Journal of Manufacturing Processes 23 (2016) 83–89

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Technical Paper

Surface finish control by electrochemical polishing in stainless steel

316 pipes
A.A. Gomez-Gallegos c,∗ , F. Mill a , A.R. Mount b
a
School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, United Kingdom
b
School of Chemistry, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JJ, United Kingdom
c
Advanced Forming Research Centre, University of Strathclyde, 85 Inchinnan Drive, Inchinnan, Renfrew PA4 9LJ, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a non-conventional machining process which is based on the
Received 14 October 2015 localised anodic dissolution of any conductive material. One of the main applications of ECM is the
Received in revised form 11 May 2016 polishing of materials with enhanced characteristics, such as high strength, heat-resistance or corrosion-
Accepted 16 May 2016
resistance, i.e. electrochemical polishing. The present work presents an evaluation of the parameters
involved in the ECM of Stainless Steel 316 (SS316) with the objective of predicting the resulting surface
Keywords:
finish on the sample. The interest of studying ECM on SS316 resides on the fact that a repeatable surface
Electrochemical machining
finish is not easily achieved. ECM experimental tests on SS316 pipes of 1.5 (0.0381 m) diameter were
Stainless steel 316
Surface finish conducted by varying machining parameters such as voltage, interelectrode gap, electrolyte inlet tem-
perature, and electrolyte flow rate. The surface finish of the samples was then evaluated in order to find
the significance of each of these parameters on the surface quality of the end product. Results showed
that overvoltage, which is dependent on the interelectrode gap and the electrolyte temperature, is one
of the main parameters affecting the surface finish; additionally there is a strong relationship between
the resulting surface finish and the electrolyte flow. The interelectrode gap and inlet electrolyte temper-
ature also affect the resulting surface finish but their influence was not so evident in this work. Finally,
the variation of the electrolyte temperature during the process was found to have a great impact on the
uniformity of the surface finish along the sample. We believe that this contribution enables the tailoring
of the surface finish to specific applications while reducing manufacturing costs and duration of the ECM
process.
© 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction dissolution occurs at the workpiece. This results more or less in the
negative shape of the tool profile [1]. The electrolyte is pumped
ECM of metals with special characteristics, such as enhanced through the interelectrode gap dragging the dissolved material
strength, heat or corrosion resistance, is a manufacturing option to away and cooling down the electrodes. Unfortunately, the ECM
produce products that could be difficult or impossible to get with process is difficult to predict due to the wide variety of physical
conventional manufacturing processes. ECM allows manufacturers phenomena involved and the lack of sufficient quantitative and
to shape any conductive material without affecting the properties qualitative data that can be used to develop of an accurate sim-
of the tool or the workpiece. In addition, ECM can generate a high ulation model [2,3].
quality surface finish at the workpiece. One of the main applications of ECM is the polishing of materials,
ECM consists of an electric circuit formed by the tool and i.e. electrochemical polishing. Several studies of electrochemical
the workpiece connected to an external electrical source. The polishing can be found in the published research [4–10], and stud-
electrodes are submerged in an electrolyte bath that closes the cir- ies on applying electrochemical polishing for the manufacture
cuit. When current passes through the circuit, a localised anodic of biomedical implants [11], solar cells [12] and electrodes for
photoelectron guns [13], are still under development. However,
electrochemical polishing is a process that regularly generates non-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 0141 534 5249.
repeatable results, e.g. the application of the process on stainless
E-mail addresses: a.gomez@ed.ac.uk, ares.gomez-gallegos@strath.ac.uk
steels (SS) typically generates widely variable surface finish. There-
(A.A. Gomez-Gallegos). fore, in many of these studies, special attention has been given

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.05.010
1526-6125/© 2016 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
84 A.A. Gomez-Gallegos et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 23 (2016) 83–89

to ECM on steels with high chromium content. Iron-chromium

alloys, such as stainless steels, have wide applications in indus-
try due to their characteristic behaviour (oxidation resistance).
The chromium in SS induces the formation of a protective film of
oxide on the material surface that prevents further corrosion [8].
However, this oxide film also modifies the ECM at the surface of
the material; it has low electrical conductivity and prevents the
workpiece from making direct contact with the electrolyte. Hence,
normal anodic dissolution cannot be implemented without the
breakdown of the oxide film. Partial breakdown of this film often
occurs, which causes pitting on the surface [4,8] or a non-uniform
surface finish [6,7,14].
The surface finish of the samples results from the specular or
non-specular reflection of light from the crystal faces that have
been electrochemically dissolved at different rates during the ECM
process [1,15]. An electrochemically polished surface is usually
associated with the random removal of atoms from the anode
(workpiece) [15]. Datta and Landolt [16] observed that an active dis-
solution of material at low current density leads to surface etching,
and a transpassive dissolution at high current density leads to sur-
face brightening. This was also noted by Lee [5] and McGeough [1];
in their studies when the current density was raised, the surface fin- Fig. 1. Schematic of the electrochemical machining system.
ish on the workpiece became smoother. Lozano-Morales [14] found
the same behaviour with ECM in Niobium samples. Elsewhere, 2. Experimental method
Wagner [17] and Wang et al. [18] gave a plausible explanation of the
effect of the electrolyte flow rate on the surface finish on SS. They 2.1. Sample preparation
argue that during ECM, the electric current breaks the oxide film
and local electrolyte flow turbulences would ideally remove the The pipes machined were commercial stainless steel 316
film particles (oxides, chromium carbides and reaction products). (SS316) pipes of 0.17 m length and 0.0381 m diameter, which were
If the turbulence is not sufficient for removing these lose particles, manufactured by rolling and welding. The surface finish of the pipe
Fen+ diffusion through the surface layer is possible, and the current prior to processing was dark and opaque and its quality was uni-
density efficiency decreases drastically, thus affecting the surface form along the pipe. Welding left behind a weld-flash at the interior
finish. face of the pipe. The exterior of the pipe was not treated.
In other works, Lee [5] found that when electropolishing stain-
less steel 316L, better electropolishing results were obtained at 2.2. Electrochemical (ECM) setup
a temperature close to 68 ◦ C than at 30 ◦ C. Later on, Deconinck
[2] demonstrated how the electrochemical reactions rates depend Fig. 1 shows the ECM array consisting of a cylindrical solid tool
strongly on the electrolyte temperature, which in turn depends and a pipe (workpiece) placed vertically and concentric with each
on the electrolyte flow rate, interelectrode gap and potential other on the bedplate of the ECM machine. The tool was held by
applied. the machine head and the workpiece was fixed to the bedplate
Mount et al. [6–8] built a segmented tool for the further analy- by a non-conductive clamp. The electrolyte flowed from the top
sis of the ECM process when applied on SS. Their results described and between the pipe and the tool, and the setup was positioned
a change in the surface finish of the samples along the elec- in such a fashion that allows the electrolyte to exit the array. The
trolyte flow. It was found that this special behaviour is due to temperature of the electrolyte was measured in situ at the entrance
the change of the dissolution valence of the alloy. Their results of the pipe using a digital thermometer.
showed that for high dissolution valences, z = 3.5 ± 0.1, the resulting
surface was reflective and bright. This surface fish is characteris-
2.3. Test parameters
tic of iron and chromium dissolving in their high valence states
(as Fe(III), zFe = 3, and Cr(VI), zCr = 6); however, if z was lower,
The tool had the similar dimensions as the pipe. Its diameter
2.5 ± 0.1, the surface finish was passivated. This surface finish is
offset from of the interior diameter of the pipe (workpiece) but
also characteristic of iron and chromium dissolving but now in their
undersized radially by 2, 4 or 8 mm. Electrical clips were connected
low valence states (as Fe(II), zFe = 2, and Cr(III), zCr = 3) [8]. These
to the tool-workpiece array providing a constant voltage of 18, 24
results are in agreement with the study of Lohrengel et al. [3] and
and 36 V (possible voltage losses in the system were not consid-
Murkherjee et al. [19].
ered). The experimental parameters are summarised in Table 1.
From the above, we can conclude that it is essential to under-
The electrolyte used was Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3 ) with specific
stand how the ECM parameters affect the surface finish. The
gravity (S.G.) of 1.15. Electrolyte flow rate was recirculated and set
effective removal of this film is governed by a combination of
metal-electrolyte-machining parameters. Hence, in the present
work, the ECM machining parameters, gap, voltage, flow rate and Table 1
Variables used for ECM on SS316 experimental tests.
inlet electrolyte temperature, are modified in order to evaluate
their role on the achievement of the expected surface finish and Name Value
a homogeneous breakdown of the oxide film. To the best of our y Interelectrode gap 2, 4, 8 mm
knowledge, this is the first time that the inner surface finish of stain- V1 Voltage 18, 24, 36 V
less steel commercial pipes has been enhanced by electrochemical Q Electrolyte flow rate 1.7 × 10−4 , 4.2 × 10−4 , 6.7 × 10−4 ,
polishing to tailor it for industrial applications and large scale 10 × 10−4 m3 /s
Te Inlet electrolyte temperature 7, 15.3 ◦ C
production.
 A.A. Gomez-Gallegos et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 23 (2016) 83–89 85

Table 2
Surface finish classification of the SS316 pipes machined by ECM.

at 1.7 × 10−4 , 4.2 × 10−4 , 6.7 × 10−4 , 10 × 10−4 m3 /s (10, 25, 40 and entrance – reflective and bright exit samples; this passivation is
60 L/min). The electrolyte was stored in a pool at room temperature, due to the accumulation of the electrolyte in this area forming a
hence the inlet electrolyte temperature was considered constant. small pool before it can exit the array. The weld-flash is also visible
However the machining was developed on two different days, so in the entire length of the pipe, and some flow marks can also be
the inlet temperature changed from 7 to 15.3 ◦ C. Each test lasted observed.
for 10 s.
3.4. Reflective and dark
3. Results and discussion
A typical example of the samples with reflective and dark sur-
Table 2 summarises the resulting surface finish qualities of the face finish is presented in Table 2(d). Average roughness of 308 nm
SS samples after ECM. The samples were divided in four categories was measured with a Mitutoyo® profilometer and 426 nm using the
according to their surface finish quality: (a) passivated entrance – optoelectronic ZYGO® microscope. Similar to the results obtained
reflective and bright exit; (b) reflective and bright; (c) reflective and for the reflective and bright samples, this roughness is higher than
dark; and (d) passivated. the expected one due to the curvature of the samples. The same
small ring of passivated surface is visible at the exit of these sam-
3.1. Passivated entrance – reflective and bright exit ples, but the weld-flash is barely visible along the length of the pipe.
No flow marks can be observed.
Table 2(a) presents a typical sample with a passivated surface Visual similarity between the passivated surface (Table 2(b))
finish at the entrance and a reflective and bright surface finish at the and the reflective and dark surface (Table 2(d)) can be observed;
exit. An average roughness in the top part of the sample (passivated this is due to the presence of the oxide film in both cases. The dif-
entrance) of 2.303 ␮m was measured with a Mitutoyo® profilo- ference is that in the first case this film is loose, and in the second
meter. A small ring of passivated surface at the exit of the pipe is the film is firmly attached to the surface of the metal.
visible; this passivation is due to the accumulation of the electrolyte The ECM parameters, such as current density (J), overpotential
in this area forming a small pool before it can exit the array. The (V0 ) and temperature difference (ıT), which are dependent on the
weld-flash is also visible but just at the entrance of the pipe. controlled parameters (voltage, gap, electrolyte inlet temperature
and flow rate), were compared with the objective of finding which
3.2. Passivated of them had an influence, if any, on the resulting surface finish of the
sample. By properly adjusting the process parameters, we expected
Table 2(b) shows an example of a sample with passivated to achieve a reflective and bright surface finish.
surface finish. Average roughness of 540 nm was measured with
a Mitutoyo® profilometer. The sample presented in Table 2(b)
3.5. Overpotential (V0 )
exhibits flow marks. This was characteristic of the 8 mm gap, and
this behaviour of the electrolyte flow in an annulus system has been
Metal dissolution was accomplished by the deliberated appli-
observed before in fluid dynamics studies [15,20].
cation of an external potential difference between the electrodes
during the ECM process. The potential needed to ensure a contin-
3.3. Reflective and bright
uous discharge of metal between the electrode and the electrolyte
is named overpotential (V0 ). The overpotential was calculated by
A typical reflective and bright sample is presented in Table 2(c).
using Eq. (1) [21]:
An average roughness of 116 nm was measured with a Mitutoyo®
profilometer and 265 nm with an optoelectronic ZYGO® micro- ke (V1 − V0 )A
scope. These values are higher than the expected values of I= (1)
y
an electrochemical machined surface; this variation however is
believed to be due to the curvature of the samples, which made where ke (S/m) is the electrolyte conductivity, y (m) is the interelec-
difficult the roughness measurement. A small ring of passivated trode gap, V0 (V) is the overpotential, and A (m2 ) is the tool surface
surface at the exit of the pipe is visible, similar to the passivated area.
86 A.A. Gomez-Gallegos et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 23 (2016) 83–89

Fig. 2. Power, P, and overpotential, V0 , in relation with the surface finish: passivated
entrance – reflective and bright exit (rhomboids), reflective and bright (squares), Fig. 4. Current density, J, and overpotential, V0 , in relation with the surface finish:
reflective and dark (triangles), and passivated (circles). passivated entrance – reflective and bright exit (rhomboids), reflective and bright
(squares), reflective and dark (triangles), and passivated (circles).

The results of the present work show the importance of V0 in not sufficient to maintain a steady ion migration though the oxide
the resulting surface finish at the SS316 samples. Previous works film. Hence a non-uniform surface finish is attained. This is consis-
[4,6,7] found that a bright and reflective surface finish is achieved tent with other studies [8,16] where the areas of variable surface
when V0 is in the range of 9.7 and 12.4 V. In our study, this range is finish were related with a variation in the valence (z) of SS316.
wider, 9.1–15.0 V. See Fig. 2. In the present work, however it was not possible to measure the
Power supply (P) in ECM is a function of the voltage applied valence during the ECM process, and therefore, these findings could
and the current measured. P controls the volume and rate of not be verified. Additionally, when the overpotential is below 7 V,
material removed during the process and affects the resulting the surface finish is passivated (circles in Fig. 2). In these cases the
surface finish. Tailor [22] explained that with a very low com- potential drop between the electrodes is considered too high. Thus,
bined current–voltage value, the material removal is minimal, and even though the oxide film is broken, the dissolution of the metal
attained this behaviour to the formation of a very thin passive is uncontrolled [23].
film on the surface of the anode that stops further reactions. At
a moderate level of current–voltage combination, brightening of 3.6. Current density (J)
the surface is observed. In this region, the current is high enough to
dissolve the material at the surface of the anode. A further increase Current density, J, can be explained simply as the quantity of
in voltage generates over-polishing or pitting, and further cause electric current that flows on a unit of area during ECM. The cur-
of electrolytic by-products that may generate a dull surface finish rent during the ECM process was recorded by a data acquisition
[22]. This behaviour is evident in Figs. 2 and 3. software, and the dimensions of the tool/workpiece were known.
The samples that present a more uniform reflective surface fin- Hence these data are used to calculate the current density. Fig. 3
ish (squares and triangles in Fig. 2) are observed when the power is presents the influence of J in the resulting surface finish. For J over
over 7 kW and the overpotential is limited between 7 and 15 V. In 4.5 A/cm2 (squares and the triangles in Fig. 3) a reflective surface
the samples where the surface finish is not uniform (rhomboids), is achieved. However, when J dropped below those values, there
i.e. a passivated surface was found at the entrance and a reflec- was not sufficient energy to break the oxide film uniformly. Hence,
tive and bright surface at the exit; the overpotential is over 14 V a passivated or non-uniform surface finish was obtained. This is
and the power is low (below 7 kW). Published studies [4,16] have in agreement with the work presented by Wang [18] where ECM
shown that the mass transport control of the dissolved material is on stainless steel was carried out under low current density (up
a critical factor for the resulting surface finish. Therefore a plausi- to 2.5 A/cm2 ). It was found that at low current density a compact
ble explanation for this behaviour is that the potential difference is oxide film is formed on the surface of the metal and it can hinder
the metal dissolution.
Moreover when V0 is too high and J is not sufficient to maintain a
stable migration of ions from the workpiece, a non-uniform surface
finish is attained (rhomboids in Fig. 3).
There is an evident relationship between the overvoltage and
the current density. A variation in V0 is evidence of a change in
the electrochemical reactions at the electrode surface [24] and this
affects the surface finish of the sample. Fig. 4 presents this rela-
tionship. It can be observed that when V0 increases, more energy is
needed to drive the reactions at the sample surface. If this energy is
not enough to maintain a stable migration of ions from the work-
piece, a non-uniform surface finish is attained (rhomboids in Fig. 4).
In practice, not all the current is used for the removal of material,
which influences the results presented here. Other side reac-
tions such as oxide precipitation, or metal dissolution due to high
valence, may exist and affect the current density efficiency. More-
over, the electrolyte conductivity plays a crucial role in J, ke , in turn,
Fig. 3. Current density, J, and voltage within the cell, V, in relation with the surface
finish: passivated entrance – reflective and bright exit (rhomboids), reflective and
is dependent on the temperature, electrolyte flow rate, electrolyte
bright (squares), reflective and dark (triangles), and passivated (circles). concentration, etc. [25], thus affecting the overall outcome.
 A.A. Gomez-Gallegos et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 23 (2016) 83–89 87

Fig. 5. Electrolyte flow rate, Q, and overpotential, V0 , in relation with the surface Fig. 6. Electrolyte velocity and overpotential, V0 , in relation with the surface finish:
finish: passivated entrance – reflective and bright exit (rhomboids), reflective and passivated entrance – reflective and bright exit (rhomboids), reflective and bright
bright (squares), reflective and dark (triangles), and passivated (circles). (squares), reflective and dark (triangles), and passivated (circles).

3.7. Flow rate

Fig. 6 shows the relationship between the surface finish, the
electrolyte flow and the interelectrode gap. From fluid dynamic
The role of the electrolyte flow rate is twofold: it flushes away
studies, it is known that the velocity of the flow increases when
the metal ions (ECM products) dissolved from the anode before they
the interelectrode gap is smaller, and that when the electrolyte
can reach the cathode and, at the same time, mitigates the temper-
velocity is too low, the turbulence in the fluid is not sufficient for
ature increase of the system. The accumulation of the machining
flushing away of the ECM products, hence affecting the process.
products could lead to a shortcut of the system, and the increase
This behaviour was also observed by Lee [5], where an optimum
of the temperature affects the conductivity of the electrolyte [1].
gap of 1 mm, in order to obtain a smooth surface, was found.
Hence, there is an impact of the flow rate in the overpotential during
the process.
Fig. 5 demonstrates the influence of the electrolyte flow rate on 3.9. Temperature difference (ıT)
the surface finish. Low flow rates (<3.3 × 10−4 m3 /s) or low elec-
trolyte velocities (<1 m/s) led to the formation of a passive oxide Some samples were found to have two different surface finish
film (which are subject to pitting) [4] or resulted in a non-uniform along their length following the flow path of the electrolyte. This
surface finish along the sample. This may be due to the heat gener- non-uniform surface finish is usually characterised by a passivated
ated during the ECM process which was not well dissipated. Usually section at the entrance and a reflective and bright one at the exit. We
the change in temperature results in a change in the conductivity believe that this behaviour is as a result of an increment in temper-
of the electrolyte, which is temperature dependent, thus affecting ature of the electrolyte while flowing along the length of the sample
the resulting surface finish. McGeough [1] stated that the surface due to Joule heating. Hence, for this study the electrolyte inlet tem-
was smoother when the electrolyte velocity was increased. How- perature for each sample was measured in situ, and the electrolyte
ever, if the flow rate is too high (>6.7 × 10−4 m3 /s) or the electrolyte outlet temperature was calculated applying heat transfer equations
velocity is over 2 m/s, the process results in a dark surface (trian- based on the ECM parameters used.
gles in Fig. 5). From previous works [26], it is known that this film is When the temperature increases, the conditions of the ECM pro-
mainly formed by Fe, C and small traces of Cr, and that it is strongly cess change, resulting in a different surface finish. The change in
attached to the metal surface. Additionally, this oxide film limits temperature along the workpiece surface observed in the samples
the current efficiency [18,27] during the ECM process. Results show presented here may be a result of a change in the electrolyte flow
that the flow rate that generates a reflective and bright surface fin- rate. Hence, the electrolyte cannot control efficiently the tempera-
ish is approximately 4.2 × 10−4 m3 /s, electrolyte velocities between ture of the electrodes, promoting the change in valence at different
1 and 2 m/s (squares in Figs. 5 and 6). In addition, high flow rates points on their surface. It is known that the electric conductivity
lead to a small diffusion layer at the anode, hence a higher current is directly related with the temperature of the electrolyte [31,32].
density is needed to achieve surface brightening [15]; however, When the conductivity changes, the electrochemical reactions dur-
from previous works [28,29], it was observed that an stable and ing the ECM also change, thus affecting the resulting surface finish
even flow is critical to keep the supersaturated films (presented by on the sample.
Lohrengel [29]) and to obtain smoother surface finish. The difference in temperature within the sample may be also
affected by the interelectrode gap. ECM products are more easily
3.8. Interelectrode gap accumulated in a small gap than in a larger one, equivalently the
velocity of the electrolyte flow is higher in the small gap compared
The distance between the electrodes and in where the elec- with the larger gap. If the electrolyte velocity within the interelec-
trolyte flows is named interelectrode gap; and it has been trode gap is not enough, some ECM products may be accumulated
demonstrated to be another important parameter determining the at the end of the pipe, provoking a change in the concentration and
resulting surface finish of the sample. Fig. 6 shows that a big gap conductivity of the electrolyte at this point. This effect was also
(≈8 mm) and low electrolyte flow rates (<1 m/s) generate a pas- observed by Tang et al. [28] when the surface finish of their samples
sivated surface finish. This is due the fact that the interelectrode improved when adding backpressure to the electrolyte flow, hence
gap is related inversely to the current density of the ECM process avoiding the accumulation of products at the surface of the work-
[15,16,28,30]; when J is reduced, e.g. by increasing the gap, there piece. For a uniform surface finish, the temperature difference, ıT,
is not enough energy during the process to break the oxide film of the electrolyte across the length of the pipe, and in consequence
uniformly. its variation in conductivity, should be small (<8 ◦ C).
88 A.A. Gomez-Gallegos et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 23 (2016) 83–89

J is related with the interelectrode gap, and the temperature and

conductivity of the electrolyte.
The results presented in this paper could be used as a tool
for the achievement of the desired surface finish on a sample of
SS316. We believe that this analysis and subsequent further devel-
opment could be applied with other metal alloys. Moreover, it is
an important step towards the understanding of the ECM process
and an adequate prediction of the resulting surface finish. The accu-
rate determination of the fundamental relationships between the
power, overpotential, interelectrode gap, current density and elec-
trolyte flow rate and electrolyte temperature, will lead to more
accurate computational simulations of the ECM process and aid
the tool design techniques. However more experimental work is
still needed.

Fig. 7. Temperature difference, ıT, between the electrolyte inlet and outlet temper-
ature, and overpotential, V0 , in relation with the surface finish: passivated entrance Acknowledgements
– reflective and bright exit (rhomboids), reflective and bright (squares), reflective
and dark (triangles), and passivated (circles). This work was developed when the author was part of the Insti-
tute for Materials and Processes of the University of Edinburgh,
Fig. 7 shows ıT along the length of the samples and their rela- Scotland, UK.
tionship with the resulting surface finish. The samples that present The author would like to thank Steve Duffield from pECM Sys-
two different surface finish (rhomboids in Fig. 7) are the ones whose tems Ltd, UK for the experimental samples and practical tests
ıT is high. This difference is usually result of an electrolyte flow rate experience; and to The Mexican National Council for Science and
that is not enough (<25 L/min) to dissipate the heat of the ECM pro- Technology (CONACyT) for the support and provision of the schol-
cess. Additionally, it can be observed that a uniform surface finish arship to Ares Argelia Gomez Gallegos for the development of this
is presented when ıT is low (squares, triangles and circles in Fig. 7). project.

3.10. Valence, z
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