Visayas State University

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Visca, Baybay City 6521, Leyte, Philippines

MEng 121n
Thermodynamics 1

ENGR. JUNDY R. CASTIL, MSME

INSTRUCTOR
2
Energy Conversion and
General Energy Analysis
Learning Outcomes:
• Discuss the concept of energy and define its various
forms;
• Discuss the nature of internal energy;
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology
associated with energy transfer by heat;
• Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation;
• Define the concept of work and several forms of
mechanical work;
Learning Outcomes:
• Apply the fundamental use of first law of
thermodynamics, energy balances, and
mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system;
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control
surface of a control volume carries energy across
the control surface in addition to any energy
transfer across the control surface that may be in
the form of hear and/or work;
• Define energy conversion efficiencies; and
• Discuss the implications of energy conversion in the
environment.
2-1 Introduction
 By leaving a refrigerator open a
properly insulated room open…
First Law of
Thermodynamics
Principle of
Conservation of Energy
“Energy cannot be created
or destroyed during a
process; it can only change
from one form to another.”

What do you think will happen

to the room temperature?
By considering the properly insulated room with the
refrigerator including the air inside room as system…

Electrical Energy is
constantly entering
the system

For properly insulated room, no mass or energy leaves the system,

thus, the electrical energy is converted into an equivalent amount of
thermal energy stored in the room air.
Energy conservation actually meant as the
conservation of the quality of energy not the
quantity.
For example:

Electricity, which is of the highest quality of energy, for

example, can always be converted to an equal amount of
thermal energy (also called heat). But only a small fraction of
thermal energy, which is the lowest quality of energy, can be
converted back to electricity.
Energy conservation actually meant as the
conservation of the quality of energy not the
quantity.
For example:

????

Electricity, which is of the highest quality of energy, for

example, can always be converted to an equal amount of
thermal energy (also called heat). But only a small fraction of
thermal energy, which is the lowest quality of energy, can be
converted back to electricity.
2-2 Forms of Energy
Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as
thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy E of a system.

𝐸
𝑒= 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
𝑚

• The total energy of a system can be assigned a

value of zero (E = 0) at some convenient reference
point. The change in total energy of a system is
independent of the reference point selected.
Forms of Energy
• Macroscopic forms of
energy - are those a system
possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside
reference frame, such as
kinetic and potential
energies.
• The macroscopic energy of a
system is related to motion The macroscopic energy of an object
and the influence of some changes with velocity and elevation
external effects such as
gravity, magnetism,
electricity, and surface
tension.
Forms of Energy

• Microscopic forms of energy - are those related to

the molecular structure of a system and the degree
of the molecular activity, and they are independent
of outside reference frames.

• Internal Energy (U) – the sum of all microscopic

forms of energy.
• Kinetic Energy (KE) - The energy that a system
possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame.
𝑣2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝒌𝑱
2

𝑣2
𝑘𝑒 = 𝒌𝑱Τ𝒌𝒈
2

where:
𝑣 – the velocity of the system relative to some fixed
reference frame
•Kinetic Energy (KE) - The kinetic energy
of a rotating solid body is given

𝐼𝑤 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝒌𝑱
2

where:
𝐼 – the moment of Inertia of the body
• Potential Energy (KE) - The energy that a system
possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
field.

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧 𝒌𝑱

or, on unit mass basis,

𝑝𝑒 = 𝑔𝑧 𝒌𝑱Τ𝒌𝒈
where:
𝑔 – the gravitational acceleration
𝑧 – the elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative
to reference level.
• In the absence of magnetic, electric, and surface
tension effects, the total energy of a system is
expressed as:

𝑣2
𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑚 + 𝑚𝑔𝑧 𝒌𝑱
2
or on a unit mass basis,

𝑣2
𝑒 = 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒 = 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧 𝒌𝑱Τ𝒌𝒈
2
• For closed systems, whose velocity and elevation of
the center of gravity remains constant during a
process, the change in the total energy is identical
to the change in its internal energy.

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈
• For open systems (control volume), it is convenient
to express the energy flow associated with a fluid
stream in the rate form.

Mass and energy flow rates associated with the flow of steam
in a pipe of inner diameter D with an average velocity of Vavg .
Mass flow rate:
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑉ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)
Energy flow rate:
𝑘𝐽
𝐸 = ሶ 𝑚𝑒
ሶ 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑊
𝑠
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Internal energy is defined as

the sum of all the microscopic
forms of energy of a system. It
is related to the molecular
structure and the degree of
molecular activity and can be
viewed as the sum of the
kinetic and potential energies
of the molecules.

The internal energy of a system is

the sum of all forms of the
microscopic energies.
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Sensible energy – the portion

of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.

• translational energy
• rotational kinetic energy
• vibrational kinetic energy
• spin energy
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Sensible energy

• The average velocity and

the degree of activity of the
molecules are proportional
to the temperature of the
gas.
• Therefore, at higher
temperatures, the molecules
possess higher kinetic
energies, and as a result the
system has a higher internal
energy.
Sensible Energy

1. Translation energy - the

molecules of a gas move
through space with some
velocity, and thus possess some
kinetic energy.

2. Rotational kinetic energy

• the energy associated with the
rotation of polyatomic
molecules on an axis.
• electrons in an atom rotate
about the nucleus.
Sensible Energy

3. Vibrational kinetic energy - the

energy associated with the
vibration of polyatomic
molecules vibrating about their
common center of mass.

4. Spin energy
• the energy associated with the
spinning of electrons about
their axis.
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Latent energy – The internal

energy associated with the
phase of a system.

Phase of the system –

happens when sufficient
energy has been added to the
molecules of a solid or liquid
that results on breaking the
binding force and turning the
substance into gas.
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Latent energy – The internal

energy associated with the
phase of a system.

• A system in the gas phase is

at a higher internal energy
level than it is in the solid or
the liquid phase
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Chemical energy – The

internal energy associated with
the atomic bonds in a
molecule.

• atom consists of neutrons

and positively charged
protons bound together by
very strong nuclear forces in
the nucleus, and negatively
charged electrons orbiting
around it.
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

• Static forms of energy– constitute the total energy of a

system that can be contained or stored in a system.

• Dynamic forms of energy– forms of energy not stored in

a system. The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at
the system boundary as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a system during a process.
The only two forms of energy interactions associated with
a closed system are heat transfer and work.

• An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a

temperature difference, otherwise it is work.
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

The kinetic energy of

an object is an
organized form of
energy associated with
the orderly motion of all
molecules in one
direction in a straight
path or around an axis.
In contrast, the kinetic
energies of the
The macroscopic kinetic
molecules are energy is an organized form of
completely random and energy and is much more
highly disorganized. useful than the disorganized
microscopic kinetic energies of
the molecules.
Mechanical Energy - the form of energy that can be converted
to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal
mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.

Pump transfers mechanical energy Turbine extracts mechanical energy from a

to a fluid by raising its pressure fluid by dropping its pressure
The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed in a
unit mass basis as:
P V2
emech = + + gz
ρ 2
Where:
𝑃
• 𝜌
- the flow energy of the fluid
𝑉2
• - kinetic energy of the fluid
2
• 𝑔𝑧 – potential energy of the fluid

P V2
Eሶ mech = meሶ mech = mሶ + + gz
ρ 2

where:
mሶ - mass flow rate of the fluid
The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed in a
unit mass basis as:
P V2
emech = + + gz
ρ 2
Where:
𝑃
• - the flow energy of the fluid
𝜌
𝑉2
• - kinetic energy of the fluid
2
• 𝑔𝑧 – potential energy of the fluid

It can also be expressed in rate form as:

P V2
Eሶ mech = me
ሶ mech = mሶ + + gz
ρ 2
where:
mሶ - mass flow rate of the fluid
The mechanical energy change of a fluid during
incompressible 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 flow:

𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
∆emech = + + g 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
ρ 2
and

𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2
∆Eሶ mech = m∆emech = mሶ + + g 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
ρ 2
• The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during
flow if its pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain
constant.
Example 1:

A site evaluated for a wind farm is observed to have steady

winds at a speed of 8.5 m/s. Determine the wind energy (a) per
unit mass, (b) for a mass of 10 kg, and (c) for a flow rate of
1154 kg/s for air.

Answers: a. 36.1 J/kg

b. 361 J
c. 41.7 kW
Example 2:

Consider a river flowing towards a lake at an average velocity

of 3 m/s at a rate of 500 m3/s at a location 90 m above the lake
surface. Determine the total mechanical energy of the river
water per unit mass and the power generation potential of the
entire river at that location.
𝑘𝐽
Answer: 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 0.887 , 𝐸ሶ 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 444 𝑀𝑊
𝑘𝑔
2-3 Energy Transfer

Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in the

form of heat and work.
Energy Transfer by Heat

Temperature difference is the

driving force for heat transfer. The
larger the temperature difference,
the higher is the rate of heat
transfer.

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred

between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.
Energy Transfer by Heat
• Body Heat – the thermal energy content of a body.
• Heat Flow – the transfer of thermal energy.
• Heat Addition – the transfer of heat into the system.
• Heat Rejection – the transfer of heat out of a system.

Energy is recognized as heat

transfer only as it crosses the
system boundary. In
thermodynamics, the term heat
simply means heat transfer.
Energy Transfer by Heat
Adiabatic process – A process which there is no heat transfer.

During an adiabatic process, a system

exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

Two ways a process can be adiabatic:

1) The system is well insulated so that only a negligible
amount of heat can pass through the boundary
2) Both the system and the surroundings are at the same
temperature and therefore there is no driving force
(temperature difference) for heat transfer.
Energy Transfer by Heat

• Difference of Adiabatic and Isothermal Process:

An adiabatic process should not be confused with an

isothermal process. Even though there is no heat
transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content
and thus the temperature of a system can still be
changed by other means such as work.

• The heat transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted q:

𝑄
𝑞= 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
𝑚
Energy Transfer by Heat
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer:

• Conduction - is the transfer of energy from the more

energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles
• Convection - is the transfer of energy between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
• Radiation - is the transfer of energy due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).
Energy Transfer by Work
• Work - energy interaction that is not caused by a
temperature difference between a system and its
surroundings. It is the energy transfer associated with a
force acting through a distance.

• The work done per unit mass of a system is denoted by w

and is expressed as
𝑊
𝑤= 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔
𝑚

• The work done per unit time is called power and is denoted
ሶ The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
𝑊.
Units of Energy and Power

Reference: Item B 38 Relations of Units; Basic Constants

Thermodynamics by Faires and Simmang
Sign Convention for heat and Work Interactions

• Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are

positive
• Heat transfer from a system and work done on a system are
negative.

Another way is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate

direction:
Similarities between heat and work:

1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they

cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are
boundary phenomena.

2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.

3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike

properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.

4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on

the path followed during a process as well as the end
states).
Path Functions:

Properties are point functions; but heat

and work are path functions (their
magnitudes depend on the path followed).

• The total volume change during a process between states 1

and 2 is
2
න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = ∆𝑉
1
Path Functions:

Properties are point functions; but heat

and work are path functions (their
magnitudes depend on the path followed).

• The work done during a process 1 - 2 is

2
න 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑊12 (𝑛𝑜𝑡 ∆𝑊)
1
Example 3:

A candle is burning in a well-insulated room. Taking the room (the air plus
the candle) as the system, determine (a) if there is any heat transfer during
this burning process and (b) if there is any change in the internal energy of
the system.

Answer:
a. Since the room is well insulated, and heat is recognized as it crosses
the boundaries, thus Q = 0 (adiabatic process).
b. The internal energy involves energies that exist in various forms
(sensible, latent, chemical, nuclear). During the process just described,
part of the chemical energy is converted to sensible energy. Since there
is no increase or decrease in the total internal energy of the system,
∆𝑈 = 0, for this process.
Example 4:

A potato initially at room temperature (25°C) is being baked in an oven that

is maintained at 200°C. Is there any heat transfer during this baking
process?

Answer:

a. Considering the potato as the system, Part of the energy in the oven will
pass through the skin to the potato. Since the driving force for this
energy transfer is a temperature difference, this is a heat transfer
process.
Example 5:

A well-insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating element. If

the entire oven, including the heating element, is taken to be the system,
determine whether this is a heat or work interaction.

Answer:

a. The energy content of the oven obviously increases during this process,
as evidenced by a rise in temperature. This energy transfer to the oven
is not caused by a temperature difference between the oven and the
surrounding air. Instead, it is caused by electrons crossing the system
boundary and thus doing work. Therefore, this is a work interaction.
Example 6:

From example 5, take only the air in the oven without the heating element
as the system.

Answer:

a. No electrons will be crossing the system boundary at any point. Instead,

the energy generated in the interior of the heating element will be
transferred to the air around it as a result of the temperature difference
between the heating element and the air in the oven. Therefore, this is a
heat transfer process.
2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work

The work done by a consultant force F on a body displaced a

distance s in the direction of the force F is:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 (𝑘𝐽)

If the force F is not constant, the work done is obtained by

adding the differential amounts of work,

2
𝑊 = න 𝐹𝑑𝑠
1
2-4 Mechanical Forms of Work
Requirements for a work interaction between a system and its
surrounding to exist:

1) there must be a force acting on the boundary, and

2) the boundary must move.

If there is no movement, no work is done.

Requirements for a work interaction between a system and its
surrounding to exist:

1) there must be a force acting on the boundary, and

2) the boundary must move.
Some common forms of mechanical work:

1) Shaft Work
2) Spring Work
3) Work Done on Elastic Bars
4) Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film
5) Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
Shaft Work

• A force F acting through a moment arm r generates a torque T:

𝑇 = 𝐹𝑟
• This force F acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r by
𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑛
• Then the shaft work is:
𝑇
𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝐹𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇 (𝑘𝐽)
𝑟

• The power transmitted through the shaft:

𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇
ሶ (𝑘𝑊)
where 𝑛ሶ is the number of revolutions per unit time.
Shaft Work
Example: Determine the power transmitted
through the shaft of a car when the torque
applied is 200 N · m and the shaft rotates at a
rate of 4000 revolutions per minute (rpm).

Given: T = 200 N.m, 𝑛ሶ = 4000 𝑟𝑝𝑚

Find: Power transmitted through the shaft of a car (𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ )

Solution:

1 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝐽
𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇
ሶ = 2𝜋 4000 200 𝑁. 𝑚
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 1000 𝑁. 𝑚

𝑊ሶ 𝑠ℎ = 83.8 𝑘𝑊 (𝑜𝑟 112 ℎ𝑝)

Spring Work
Elongation of a spring under
the influence of a force.

• The work done when the length of the spring changes by a differential
amount dx under the influence of a force F:

𝛿𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥

• For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is proportional to the force

applied:
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

where k is the spring constant with the unit in 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚 .

Spring Work
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

• The displacement x is measured from the undisturbed

position of the spring (that is, x = 0 when F = 0).

• Thus the work done is:

1
𝑊𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑘 𝑥2 2 − 𝑥1 2 (𝑘𝐽)
2
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

Solid bars behave as

springs under the influence
of a force.

• The work associated with the expansion or contraction of an elastic solid

bar :

2 2

𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = න 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = න 𝜎𝑛 𝐴𝑑𝑥 (𝑘𝐽)

1 1

where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.

Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film

Stretching a liquid film with a movable wire.

• The work associated with the stretching of the film:

2

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = න 𝜎𝑠 𝑑𝐴 (𝑘𝐽)
1
where 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑏𝑑𝑥 is the change in the surface area of the film. The
factor 2 is due to the fact that the film has two surfaces in contact
with air.
• The force acting on the movable wire as a result of surface tension
effects is
𝐹 = 2𝑏𝜎𝑠

where 𝜎𝑠 is the surface tension force per unit length.

Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a
Body

(1) The work transfer needed to raise a body is

equal to the change in the potential energy
of the body, and

(2) the work transfer needed to accelerate a

body is equal to the change in the kinetic
energy of the body
Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

Example:

Consider a 1200-kg car cruising steadily on a level road at 90 km/h. Now

the car starts climbing a hill that is sloped 30° from the horizontal. If the
velocity of the car is to remain constant during climbing, determine the
additional power that must be delivered by the engine.

Answer: 147 kW (or 197 hp)

Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body

Example:

Determine the power required to accelerate a 900-kg car shown from rest
to a velocity of 80 km/h in 20 s on a level road.

Answer: 11.1 kW (or 14.9 hp)