding, brazing and cutting of metals—Glossary of terms
3998 Non-destructive testing—Qualification and certification of personnel
(ISO 9712).
ISO
3058 Non-destructive testing—Aids to visual inspection—Selection of low-power
magnifiers

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 5 AS 3978—2003

ASTM
A802/A802M Standard practice for steel castings, surface acceptance standards, visual
examination
F1130 Standard practice for inspecting the coating system of a ship
MSS
SP-55 Quality standard for steel castings for valves, flanges and fittings and other
piping components—Visual method

3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions given in AS 1680 and AS 2812 apply.

4 INSPECTOR REQUIREMENTS
Personnel performing visual inspections to this Standard shall have relevant experience and
visual acuity as specified by the purchasers requirements (see Appendix A).
The following requirements and recommendations also apply:
(a) Visual acuity requirements
An inspector shall have qualifications and experience for their job function acceptable
to the testing body*, the manufacturers, and where required, the purchaser. In
addition the inspector shall have personnel characteristics of integrity and
thoroughness. The inspector shall be conversant with drawings, codes, specifications
as well as manufacturing, processing procedures and workmanship standards which
apply to the inspection. Near vision acuity (Jaeger No.1) shall permit reading a
minimum of Times Roman 4.5 points vertical height where 1 point = 0.3528 mm
(1/72 inch) at not less than 30 cm with one or both eyes, either corrected or
uncorrected.
Personnel involved in inspections for which the ability to discriminate between
colours appropriate to the task is required, shall pass a colour perception test.
NOTE: Appendix B gives notes on the factors affecting visual acuity and the measurement of
visual acuity.
(b) Experience requirements
An inspector ideally shall have practical experience in the environment in which he or
she is operating. Inspectors shall have a sound knowledge of relevant surface
characteristics of metal discontinuities and defect types. Personal characteristics of
integrity and thoroughness are required. An inspector shall be conversant with
drawings, codes, specifications, procedures and workmanship standards which apply
to the inspection.

5 EQUIPMENT
5.1 General requirements
The use of proper lighting is critical in visual examination. To achieve optimum viewing
conditions, inspections not carried out under daylight conditions shall be performed under
artificial lighting conditions, in accordance with the recommendations of AS 1680.

* Qualifications normally accepted for visual inspection of metal products and components include the
following:
(a) Certification by the Australian Institute for Non-Destructive Testing (AINDT) in accordance with
AS 3998 (ISO 9712) in visual inspection of metal products.
(b) Qualifications deemed equivalent to (a) above.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 6

Inspection may be supplemented by the use of hand-held magnifying devices or by the use
of other more powerful equipment and appropriate measuring devices as set out in Clauses
5.2 to 5.5.
NOTE: Appendix C lists inspection aids and measuring devices approved for use by this
Standard.
5.2 Low-power magnifying equipment
5.2.1 Classification
This Standard recommends the use of low-power magnifiers (see ISO 3058) categorized as
follows:
(a) Type A—single-element magnifiers of magnification up to ×3.
(b) Type B—multi-element magnifiers of magnification up to ×10.
(c) Type D—twin-system magnifiers of magnification up to ×15, categorized as follows:
(i) Type C1—binocular, normally with a long working distance.
(ii) Type C2—bi-ocular, including those fitted with stops or other attachments, for
quasi-stereoscopic vision.
NOTE: Both binocular and bi-ocular viewing employ two eyepieces. In bi-ocular viewing, the
same image from a single objective lens is presented through each eyepiece. In binocular
viewing, each eye receives a unique image appropriate to its position relative to the field of
view.
(d) Type D—concave-mirror magnifiers with front-surface reflectors in powers up to ×6.
5.2.2 Description
An illuminator may be incorporated in the lens mount or in the stand of all magnifier types,
except Type A. The stand may consist of a distance-piece, a tripod, a pillar or some other
form of support.
Type A ‘reading-glass’ magnifiers are normally hand-held. Hand-held pocketsize
magnifiers are also included in Types A and B.
Type C1 twin-system magnifiers are normally mounted on a stand, but may be demountable
for use when access to the surface to be examined is difficult. Type C2 magnifiers are
stand-mounted.
Types C1 and D, and also some forms of Type A magnifiers, provide the viewing
conditions required for binocular vision, with the accompanying extended field of view and
depth of focus. Type D magnifiers are used for examining small objects.
5.2.3 Magnification
The magnification shall be stated in terms of linear enlargement. Where appropriate,
magnifiers of Types A and B shall have the nominal magnification permanently marked on
the lens mount.
In cases where the manufacturer customarily rates lens power in dioptres, the equivalent
linear magnification shall also be marked. If this is not practicable, the magnification shall
be certified in a written statement.
NOTES:
1 Lenses should be made from optical glass or an optically equivalent plastics material which is
dimensionally stable, does not change colour with age, and is free from veins, striae or other
manufacturing defects which may cause distortion or colour fringes.
2 The mounts for magnifiers of Types A, B and C should be such that the lenses are free from
undue constraint. In hand-held magnifiers, the mounts should provide protection for the lens
from damage when the magnifier is laid down on a level surface.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 7 AS 3978—2003

3 The magnification of an instrument should not depart by more than ±10% from its nominal
value. Instruments having an internal graticule used for the measurement of discontinuities
should be calibrated against a known reference standard.
5.2.4 Factors affecting the choice of magnifier
Hand-held, single or multi-element magnifiers having a magnification of ×2 to ×4 are
adequate for a wide range of industrial applications. The benefits of easy manipulation and
relatively strain-free binocular vision can offset the reputed advantages of higher
magnification, which may be illusory for the following reasons:
(a) Higher magnification involves a shorter eye-to-lens distance and a shorter working
distance.
(b) Short working distances, where only one eye can be used, are a contributory cause of
operator fatigue.
(c) The field of view is much reduced and hence the time of inspection increased.
(d) The depth of focus is much smaller and spatial relationships between different
portions of the surface under inspection become difficult to assess.
5.3 Surface feature modelling equipment and materials
Surface profiling devices and cold setting resins or modelling clay may be used to obtain a
permanent record of surface features for direct measurement or comparison.
5.4 Remote viewing equipment
Television, e.g. CCD cameras, fibre-optic devices and borescopes, may be used. Such
equipment shall have sufficient resolution and contrast to resolve discontinuities present in
a reference Standard.
5.5 Photographic equipment
Photographic and recording equipment shall be capable of resolving and capturing specific
features of discontinuities.

6 ILLUMINATION
6.1 General
Visual inspection shall be carried out under suitable lighting conditions. The optimum level
of illumination for inspection at low magnification is dependent on several factors,
including the following:
(a) The location of the work-piece and the ease of access to the surface to be examined.
(b) The nature and reflectivity of the surface.
(c) The direction of illumination, i.e. direct or oblique.
(d) The degree of light gathering or light loss in the optical system employed.
Recommendations on illumination levels for various visual inspection tasks are given in
AS 1680. A minimum illuminance of 400 lx shall be employed.
6.2 Location of the work-piece
The ideal viewing condition occurs when the surface under examination is tilted to enable it
to be examined from more than one angle and under more than one intensity of
illumination. If the work-piece is immovable, viewing shall be carried out using a variety of
positions for both the eye and the light source.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 8

NOTES:
1 Whereas inspection for a crack in a steel forging or on the rippled surface of an arc weld
might call for an intensity of illumination, a crack in a polished metal surface may be detected
at a lower intensity of illumination.
2 Because freedom from glare is important, Type A magnifiers and also some Type B (see
Clause 5.2), may be equipped with diffusing screens to reduce sharp variations in the
intensity of illumination. Separate illuminators fitted with diffusers are sometimes required.
3 Sources of sharp contrast should also be avoided to minimize eye fatigue, particularly during
the inspection of small objects which usually require a high intensity of illumination. The
shield around a lens should be translucent. Both the small object and the surface on which it
is placed should have approximately the same degree of reflectivity.
4 The direction of illumination will be dictated by the reflectivity of the surface being inspected
and the purpose of the examination. The illumination should extend to the periphery of the
field of view and the variation of light intensity should not exceed a ratio of 3:1.
5 Type C1 magnifiers (see Clause 5.2) fitted with large objective lenses gather light with
marked efficiency and are therefore particularly useful in situations where the illumination is
only slightly above the minimum acceptable level, e.g. for on-site work in relatively
inaccessible locations.

7 INSPECTION SCOPE AND CRITERIA

7.1 General requirements
Unless otherwise specified in the engineering drawing, specification/code or purchaser’s
requirements, visual inspection shall cover 100% of the surface requiring inspection. Where
complete inspection is not possible, the inspector shall document fully, with clear
measurements, the areas not inspected.
7.2 The terminology, identification and evaluation of discontinuities
The terminology used shall be in accordance with the referenced documents, definitions, or
terms described in the relevant product codes. If there is any doubt about the identification
of a particular discontinuity, it is recommended that colour photographs of appropriate
resolution be taken for inclusion in the inspection report.
NOTE: Other non-destructive testing methods may be used to assist in the evaluation of surface
discontinuities.

8 PREPARATION OF SURFACES PRIOR TO INSPECTION

The surface condition may require inspection prior to the commencement of preparation.
The extent and method of surface preparation shall be selected to ensure minimum
disruption of the test surface consistent with the inspection requirements.
NOTE: Inspection prior to surface disturbance is important because it may provide evidence of
failure mechanisms, e.g. the inspection of flaking paint or oxide coatings, corrosion deposits, heat
markings or inspection for evidence of moisture.
Surface preparation methods include the following:
(a) Neutral/alkaline, solvent, emulsion and high pressure cleaning (see AS 1627.1).
(b) Grinding (see AS 1627.2).
NOTE: Grinding of metallic surfaces may produce a flowing effect in more ductile materials
which may obscure discontinuities open to the surface.
(c) Abrasive blast cleaning, including wet abrasive blast cleaning (see AS 1627.4).
(d) Etching (see AS 1627.5).
(e) High-pressure water blast cleaning.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 9 AS 3978—2003

9 REQUIREMENTS OF A PROCEDURE FOR VISUAL INSPECTION

9.1 Pre-inspection requirements
Prior to the commencement of any visual inspection, the inspector or inspection team
supervisor shall carry out the following:
(a) Examine the requirements of the task to be undertaken by reviewing the relevant
drawings and specifications. Identify the location of areas to be inspected, and
prepare a written inspection procedure which complies with the requirements of this
Standard.
It is important that the inspecting authority has a system of identifying the inspection
procedure and the position of discontinuities or reportable features.
(b) Ensure the surface to be inspected is properly prepared and clean. The surface
preparation shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of Clause 8.
(c) Brief all inspection personnel, see Appendix D.
(d) Ensure that all equipment is in correct operating condition, and when required,
calibrated.
(e) Provide inspectors with relevant drawings and reference standards.
(f) Have working sheets and report forms prepared for completion during or immediately
after the inspection process.
9.2 Inspection procedure requirements
The inspector shall be guided by the following general procedure when performing visual
inspection:
(a) Inspect the product or component, prior to the onset of deterioration of the surface
after preparation. Visually scan the surface in accordance with the inspection
procedure. This shall be systematic to ensure that total coverage is achieved.
NOTES:
1 Where large products are being inspected, the inspection surface should be divided into
suitably sized and identifiable areas.
2 The inspection of products under water should be performed within 12 hours of the
completion of preparation of the product surface.
3 The equipment for supplementary inspections is described in Clause 5.
(b) The level of illumination shall be sufficiently high and of sufficient quality (see
Clause 6.1). The angle of light shall be varied or the part manipulated to effect the
inspection.
(c) To ensure the full concentration is maintained to delay the onset of eye fatigue, the
inspector shall take regular breaks and avoid flashing or flickering light sources.
(d) Describe, using sketches or by using photography, all relevant discontinuities or
specific features, their positions utilizing a pre-planned system for position
identification. Enter descriptions and location of discontinuities or specific features
on the inspection record sheet (see Clause 9.5).
NOTES:
1 To assist in the interpretation of unusual discontinuities, the inspector should consult
reference material, check against reference pieces containing similar defects, and if
necessary seek metallurgical advice.
2 Other non-destructive testing methods may be employed to provide this information on
the depth or internal configuration of a discontinuity.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 10

(e) The acceptance criteria shall be as specified in the purchaser’s requirements (see
Appendix A).
(f) Complete an inspection report (see Clause 10).
(g) If required, apply a post inspection treatment to protect the surface from corrosion.
9.3 Identification, recording and evaluation of discontinuities and corrosion
9.3.1 General
Discontinuities shall be identified, recorded and if required, evaluated in accordance with
the relevant requirements. The record of all discontinuities, which do not comply with the
requirements, shall include details of their location, length, breath and distribution.
9.3.2 Weld discontinuities
NOTE: Appendix E illustrates common defects found in weld structures.
9.3.3 Casting discontinues
Assistance with the selection of severity levels for discontinuities in steel casting shall be
obtained by reference to ASTM A802/A802M and MSS SP-55. Both these Standards
include reference photographs that illustrate the various types and degrees of surface
roughness and surface discontinuities that may occur in steel castings.
NOTE: Descriptions of discontinuities and features often found on the surface of castings are
given in Appendix F.
9.3.4 Corroded metal surfaces
Guidance on the inspection of coating systems on ships, and on the determination of the
extent of corrosion, is given in ASTM F1130.
Guidance of the visual assessment of a steel surface is given in AS 1627.9.
9.4 Marking of inspected products and components
When marking parts or highlighting areas of interest on parts, the marking media shall be
compatible with the material of the part, to prevent mechanical or corrosive deterioration
during subsequent service.
9.5 Inspection record sheet
An inspection record work-sheet is required for recording the specific features observed
during the visual inspection. Although the format of the inspection record work-sheet will
vary according to the particular inspection task, it shall include the following information as
a minimum requirement:
(a) The name of the laboratory or inspecting authority.
(b) The product standard, specification or code, or inspection procedure, including any
applicable visual references.
(c) The date and place of inspection and the inspector's name and identification.
(d) Identification of the items or areas inspected and, if 100% inspection was not carried
out, the number or percentage of items or areas inspected.
(e) The conditions at the time of inspection including the following:
(i) Lighting—natural or artificial and that it meets the requirement of this
Standard.
(ii) Access—restrictions.
(iii) Surface condition and the method and degree of surface preparation.
(iv) Other factors which may adversely influence careful scrutiny of an area.
(v) Weather conditions, if relevant.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 11 AS 3978—2003

(f) Stage of manufacture at time of inspection, or known service history of the

component.
(g) Measuring equipment and individual identification. Record the magnification if used.
(h) Report number and date of issue.
(i) Number of this Australian Standard, i.e. AS 3978.
(j) Visual inspection findings including acceptability or compliance with relevant
specifications, if required.
(k) Any departure from the inspection procedure.
(l) Sketches and photographs showing details of specific features shall be attached to the
inspection record sheets.

10 INSPECTION REPORT
The inspection report shall include at least the following information:
(a) The name of the laboratory or inspecting authority.
(b) The product standard, specification or code, or test procedure, including any
applicable references.
(c) Identification of the items or areas inspected, and if 100% inspection was not carried
out, the number or percentage of items or areas inspected.
(d) The surface condition of the items prior to inspection, and details of any surface
preparation.
(e) The viewing conditions at the time of inspection and any deviations from the
inspection procedure.
(f) The stage of manufacture, or known service history, at the time of inspection.
(g) Features observed during the inspection, and identification and location of
discontinuities.
NOTE: This may require sketches, marking on drawings, or photographs.
(h) Acceptability or compliance with the relevant product standards, specifications or
codes where applicable.
(i) Reference to this Australian Standard, i.e. AS 3978.
(j) The date and place of inspection.
(k) The report number and date of issue.
(l) The name of the inspector and officer responsible for the test report.
(m) The client or representative to whom the above information has been passed.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 12

APPENDIX A
PURCHASING REQUIREMENTS
(Normative)

A1 GENERAL
Australian Standards are intended to include the technical requirements for relevant
products, but do not purport to comprise all the necessary provisions of a contract. This
Appendix specifies the requirements to be supplied by the purchaser at the time of enquiry
or order.
NOTE: It aims to avoid misunderstanding, and to result in the purchaser receiving satisfactory
products and service.

A2 INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY THE PURCHASER

The purchaser shall supply the following information at the time of enquiry or order:
(a) The visual inspection method to be used.
(b) Component identification, method of manufacture, drawing numbers (include relevant
engineering drawings if applicable), batch numbers, material specification, surface
condition or treatment.
(c) The specific features to be inspected.
(d) The relevant product standard or the agreed visual reference, e.g. description,
photograph or test piece.
(e) The stage of manufacture, or period of service life of the items to be inspected.
(f) The degree and method of cleaning or surface preparation, including removal of paint
and other protective coatings by appropriate methods, and whether macro-etching of
the surface is required.
(g) Clear identification of areas of components to be inspected and those not requiring
inspection.
(h) Lighting conditions required.
(i) Special handling or packaging requirements.
(j) Post-inspection treatment requirements.
(k) Reference to this Standard, i.e. AS 3978.
(l) Any other special requirement from the purchaser.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 13 AS 3978—2003

APPENDIX B
NOTES ON VISUAL ACUITY
(Informative)

B1 GENERAL
What the unaided eye can see is a complex subject. The factors affecting visual acuity
include the wavelength or colour and the intensity of the light illuminating the object being
viewed, and the colour and texture of the field on which the object lies. Contrast is still of
considerable importance; a red line on a white ground can be seen in white light, or better
still in a slightly bluish light, but it would be practically invisible if the whole field was
illuminated by red light.
The colour of the light should be such that there is good contrast between any imperfections
and their background. The direction of the light should be capable of being varied so that
any imperfections can be revealed in slight relief, but glare and dazzling of the observer
should be avoided.
To give a reasonable idea of what the unaided eye can see, it may be said that a normal eye
under average viewing conditions can see a feature approximately 0.25 mm diameter and a
line approximately 0.025 mm wide. It is on account of these limitations that some of the
other non-destructive testing methods are used, as many of the methods tend to enlarge
greatly the apparent measurement of the imperfections being sought, and to bring them
from the invisible into the visible range.
The normal eye cannot focus on objects nearer than about 150 mm to 250 mm. The real
function of a hand lens is to enable the eye to view an object from a very short distance. For
this purpose, a hand lens with a magnification of ×2 diameters to ×2.5 diameters is suitable.
Lenses with higher magnifications have a small depth of focus and may lead to erroneous
deductions. High magnification hand lenses, equipped with internal lighting systems, may
be effective.

B2 MEASUREMENT OF VISUAL ACUITY

The angle subtended at the eye by the spacing between the lines on a vision test chart, at the
point where they are just resolvable is called the resolving power of the eye; the reciprocal
of this angle, in minutes of arc, is a measure of visual acuity.
Snellen first introduced letter charts in 1862 for measuring visual acuity which is expressed
as a ratio of two distances, e.g. 6/6 (in metres) or 20/20 (in feet). The numerator is the
viewing distance from the chart and the denominator, the distance at which details on the
letters of the limiting row subtend one minute of arc at the eye.
It is considered that, for the purpose of assessing the visual acuity, an inspector of metal
components should be able to read a row of letters of sufficiently fine print (Jaeger No.2 or
finer) at a convenient distance of about 300 mm.
It should be noted that ageing causes a slow recession of the near point of vision and
reduced retinal illuminance (yellowing of the lens). Statistics show that after the age of 40
years near vision may be expected to deteriorate rapidly, necessitating optical correction.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 14

APPENDIX C
INSPECTION AIDS AND MEASURING DEVICES
(Informative)
The following inspection aids and measuring devices may be useful when carrying out an
inspection task:
(a) A straight edge.
(b) A rule or measuring tape.
(c) A protractor.
(d) Callipers (internal, external or vernier).
(e) Depth, height, or pit gauges.
(f) A contour (profile) gauge.
(g) Reference samples or photographs.
(h) Surface comparators.
(i) Cleaning equipment.
(j) Low-power magnifiers.
(k) Supplementary lighting sources.
(l) Fibre-optic devices or borescopes.
(m) Spirit level/automatic level.
(n) A dental mirror.
(o) Photography equipment.
(p) Surface replication equipment.
(q) Portable television cameras.
(r) Coating thickness gauges.
(s) Software based systems.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 15 AS 3978—2003

APPENDIX D
CHECKLIST OF ITEMS TO CONSIDER WHEN BRIEFING
INSPECTION PERSONNEL
(Normative)
The following checklist of items shall be considered when inspection personnel are briefed:
(a) Safety requirements applicable to the condition in which the inspection is carried out.
(b) The product specification—complete or in specific parts, e.g. structural steelwork.
(c) Drawings and revisions to drawings.
(d) Codes and specifications referred to in the product specification.
(e) The manufacturer’s quality assurance program.
(f) Aids to be used in carrying out the inspection (see Appendix C).
(g) A procedure in the event of a dispute over inspection results.
(h) The stages at which ‘milestone’ inspections are required.
(i) The nature and extent of documentation required at the completion of each inspection.
(j) Photography, sketches, surface replication and similar, if applicable.
(k) The extent of inspection required, i.e. total, percentage of total, or specific areas.
(l) Application of statistical methods, e.g. control charts.
(m) The required surface preparation prior to inspection.
(n) The surface protection, packaging, and handling requirements following inspection,
to maintain the component in the condition noted at the time of inspection.
(o) Preparation and distribution of reports.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 16

APPENDIX E
VISUAL INSPECTION GUIDELINE FOR WELDS
(Informative)

E1 SCOPE
This Appendix gives guidance for the visual inspection of welded joints at stages during the
welding procedure. It also describes discontinuities which may result from welding.

E2 PROCEDURE
The following items should be checked after the completion of all welding, and again after
any repair welding:
(a) Cleaning and dressing
Check that all slag has been removed by manual or mechanical means, otherwise
flaws may be obscured.
When the weld face has been dressed, ensure that overheating of the joint due to the
grinding action has not occurred and that grinding marks and an uneven finish have
been avoided. In the case of fillet welds and butt welds that are to be dressed flush,
ensure that the joint merges smoothly with the parent metal.
NOTE: Dressing may be specified on the design drawing.
(b) Penetration and root examination
In the case of butt welds made from one side only, check that over the whole of the
joint the penetration and any root concavity, burn-through, or shrinkage grooves, are
within the limits specified in the acceptance criteria, using appropriate measuring
devices and optical aids. See Figure E1 for examples of root defects.
In the case of partial penetration butt welds, butt welds made from two sides, or fillet
welds, penetration cannot be checked visually after welding. Where necessary, use
alternative inspection methods.
(c) Contour
Using appropriate measuring devices, check that the contour of the weld face and the
height of any excess weld metal are in accordance with the acceptance criteria. See
Figure E2 for examples of contour defects.
(d) Weld dimensions (see also Item (f) below)
Check that the weld width or leg length is consistent over the whole of the joint and
that it satisfies the dimensional requirements given on the drawing. See Figure E3 for
examples of incorrect weld dimensions.
In the case of butt welds, check that the weld preparation has been completely filled.
(e) Undercut
Measure any undercut using appropriate measuring devices and check it against the
acceptance criteria. The use of modelling clay is particularly convenient for checking
undercut. Figure E4 shows examples of undercut.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 17 AS 3978—2003

(f) Overlap
Examine carefully the toes of the weld where the weld width is excessive, to
determine whether the weld metal is fused to the parent metal. If there is no fusion,
the weld metal will be built up slightly above the parent metal, thus presenting a
notch effect that may be undesirable. Unlike manual welding, overlap with automatic
welding is likely to be regular and thus more difficult to detect. Figure E5 gives
examples of weld overlap.
NOTE: Overlap indicates lack of fusion that cannot be fully assessed or measured by visual
inspection.
(g) Weld flaws
Using optical aids when necessary, examine the weld and heat-affected zone for weld
flaws and, if any are found, check them against the acceptance criteria. In some cases,
visual inspection may not be sufficient to determine the full extent of a surface flaw
(crack or porosity) and the use of other testing methods may be required before the
flaw can be assessed. Refer also to AS 2812 for terms relating to weld imperfections
and to AS 1171, AS 2062, AS 2177.1 and AS 2207 for other testing methods.
Figure E6 shows examples of cracking in completed welds.
(h) Stray arcing
The weld and adjacent parent metal should be examined for local hard spots or
cracking caused by stray arcing; such defects may need to be removed by mechanical
means.
(i) Post-weld heat treatment
When post-weld heat treatment is required, check that the conditions specified in the
welding procedure are followed to ensure that the correct heat input, heating rate,
temperature control, time at temperature and cooling rate are achieved. Further
inspection may be required after post-weld heat treatment.

FIGURE E1 EXAMPLES OF ROOT DEFECTS IN BUTT WELDS

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 18

FIGURE E2 EXAMPLES OF CONTOUR DEFECTS IN WELDS

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 19 AS 3978—2003

FIGURE E3 EXAMPLES OF DIMENSIONAL DEFECTS IN WELDS

FIGURE E4 EXAMPLES OF UNDERCUT

FIGURE E5 EXAMPLES OF WELD OVERLAP

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 20

FIGURE E6 EXAMPLES OF CRACKING IN COMPLETED WELDS

E3 INSPECTION OF COMPLETED FABRICATION

Provided that the results of the inspection made in accordance with Paragraph E2 are
satisfactory, check that any damaged areas arising from the removal of bridge pieces or
temporary attachments at the final stage have been effectively eliminated before any heat
treatment is applied.
NOTE: The dimensional accuracy of the completed fabrication is also important but is not within
the scope of inspection covered by this Standard.

E4 MACRO-EXAMINATION
Macro-examination is sometimes necessary to assess the quality of a weld. The surface to
be examined should be ground, polished and etched using a procedure suitable for the
material and the features it is desired to reveal.
When ‘actual size’ features are to be examined, no optical aids should be used except a
hand lens, in which case the magnification should not exceed ×5 diameters.
NOTE: If features of the metallurgical structure of the weld are to be examined, a sample should
be metallographically prepared for microscopic examination at higher magnifications.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 21 AS 3978—2003

APPENDIX F
CASTINGS—DESCRIPTIONS OF TERMS FOR SURFACE TEXTURE
AND DISCONTINUITIES
(Informative)

F1 SCOPE
This Appendix defines terms describing discontinuities and surface features of castings that
may be seen using visual examination.
NOTE: This Appendix does not cover discontinuities in welds deposited for rectification purposes
on castings (see AS 1988).

F2 DESCRIPTION OF TERMS
Typical discontinuities and surface features found on castings are described as follows:
(a) Surface texture
Cast surfaces have a multi-directional texture, without the uniform sequence of ridges
and valleys of machined surfaces.
(b) Linear discontinuities
Elongated discontinuities are considered linear if the length equals or exceeds three
times the width. The following are typical examples of linear discontinuities:
(i) Hot tears
Hot tears are jagged ruptures in castings which occur during the final stages of
solidification while there is still some liquid in the interdendritic spaces, or
shortly after solidification is complete.
(ii) Cracks
Cold and hot cracks occur after solidification of the casting, and are due to
excessive strain. They are less jagged in appearance than hot tears and
sometimes appear as straight ruptures. Cracks resulting from subsequent heat
treatment of the casting are similar in appearance to cold and hot cracks.
(c) Shrinkage under risers and gates, and revealed by machining
A shrinkage void is a discontinuity resulting from insufficient liquid feed metal
during solidification contraction. Shrinkage extending from the interior of the casting
to the near surface may be revealed by machining after removal of the riser.
(d) Non-metallic inclusions
Surface inclusions on a casting, such as ceroxides, slag and sand, are partially or
completely removed during pressure blast cleaning. The surface discontinuities
remaining after the removal of these inclusions are referred to as the inclusion type
that caused their formation and have the following characteristics:
(i) Depressions on the casting surface caused by ceroxides are crater-like in
appearance. Ceroxides consist of a mixture of low melting oxides and partially
fused sand.
(ii) Depressions on the casting surface caused by slag are similar to those caused by
ceroxides but are more rounded and do not exhibit the crater-like appearance of
ceroxides.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 22

(iii) Depressions caused by sand are similar to those of ceroxides and slag, but their
appearance may more closely reflect the granular nature of the sand.
(e) Gas porosity
Gas porosity is a concave discontinuity found in castings resulting from the evolution
of gas, either from the solidifying metal, or from the surrounding mould.
(f) Expansion discontinuities
The following are typical examples of expansion discontinuities:
(i) Veins
Veins are raised, narrow, linear ridges that form as the result of cracking of the
sand mould or core, due to either the expansion of the sand and the resulting
mould, or to core stresses caused during the filling of the mould with molten
metal.
(ii) Rat tails
Rat tails are long, narrow linear depressions or small steps occurring on a
casting surface. They form as a result of sand expansion and minor buckling of
the mould surface during filling of the mould with molten metal.
(iii) Scabs
Scabs are raised, rough areas on the surface of a casting and usually consist of a
crust of metal covering a layer of sand but may comprise essentially solid
metal.
(g) Fusion discontinuities
The following are typical examples of fusion discontinuities:
(i) Wrinkles
Wrinkles are elongated, smooth depressions in the casting surface and
frequently appear in closely spaced groups. Wrinkles result from irregularities
of molten metal flow in the mould cavity, and are frequently associated with the
metal temperature being too low.
(ii) Laps, folds, and cold shuts
Laps, folds, and cold shuts are interchangeable terms to describe a folded
appearance of the casting surface. They result from the metal temperature being
too low and unfavourable flow conditions caused by the development of oxide
films.
(iii) Misrun
A misrun denotes an incompletely formed casting due to partial filling of the
mould cavity when the molten metal solidifies prematurely. For a mild degree
of misrun, the resulting casting appearance is characterized by rounded edges.
Severe misruns result in irregular, malformed edges. Frequently, misruns are
associated with discontinuities such as wrinkles, laps and folds.
(h) Metal removal marks
Metal removal marks are caused by flame cutting and air/carbon-arc cutting which
produces parallel grooves in the cut-off area. Finer marks are caused by the abrasive
cut-off wheel, and by grinding.

 Standards Australia www.standards.com.au

 23 AS 3978—2003

(i) Inserts
Discontinuities may result from chaplets or internal chills as follows:
(i) Chaplets
Chaplets are metallic (steel) devices used to maintain the spacing between the
core and the mould. Low liquid metal temperatures and unfavourable flow
conditions in the mould may result in their incomplete fusion, and cause
irregular contact areas on the casting surface.
(ii) Internal chills
Internal chills are metallic (steel) devices used to increase the local rate of heat
removal during solidification. Too low molten steel temperatures and
unfavourable flow conditions may result in their incomplete fusion and cause
irregularities of the surface similar to those which may be associated with
chaplets.
(j) External chills
External chills are usually blocks of metal, graphite or carbon, which are incorporated
into the mould to increase the local rate of heat removal during solidification.
Brackets have the same purpose but are an integral part of the casting and are
produced from cavities in the mould or core. External chills may produce flat spots
and edges (raised areas, or depressions) on the casting surface. The presence of
brackets changes the casting appearance.
(k) Fins
Parting line and core print fins are thin projections of excess metal at the parting
plane between mould halves, or between core and mould. Parting line fins are usually
caused by improper closing of the mould, insufficient weighting or clamping of the
mould, or uneven pattern surfaces at the matching locations of the mould. Core print
fins are usually caused by improper dimensions of core prints of the pattern or core
box, by rough placement of cores in a soft mould, or by inadequately secured cores.

www.standards.com.au  Standards Australia

AS 3978—2003 24

NOTES
Standards Australia
Standards Australia is an independent company, limited by guarantee, which prepares and publishes
most of the voluntary technical and commercial standards used in Australia. These standards are
developed through an open process of consultation and consensus, in which all interested parties are
invited to participate. Through a Memorandum of Understanding with the Commonwealth government,
Standards Australia is recognized as Australia’s peak national standards body.

Australian Standards
Australian Standards are prepared by committees of experts from industry, governments, consumers
and other relevant sectors. The requirements or recommendations contained in published Standards are
a consensus of the views of representative interests and also take account of comments received from
other sources. They reflect the latest scientific and industry experience. Australian Standards are kept
under continuous review after publication and are updated regularly to take account of changing
technology.

International Involvement
Standards Australia is responsible for ensuring that the Australian viewpoint is considered in the
formulation of international Standards and that the latest international experience is incorporated in
national Standards. This role is vital in assisting local industry to compete in international markets.
Standards Australia represents Australia at both ISO (The International Organization
for Standardization) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

Electronic Standards
All Australian Standards are available in electronic editions, either downloaded individually from our Web
site, or via on-line and CD ROM subscription services. For more information phone 1300 65 46 46 or
visit us at

www.standards.com.au
 GPO Box 5420 Sydney NSW 2001
Administration Phone (02) 8206 6000 Fax (02) 8206 6001 Email mail@standards.com.au
Customer Service Phone 1300 65 46 46 Fax 1300 65 49 49 Email sales@standards.com.au
Internet www.standards.com.au

ISBN 0 7337 5575 5 Printed in Australia