Weldability of Steels

“Weldability” is a term used in welding engineering to describe
the ease of which a material can be welded by the common

welding processes and still retain the properties for which it
was designed*
If we say that a material has limited weldability, it means

that we need to take special measures to ensure that the
properties as required are maintained*
Most materials are weldable with certain processes.

The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon content
& alloying, though most steels have a degree of weldability*
weldability
1) Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking in Low Alloy Steels
2) Hydrogen weld metal cracking in Micro Alloy Steels
3) Solidification cracking in Ferritic steels
4) Lamellar tearing in Ferritic steels
5) Inter-granular corrosion in Stainless Steels*
Steels are classified into groups as follows:*
Plain Carbon Steels:*

1) Low Carbon Steel 0.01 – 0.3% Carbon*
2) Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon*
3) High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon*

Plain carbon steels contain only iron & carbon as main alloying
elements, traces of Mn Si Al S & P may also be present*
An Alloy steel is one that contains more than Iron & Carbon
as a main alloying elements*
Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups:*
Low Alloy Steels< 7% extra alloying elements*
High Alloy Steels> 7% extra alloying elements*

The following basic foundation information on metallurgy
will not form any part of your CSWIP examination*
A most important function in the metallurgy of steels, is the
ability of iron to dissolve carbon in solution*
The carbon atom is very much smaller than the iron atom and
does not replace it in the atomic structure, but fits between it*
Iron atoms Carbon atoms*
Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,

depending on the temperature. This is an important feature*
At temperatures below Ac/r 1, (LCT) iron exists like this*
α Alpha iron
This structure occurs below 723 °C and is
body centred, or BCC in structure
It can only dissolve up to 0.02% Carbon
Also known as Ferrite or BCC iron*

*
Compressed representation could appear like this

At temperatures above the Ac/r 3, (UCT) iron exists like this*
γ Gamma iron
This structure occurs above the UCT in
Plain Carbon Steels and is FCC in structure.
It can dissolve up 2.06% Carbon
Also called Austenite or FCC iron*

*

If steel is heated and then cooled slowly in equilibrium, then
exact reverse atomic changes take place*
If a steel that contains more than 0.3% Carbon is cooled quickly,

then the carbon does not have time to diffuse out of solution,
hence trapping the carbon in the BCC form of iron.
This now distorts the cube to an irregular cube, or tetragon*
This supersaturated solution is called Martensite and is the

hardest structure that can be produced in steels*
If some steels are cooled quickly their structure looks like this*
Martensite can be defined as:

A supersaturated solution of carbon in
BCT iron (Body Centred Tetragonal)
It is the hardest structure we can produce
in steels*
*
Solubility of Carbon in BCC & FCC phases of steels*
Ferrite:  Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%*
Austenite:  High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06%*
Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is produced

by rapid cooling from the Austenite phase
It mainly occurs below 300 °C*
The atomic structures of plain carbon steels have been briefly
identified and explained in this lecture*
To summarize the effect of increasing the hardness of steels by

thermal treatment, it can be said that the formation of
Martensite is caused by the entrapment of carbon in solution,
produced by rapid cooling from temperatures above the Upper
Critical*
In plain carbon steels there must be sufficient carbon to trap.
In low alloy steels however, the alloying elements play a
significant part in the thermal hardening of steels*
Crack type: H² HAZ & weld metal cracking
Location: a. HAZ (Longitudinal)
b. Weld metal (Transverse)
Steel types: a. All hardenable steels including:
b. HSLA steels
c. Quench & Tempered steels
Microstructure: Martensite*
Occurs when:
Hydrogen is above 15 ml/100 gm weld metal
Hardness is above 350 VPN
Stress is greater than 0.5 of the yield stress
Temperature is below 300 ºC*
Cellulosic electrodes produce
hydrogen as a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in a
long, or unstable arc
Hydrogen produced from

oil, or paint on plate Hydrogen crack
H2 H2
Martensite forms from γ

H2 diffuses to γ in HAZ*
HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels that
derive their high strength from finite alloying*
Typically the level of alloying is in the region of 0.05% and

elements such as vanadium molybdenum and titanium. are
used. It would be impossible to match this micro alloying in
the electrode due to the effect of losses across an electric arc*
It is however important to match the strength of the weld to the
strength of the plate, and so a simple way of matching weld
strength must be found and utilised*
To find a simple method we would need to look at the effect of
increasing carbon content on the properties of iron*
Increasing the carbon content will increase the strength, but will
also increase greatly the formation of martensite in the weld.
This may now produce H2 Cracks across weld*
0.83 % Carbon (Eutectoid)*
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Ductility
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 % Carbon
H2 HAZ Cracks Transverse Weld
in Alloy steels* Cracks in HSLA Steels*
Low ductility weld metal
Longitudinal contractional strain

1) Maintain calculated preheats, and never allow the inter-
pass temperature to go below the pre-heat value*
2) Use Low Hydrogen processes with short arcs & ensure
consumables are correctly baked & stored as required*
3) If using a cellulosic E 6010 for the root run, insert the
“Hot pass” as soon as possible. (Before HAZ < 300 °C)*
4) Remove any paint, oil or moisture from the plate or pipe*
5) Carry out any specified PWHT as soon as possible*
6) Avoid any restraint, and use high ductility weld metal*
Crack type: Solidification cracking
Location: Weld centre (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorus steels.
Microstructure: Columnar grains
In direction of solidification*
Occurs when:
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying
grains. High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the
weld metal*
1) The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to
choose a low dilution process, and change the joint design*
2) Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution*
3) Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S
which form between the grain and maintain grain cohesion*
4) As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should
be a minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution*
5) Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise
restraint*
Liquid Iron Sulphide films
Solidification crack
Contractional strain
Add Manganese to weld metal *
Spherical Mn Sulphide balls
form between solidified grains
Cohesion and strength

between grains remains
Contractional strain
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation*
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in the
base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base metal.
There is high restraint on the work*
Restraint
Lamellar tear
High contractional strains
Plate to be tested*
Full fusion compound
Through thickness
welded cruciform joint*
tensile test*
Contractional strain* Machined

test piece*
The test piece is machined from the cruciform joint and

placed under tension. If Lamellar tearing was present it
would fail at a low value*
Assessment of susceptibility to Lamellar Tearing:
• Carry out through thickness tensile test
• Carry out cruciform welded tensile test
• Carry out Ultra-sonic testing
• Carry out penetrant testing of plate edges
• Carry out full chemical analysis (S < 0.05%)*
Methods of avoiding Lamellar Tearing:*
1) Avoid restraint*
2) Use controlled low sulfur plate *
3) Grind out surface and butter *
4) Change joint design *

5) Use a forged T piece (Critical Applications)*
Re-design weld*
Grind and infill with

ductile weld metal*
Control restraint*
For critical work a forged

T piece may be used*
Forged T Piece
Crack type: Inter-granular corrosion
Location: Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Steel types: Stainless steels
Microstructure: Sensitised grain boundaries*
Occurs when:
An area in the HAZ has been sensitised by the formation
of chromium carbides. This area is in the form of a line
running parallel to and on both sides of the weld.
This depletion of chromium will leave the effected grains
low in chromium oxide which is what produces the
corrosion resisting effect of stainless steels.
If left untreated corrosion and failure will be rapid*
During the welding of stainless steels, a small grain area in the
HAZ, parallel to the weld will form chromium carbide at the
grain boundaries. This depletes this grain of the corrosion
resisting chrome oxide
We say that the steel has become “Sensitised” or has become
sensitive to corrosion*
1) Use Stabilised Stainless Steels*
2) Use Low Carbon Stainless Steels ( Below .04%)*
3) A sensitised Stainless Steel may be de-sensitised by

heating it to above 1100 °C where the Chrome
carbide will be dissolved. The steel is normally
quenched from this temperature to stop re-
association*

Weldability of Steels

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Weldability of Steels

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“Weldability” is a term used in welding engineering to describe

the ease of which a material can be welded by the common

If we say that a material has limited weldability, it means

Most materials are weldable with certain processes.

Plain Carbon Steels:*

2) Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 – 0.6% Carbon*

3) High Carbon Steel 0.6 – 1.4% Carbon*

Alloy steels are divided into 2 groups:*

Low Alloy Steels< 7% extra alloying elements*

High Alloy Steels> 7% extra alloying elements*

Iron atoms Carbon atoms*

Iron is an element that can exist in 2 types of cubic structures,

Also known as Ferrite or BCC iron*

Compressed representation could appear like this

Also called Austenite or FCC iron*

Compressed representation could appear like this

If a steel that contains more than 0.3% Carbon is cooled quickly,

This supersaturated solution is called Martensite and is the

Martensite can be defined as:

Ferrite:  Low carbon solubility. Maximum 0.02%*

Austenite:  High carbon solubility. Maximum 2.06%*

Martensite: The hardest phase in steels, which is produced

To summarize the effect of increasing the hardness of steels by

Hydrogen produced from

Martensite forms from γ

Typically the level of alloying is in the region of 0.05% and

0.83 % Carbon (Eutectoid)*

Longitudinal contractional strain

Cohesion and strength

Contractional strain* Machined

The test piece is machined from the cruciform joint and

4) Change joint design *

Grind and infill with

For critical work a forged

3) A sensitised Stainless Steel may be de-sensitised by

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