Cash and Receivables: Objectives

CHAPTER
Cash and
Receivables
Objectives
After careful study of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify items of cash (and cash equivalents).
2. Understand the importance of cash management.
3. Discuss revenue recognition when the right of return exists.
4. Understand the credit policies related to accounts receivable.
5. Explain the gross and net methods to account for cash discounts.
6. Estimate and record bad debts using a percentage of sales.
7. Estimate and record bad debts using an aging analysis.
8. Explain pledging, assignment, and factoring of accounts receivable.
9. Account for short-term notes receivable.
7-1
SYNOPSIS
Cash
1. Investors, long-term creditors, and short-term creditors are interested in the ability of a company to
pay its operating expenses, dividends, interest, and to repay its current debts. The existence of cash
and other liquid assets that may be quickly converted into cash to pay current debts is important to
these users of financial statements.
2. In the current asset section of a company's balance sheet, "cash" is the resource on hand available to
pay current obligations. "Cash" cannot be subject to any contractual restrictions that prevent using it
to pay current debts. An example of a contractual restriction would be a “sinking fund” to repay
bonds that the company issued. The company deposits cash into the sinking fund and uses the
proceeds to pay off the bonds when they mature. Items properly included in the measurement of
cash on hand are coins, currency, checking accounts, savings accounts, negotiable checks, and bank
drafts. Items that should not be included are certificates of deposit, bank overdrafts, postdated
checks, travel advances, and postage stamps. Certificates of deposit (CDs), which are normally
classified as temporary investments, are short-term investments issued by banks that allow a
company to invest idle cash for short periods.
3. Most companies use the title Cash and Cash Equivalents on their balance sheet in place of Cash. This
category includes cash as well as securities, which are defined as "cash equivalents" because of their
liquidity and low risk. Generally, only investments with maturity dates of less than three months can
be considered a cash equivalent. Examples of cash equivalents are commercial paper, treasury bills,
and money market funds.
4. Efficient cash management is very important to every company. Proper cash management requires
the investment of idle funds. However, a company must estimate the timing of cash inflows and
outflows to ensure the availability of cash to meet its needs prior to embarking on a short-term
investment program.
5. Cash planning systems consist of those methods and procedures, such as cash budgets, adopted to
ensure that a company has adequate cash available to meet maturing obligations and that it invests
any unused or excess cash. Cash control systems are the methods and procedures adopted to ensure
the safeguarding of the company's funds. Cash control systems can be subdivided into control over
cash receipts and control over cash payments.
Receivables
6. Receivables consist of various claims against customers and others arising from the operations of a
company. Most of a company's receivables are trade receivables that arise from selling products or
rendering services to customers. Most trade receivables are recorded at their maturity value rather
than present value because the short collection period (usually 60 days or less) makes the difference
between the two values negligible. Most trade receivables are in the form of accounts receivable,
which are nonwritten promises by customers to pay the amount due within a specified time period
(typically 30 days).
7. Nontrade receivables are claims that are not related to selling products or rendering services. A
company keeps these receivables separate from trade receivables both in the accounting records and
in its financial statements. Examples of nontrade receivables are deposits with utilities, advances to
subsidiary companies, deposits made to guarantee performance, declared dividends to be received
and accrued interest on investments, and loans made by nonfinancial companies.
7-2 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Revenue Recognition and Valuation of Trade Receivables
8. While sales on credit increase revenue, they also result in bad debt losses from nonpayment by some
customers. A company recognizes revenue from credit sales when realization has occurred and the
revenue is earned. When the right of return exists, as in book publishing, FASB Statement No. 48
identifies six criteria that must be satisfied to recognize revenue at the time of sale:
(a) the sales price is known at the date of sale

(b) the buyer has paid or will pay the seller and there is no contingency
(c) the buyer's obligation to the seller would not be changed by theft or damage to the product
(d) the buyer has an economic substance apart from the seller
(e) the seller does not have significant future obligations related to resale by the buyer, and
(f) the seller can reasonably estimate the amount of future returns.
If one or more of these criteria are not met, the seller would defer the recognition of revenue from
the sales until all the criteria are met or when the return privilege expires, whichever occurs first.
Accounts Receivable
9. Sellers offer cash (sales) discounts on credit sales to induce buyers to pay more promptly and to
reduce the risk of nonpayment by customers. Cash discounts are recognized for financial accounting
purposes. They may be accounted for by one of two methods by the seller:
(a) Gross Price Method: The selling company records the receivable at the gross sales price with no
accounting recognition of the available cash discount until it is actually taken. When the
customer takes the discount, it is debited to the Sales Discounts Taken account. This account is
deducted from sales on the income statement to determine net sales.
(b) Net Price Method: The selling company records the receivable at the sales price less the
available cash discount (the net price). Subsequently, if the customer does not take the
discount, the company credits the difference between the amount paid (the gross price) and
the amount originally recorded (the net price) to the Sales Discounts Not Taken account. This
account is reported as interest revenue in the Other Items section of the income statement.
10. While the gross price method lacks conceptual validity, most companies use it because the cash
discount is usually immaterial and the recordkeeping less complicated. For a numerical example, refer
to Example 7-1 of the text.
11. A sales allowance is a reduction in price to compensate the customer for defective goods that are
retained by the customer. A sales return occurs when the customer returns defective or nondefective
goods and receives credit. If sales returns and allowances are estimated at the time of sale, the
amount is debited to Sales Returns and Allowances and credited to Allowance for Sales Returns and
Allowances. This allowance account is a contra account to Accounts Receivable and decreases the
carrying value of Accounts Receivable on the balance sheet. However, because sales returns and
allowances are usually immaterial, a company normally records them at the time they occur and
discloses them on the income statement as a deduction from sales revenue.
Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-3

Valuation of Uncollectible Accounts Receivable
12. Companies that sell on credit must maintain a balance between maximizing revenue and minimizing
bad debt risks. When a reasonable credit policy has been established, the seller will normally
experience some degree of nonpayment by customers. A company may account for bad debt losses,
which decrease the value of Accounts Receivable, by either of two procedures: (a) in the year of the
sale based on an estimate of the amount of uncollectible accounts, the allowance method, or (b)
when it determines that a specific customer account is uncollectible, the direct write-off method.
13. FASB Statement No. 5 requires bad debt losses that are material to be estimated and included in the
current financial statements if (a) sufficient evidence exists at the balance sheet date that some
receivables will not be collected, and (b) the amount can be reasonably estimated. The journal entry
involves a debit to Bad Debt Expense and a credit to Allowance for Doubtful Accounts. Bad Debt
Expense is usually classified as an operating expense on the income statement. Allowance for
Doubtful Accounts is a contra account to Accounts Receivable and, as such, is disclosed on the
balance sheet. The difference between Accounts Receivable and the Allowance account is the net
realizable value of the receivables.
14. Under the allowance method, a company may estimate bad debts using techniques that emphasize
either the income statement or the balance sheet. Under the income statement approach, a rate for
estimating bad debt expense (percentage of sales) is established by determining the historical
relationship between actual bad debts incurred and net credit sales (although total sales may be
used). This relationship is expressed as a percentage that is then applied to net credit sales in the
current year to determine Bad Debt Expense for the current period. The existing balance in the
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts is disregarded in calculating and recording the bad debt expense.
The focus is on correctly estimating the expense. This procedure is simple to apply and results in a
matching of expenses with sales in the current period.
15. Under the balance sheet approach, a company may estimate bad debt expense as a percentage of
outstanding accounts receivable or based on an aging of accounts receivable. When estimating bad
debt expense as a percentage of outstanding accounts receivable, a rate determined from the
historical relationship between accounts receivable and bad debts is applied to currently outstanding
accounts receivable to determine the estimated uncollectible accounts. When using an aging
schedule, accounts receivable are categorized according to the length of time outstanding (e.g., 60
days, 120 days, 240 days) and then historically determined bad debt percentages are applied to each
category. These are summed to determine the total estimated uncollectible accounts. Under both
balance sheet approaches, a company compares the amount of estimated uncollectible accounts
receivable with the existing balance in the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts. The entry to record bad
debt expense is the amount necessary to bring the Allowance account balance up to the required
ending balance. The balance sheet approaches provide useful credit information and result in
reporting the best estimate of the net realizable value of accounts receivable.
16. Under the allowance method, a company uses the valuation account, Allowance for Doubtful
Accounts, because the actual accounts that will ultimately become uncollectible are not known at the
time the estimate is made. Therefore, when the company determines that a specific account is
uncollectible, it is written off by debiting the Allowance account and crediting Accounts Receivable.
The write-off entry does not change either total current assets or the net realizable value of the
accounts receivable. The income statement is also unaffected by this entry.

17. If a company later collects an account that had previously been written off, it reinstates the account
in accounts receivable before recording the cash receipt. This process provides a better record of the
customer's credit history. If the company is using either of the estimated bad debts methods, the
reinstatement entry involves a debit to Accounts Receivable and a credit to Allowance for Doubtful
Accounts for the amount of cash received. The cash collection is then recorded in the usual manner.
If the company is using the direct write-off method (discussed in the next item), the reinstatement
entry debits Accounts Receivable and credits Bad Debt Expense.
18. When using the direct write-off method, a company records bad debts as an expense during the
period in which it determines that a specific receivable account is uncollectible. The journal entry
debits Bad Debt Expense and credits Accounts Receivable. However, this method violates the
matching principle and is not allowed under generally accepted accounting principles unless bad debt
losses are immaterial.
Generating Immediate Cash from Accounts Receivable
19. Rather than waiting for customer payments in order to receive cash from accounts receivable, a
company may speed up the cash flow by one of three processes:
(a) using the receivables as collateral for a loan (pledging). The company retains both risks and
benefits of ownership and is responsible for routine collection and administration;
(b) contracting with a finance company to receive cash advances on specific customer accounts
and to make repayment as the receivables are collected by the borrowing company (assigning).
The company retains credit activities and because the accounts are assigned with recourse, the
risk of ownership is retained; or
(c) selling the receivable (without recourse) to a bank or finance company, which assumes credit
and collection activities, as well as risk of ownership (factoring).
20. FASB Statement No. 140 requires that a company (the transferor) record the transfer of accounts
receivable in which it surrenders control over the receivables to another company (the transferee) as
a sale when all three of the following conditions are met:
(a) the transferred assets (e.g. accounts receivable) have been isolated from the transferor (the
company);
(b) the transferee (the other company) has the right to sell the accounts receivable; and
(c) the company has no agreement that entitles or obligates it to repurchase the receivables
before maturity.
On completion of the transfer of accounts receivable, the transferor continues to report on its balance
sheet any retained interest in the accounts receivable. If the transfer is a sale, the company records
the proceeds, eliminates the receivables, and records a gain or loss. If the transfer is not deemed a
sale, the company records the proceeds of the transfer as a secured borrowing with a pledge of
collateral.
21. Credit card sales involving a national credit card company result in an account receivable in the name
of the card-issuing company. The value of this account receivable is reduced by credit card fees owed
by the seller to the credit card company for the use of its credit department. The seller reports Credit
Card Expense as an operating expense on the income statement.

22. While factoring and assignment agreements are formally entered in the accounting records, pledge
agreements are not. However, the assignor company should disclose the existence of factoring,
pledging, or assignment agreements related to accounts receivable either parenthetically or in the
notes to its financial statements. Such information is important in evaluating a company's liquidity
and financial flexibility. The disclosure should include important conditions and terms related to the
agreements. In addition, receivables that are assigned should be reported on the balance sheet
separately from unassigned receivables.
Notes Receivable
23. A note receivable is an unconditional written agreement to collect a specified sum of money on a
specified date. In addition, it is a negotiable instrument that may be sold by the holder to a third
party, and usually involves an agreement to receive interest on the principal amount of the note.
24. There are generally two types of short-term notes receivable. The first, a short-term note with a
stated interest rate (interest-bearing notes) is recorded at face value and subsequent interest
revenue is recorded when received. The other type, short-term notes receivable without a stated
interest rate (non-interest-bearing notes), are recorded at their maturity value unless the interest is
readily determinable and the company wishes to recognize interest. However, recording a non-
interest-bearing note at its present value and recognizing interest revenue as it is earned is
conceptually better.
25. A company may wish to obtain cash from a customer's note prior to its maturity date by discounting
the note at a bank. The bank deducts the amount of interest discount it wishes to earn on the
transaction from the maturity value of the note and remits the net amount to the company. In order
to account for a discounted note, each of the following items must be determined:
(a) face value of note

(b) interest to maturity (face value × interest rate × interest period)
(c) maturity value of note (face value + interest to maturity)
(d) discount (maturity value of note × discount rate × discount period)
(e) proceeds (maturity value − discount)
(f) accrued interest revenue (face value × interest rate × period of time note is held by company)
(g) book value of note (face value + accrued interest revenue)
(h) gain or loss on sale of note (proceeds − book value).
On the date of the discount, the company makes journal entries to accrue interest revenue and to
record the proceeds received, any gain or loss on the transfer of the note, and the contingent liability.
Most discounting is done on a with recourse basis, which means that the company agrees to pay the
bank the maturity value of the note at its maturity date if the maker of the note fails to do so.
26. When a note is discounted on a recourse basis, the company discounting the note is contingently
liable on the note until the maker of the note pays it in full at its maturity date. FASB Statement No. 5
requires disclosure of this contingent liability in the financial statements if the contingency exists at
the balance sheet date. The discounted note is recorded in a separate account, Notes
Receivable Discounted. This may appear on the face of the balance sheet as a deduction
from Notes Receivable. Alternatively, a company may report notes receivable net of the
discounted note and disclose the contingent liability in a note to the financial statements.
27. When a note is discounted on a recourse basis, the company discounting the note is contingently
liable on the note until the maker of the note pays it in full at its maturity date. FASB Statement No. 5
requires disclosure of this contingent liability in the financial statements if the contingency exists at
the balance sheet date.

28. GAAP allows a company to elect to report many types of its financial assets (and financial liabilities) at
their fair value. The types of financial assets that a company may report at their fair values include
notes receivable and accounts receivable.
SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES
True-False Questions
Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false.
1. Cash included in a sinking fund would Answer: False

ordinarily be classified under the cash Cash in a sinking fund is contractually restricted
heading on the balance sheet. and is not considered cash on the balance sheet.
2. The measurement of cash on hand Answer: False
classified as a current asset includes Postage stamps are generally classified as a
postage stamps. prepaid expense.
3. Proper cash management by a Answer: True
company requires the investment of Because idle cash is a nonproductive asset, most
idle funds on hand. prudent companies seek to invest idle cash in
short-term investments.
4. Cash control systems are employed to Answer: True
ensure the safeguarding of an Because cash is the most liquid asset, it is also the
organization's funds. most susceptible to theft or misappropriation. This
requires that a cash control system be in place to
protect the organization's funds.
5. A cash budget would probably be an Answer: True
integral part of a company's cash A cash budget is the major component of a
planning system. company’s cash planning system.
6. The adjusting journal entry to record Answer: False
estimated bad debts under the Because the initial adjusting entry to record bad
allowance method involves a debit to debt expense is made before a determination
Bad Debts Expense and credits to the regarding which specific accounts will be
accounts of customers whose balances uncollectible, it is impossible to know which
are believed to be uncollectible. customers’ accounts will be uncollectible. The
credit is made to the Allowance for Bad Debts until
a specific account is identified.
7. At the date of sale most trade accounts Answer: True
receivable are recorded at their Because the maturity dates on most trade
maturity value. receivables are short, the difference between their
present value and maturity value is usually not
material. In addition, APB Opinion No. 21
specifically allows the recording of receivables of
customers at maturity value instead of present
value.

8. The collection period for most trade Answer: True
receivables is 60 days or less. Most trade receivables are collected within 60
days.
9. If a credit sale is made with terms of Answer: False
2/10, n/30, the customer is given a The “n” in the term refers to the discount period,
10% discount if the bill is paid in less not the discount rate. The 2 represents the
than 30 days. discount rate. Based on this, the customer in the
question would be entitled to a 2% discount on
any portion of the bill paid within the first 10 days.
The 30 represents that the bill must be paid in full
in 30 days.
10. If the seller grants a cash discount to Answer: True
credit customers, it is acceptable If the seller grants cash discounts, the sale and
accounting practice to record both the the receivable can be recorded using either the
sale and the receivable net of the gross (no recording of the discount until it is
available cash discount. actually taken) or the net (discount is assumed to
be taken at initial recording of the sale and
receivable) method.
11. When sales returns and allowances are Answer: True
not material to a company's financial Unless material, it is acceptable and simpler to
statements, they are usually not record sales returns and allowances as they occur
accounted for in the statements on an instead of estimating the amount.
estimated basis.
12. The direct write-off method of Answer: False

accounting for bad debts is widely used The direct write-off method is not GAAP and can
by companies that sell on credit. only be used if bad debt expense is not material in
amount. Most companies that sell on credit have
enough bad debt expense to prohibit the use of
the direct write-off method.
13. If the proportion of credit sales to total Answer: False
sales varies from period to period, a Only credit sales can have bad debt expense
company should base its bad debt loss associated with them, therefore if the proportion
estimate on total sales rather than of credit to net sales is changing from period to
credit sales. period, a company should only use credit sales to
estimate bad debt expense.
14. Basing a bad debt loss estimate on the Answer: True
relationship between actual losses and Using accounts receivable as a basis for bad debt
the accounts receivable total does not expense is known as the balance sheet approach
precisely match a company's current and it is not precisely matching expenses with
expenses with current revenues. revenue. It does, however, provide a better
reporting of the net realizable value of accounts
receivable.
15. A bad debt adjusting entry that is Answer: True
developed from an aging of accounts When using an aging of accounts system, the
receivable must take into consideration value in the allowance account is used to
the preadjustment balance in the determine the appropriate amount of bad debt
allowance for doubtful accounts. expense required during the period.

16. When accounts receivable are factored, Answer: True
ownership of the receivables is Factoring involves the sale and transfer of
transferred to the party acting as the accounts receivable.
factor.
17. When a company pledges its accounts Answer: False

receivable to a bank, the bank takes When a company pledges their accounts
title to the receivables at the time of receivable they are in essence using the
the pledging. receivables as collateral for a loan. The company,
not the lender, retains the title to the receivables.
18. Assigned accounts receivable should be Answer: True
disclosed separately from unassigned These receivables are reported separately because
accounts receivable on the borrowing the collection of funds from these receivables are
company's balance sheet. used for a specific purpose; the transfer of the
funds to the assignee.
19. The term "non-interest-bearing note" is Answer: True
a misnomer because all notes do in fact All notes receivable involve interest, whether
contain an interest element. specifically stated or implied. In the case of a
“non-interest bearing note,” the interest is just
included in the maturity value of the note.
20. Travel advances to sales personnel are Answer: False
properly classified as trade accounts Travel advances to sales personnel are properly
receivable. classified as a prepaid item.
Multiple Choice Questions
Select the one best answer for each of the following questions.
1. The measurement of cash on hand classified Answer: (c) certificates of deposit.

as a current asset would include each of the Certificates of deposit are often confused with
following, except: cash but are more appropriately classified as
(a) bank drafts. short-term temporary investments.
(b) negotiable checks.
Choices (a), (b), and (d) are incorrect because
(c) certificates of deposit. each of these items is appropriately classified as
(d) unrestricted funds on deposit with a cash on the balance sheet.
bank.

2. Use of the direct write-off method in Answer: (d) matching
accounting for bad debts would in most Matching is not maintained with the use of the
instances violate which of the following direct write-off method because the write-off of
accounting principles? uncollectible accounts (bad debt expense) is
(a) objectivity usually not accomplished during the period in
(b) consistency which the credit sales were made.
(c) materiality Choice (a) is incorrect because there is no
(d) matching accounting principle called objectivity. Choice(b) is
incorrect because consistency has to do with
maintaining consistent policies from accounting
period to accounting period. Choice (c) is incorrect
because materiality has to do with the size of the
bad debt expense relative to credit sales. While it
is true that the direct write-off method can only be
used when bad debt expense is not material in
amount, its use does not constitute a violation of
the principle.
3. The method of estimating bad debts that Answer: (b) a percentage of total credit sales.
most closely matches current expenses with The matching principle purports to match
current revenues is one that obtains the expenses to the period in which they contribute to
estimate from: revenue. To keep to the matching principle in the
(a) a percentage of total sales. strictest sense, bad debt expense would need to
(b) a percentage of total credit sales. be matched with the amount of credit sales made
(c) a percentage of accounts receivable. during a period.
(d) an aging of accounts receivable. Choice (a) is incorrect because total sales consist
of both cash and credit sales. With cash sales,
there is no bad debt expense; therefore matching
bad debt expense with total sales does not match
the expense with the revenues that it helped
generate. Choices (c) and (d) are incorrect
because estimating bad debt expense from
accounts receivable or an aging schedule
disregards the credit sales and only considers the
amount or types of current accounts receivable.

4. Wright Corporation had total sales in the Answer: (c) $26,000 debit to Bad Debt
current year of $700,000 and credit sales of Expense;
$650,000. The Accounts Receivable balance Because credit sales are $650,000 and estimated
was $400,000 at the balance sheet date and bad debt is 4% of credit sales, we would estimate
the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts had a total bad debt expense to be $26,000. Because we
credit balance of $2,800 before adjusting are using the percentage of sales method, the
entries. Bad Debt Expense is estimated as amount already in the Allowance for Doubtful
4% of credit sales. The adjusting entry to Accounts balance is disregarded. Therefore, the
record estimated bad debt expense would answer is what we calculated: $26,000.
include a:
(a) $28,800 debit to Bad Debt Expense. Choice (a) is incorrect because to arrive at the
$28,800 amount you would add the current
(b) $28,800 credit to Bad Debt Expense.
balance in the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts to
(c) $26,000 debit to Bad Debt Expense. the calculated amount. This would be appropriate
(d) $26,000 credit to Bad Debt Expense. if we were using the percentage of receivables
method, but is not appropriate when using the
percentage of sales method. Choice (b) is
incorrect for the reason mentioned earlier and
because the appropriate entry to record bad debt
expense is a credit, not a debit. Although the
amount in choice (d) is correct, the appropriate
entry to bad debt expense should be a debit, not a
credit; therefore choice (d) is incorrect.
5. A company determined that $10,600 of Answer: (c) $9,400.
existing accounts receivable may not be The adjusting entry to record Bad Debt Expense is
collected by aging its accounts receivable. At composed of a debit to bad debt expense and a
this date, the Allowance for Doubtful credit to Allowance for Doubtful Accounts. Using
Accounts account had a credit balance of an aging schedule is an indication that bad debt
$1,200. Based on this information, an expense will be estimated using the balance sheet
adjusting journal entry should involve a method, which is more concerned about getting
debit to Bad Debt Expense for: the net realizable value of accounts receivable
(a) $11,800. correct. Because the aging schedule estimates
(b) $10,600. that $10,600 will be uncollectible, that is the value
(c) $9,400. that is needed as a credit in the Allowance for
(d) $1,200. Doubtful Accounts after completion of the
adjusting entry. Because the account already has
$1,200 credit balance, only $9,400 ($10,600 -
$1,200) is needed to bring the credit balance to
the required $10,600.
Choice (a) is incorrect because a credit of $11,800
to the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts would be
added to the existing credit balance of $1,200 to
give a total of $13,000, which is more than the
aging of accounts estimated would be required. If
you got this answer you need to make sure you
understand that a credit balance of $10,600 is
required AFTER the adjusting entry. Choice (b) is
incorrect because it does not reflect the amount
that is already in the Allowance account. Choice
(d) is incorrect because this is the amount already
in the account and does not take into
consideration the amount estimated through the
use of the aging schedule.

6. The equity that a company has in trade Answer: (d) current asset.
accounts receivable that it has assigned Accounts receivable that have been assigned are
should be disclosed in its financial still recorded as accounts receivable on the
statements as a: assignor’s balance sheet as a current asset. They
(a) separate component of the stockholders' are separated from other accounts receivable but
equity section of the balance sheet. they are still current assets.
(b) contra asset account.
Choice (a) is incorrect because the assigned
(c) current liability. accounts receivable are still assets and have not
(d) current asset. been collected; therefore, they are not
stockholders’ equity. Choice (b) is incorrect
because assigned receivables are not a contra
account; they are still accounts receivable. Choice
(c) is incorrect because assigned receivables are
not a liability; they are still an asset that has
probable future economic benefits.
7. BRD Associates had credit sales of $500,000 Answer: (a) $500 debit to Bad Debt Expense.
in the current year, an ending accounts Based on the information given we estimate the
receivable balance of $350,000, and a ending balance in the Allowance account to be 5%
$17,000 credit balance before adjustments of Accounts Receivable ($350,000 x 5%);
in the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts therefore we estimate the ending balance should
account. Bad debts are estimated as 5% of be $17,500. Because this question uses the
outstanding accounts receivable. The percentage of receivables method, we must also
adjusting entry to record bad debt expense consider the current credit balance of $17,000 in
for the year would include a: the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts account.
(a) $500 debit to Bad Debt Expense. After the adjusting entry we need a credit balance
(b) $500 credit to Bad Debt Expense. of $17,500 in the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts
(c) $500 debit to Allowance for Doubtful account. Because we already have a credit
Accounts. balance of $17,000, only an additional $500 is
(d) $17,500 debit to Bad Debt Expense. needed; therefore, we must credit $500 to
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts and debit $500 to
Bad Debt Expense.
Choice (b) is incorrect because a credit to Bad
Debt Expense would reduce the credit balance of
the Allowance for Doubtful Account balance to
$16,500, which is not the $17,500 we need.
Choice (c) is incorrect because a $500 debit to
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts would also
reduce the credit balance in that account to
$16,500. Choice (d) is incorrect because the
$17,500 debit to Bad Debt Expense does not take
into consideration the current credit balance in the
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts account, which is
required when using the percentage of receivables
method.

8. Jacobs Company follows the procedure of Answer: (d) leave the balance of total current
estimating its bad debts from credit sales. assets unchanged.
Recently, the company evaluated all of its Because the Jacobs Company estimates bad debt
trade accounts receivable balances and expenses, they use an Allowance for Doubtful
wrote off $16,000 worth of accounts that Accounts. The entry to write off the $16,000
were considered to be uncollectible. Just worth of accounts would include a debit to
prior to this write-off, the Allowance for Allowance for Doubtful Accounts and a credit to
Doubtful Accounts account had a credit Accounts Receivable. A credit to Accounts
balance of $82,000. The effect of this write- Receivable would cause a decrease in current
off on the financial statements was to: assets, but a debit to Allowance for Doubtful
(a) increase company expenses by $16,000. Accounts would cause an increase to current
(b) increase company expenses by $66,000. assets by the same amount. These two items
(c) decrease total current assets by would be cancelled out by each other and have no
$16,000. effect on the balance in Current Assets.
(d) leave the balance of total current assets Choices (a) and (b) are incorrect because there
unchanged. was no entry that would affect expenses when the
accounts were actually written off. The entry to
expenses was made when the company originally
estimated bad debt, not when the actual accounts
were written off. Choice (c) is incorrect because
the entry to write off the accounts both increased
and decreased current assets by the same
amount.
9. Kenneth Corporation received a note from a Answer: (c) $10,024.25
credit customer on June 15. The note, which This problem requires multiple steps to complete,
had a face value of $10,000 at 8% interest which are shown below:
and was due in 45 days, was discounted at a
local bank 15 days after it was received. If
the bank's discount percentage was 9%, Face Value of Note $10,000
how much cash did Kenneth Corporation Interest to maturity
receive from the bank? ($10,000 × .08 × 45/360) 100
(a) $9,887.50 Maturity Value of Note $10,100
(b) $9,986.38 Discount
(c) $10,024.25 ($10,100 × .09 × 30/360) (75.75)
(d) $10,112.50 Proceeds received $10, 024.25
Choice (a) is incorrect because it fails to calculate

the original rate of 8% and only applies the
discount to the original $10,000 value. Choice (b)
is incorrect because it uses the entire period of the
note (45 days) as the discount period for the
bank. The bank only held the note for 30 days and
is only entitled to earn 30 days of interest. Choice
(d) is incorrect because it applies the discount of
9% to the total loan period of 45 days as if the
rate of interest for the note was 9%.

10. To recognize revenue at the time of sale Answer: (a) the conditions under which future
where the right of return exists, each of the damage to the goods affects the sales price are
following criteria must be satisfied except: articulated at the date of sale.
(a) the conditions under which future To recognize revenue at the time of sale where a
damage to the goods affects the sales right of return exists, six conditions must be met.
price are articulated at the date of sale. The one statement that does not satisfy one of
(b) the amount of future returns can be the six criteria is (a) the conditions under which
estimated. future damage to the goods affects the sales price
(c) the sales price is fixed or determinable are articulated at the date of sale. In order to
at the date of sale. meet this criteria there are no terms to be
(d) there is no contingency on the sale. articulated at the date of sale, just the fact that
there is no future obligation by the buyer with
regard to damaged goods.
Choices (b), (c), and (d) are three of the criteria
for revenue recognition where the right of return
exists and therefore they must be satisfied, which
makes them incorrect choices for the correct
answer to the question.
11. Accounts receivable are normally reported Answer: (d) net realizable value.
at: Accounts receivable are normally reported at the
(a) present value. value we expect to receive, which is called the net
(b) fair market value. realizable value. This value takes into
(c) historical cost. consideration the fact that some of the accounts
(d) net realizable value. will be uncollectible.
Choice (a) is incorrect because the present value
uses a discount rate to calculate the value today
of a payment in the future. Because the collection
period for accounts receivable are typically very
short, the present value and actual value are
almost the same. Choice (b) is incorrect because
there is no way to accurately measure the fair
value of the accounts receivable. Choice (c) is
incorrect because historical cost does not take into
consideration that some of the accounts receivable
will be uncollectible.

12. If a previously written-off account is later Answer: (c) allowance for doubtful accounts.
collected, the correct credit would be to: If a previously written-off account is subsequently
(a) receivables gains. collected, the first step is to reverse the write-off.
(b) bad debt expense. When the account was originally written off, there
(c) allowance for doubtful accounts. was a debit to allowance for doubtful accounts
(d) sales returns. and a credit to accounts receivable. Therefore, to
reverse this when the previously written-off
account is repaid the account is reinstated by a
debit to accounts receivable and a credit to
allowance for doubtful accounts, which is answer
(c). The next step would be to record the cash
with a debit and then close the account
receivable with a credit.
Choice (a) is incorrect because there is not an
account called receivables gain. Choice (b) is
incorrect because bad debt expense is only
recorded when adjusting entries are made. Choice
(d) is incorrect because this is not a sales return.
13. The Austin Company records sales on Answer: (c)
account using the gross method and offers Accounts receivable 1,000
terms of 3/15, n/45. How would Austin
Sales 1,000
record the entry of a credit sale of $1,000?
a. Accounts receivable 1,000 In the gross method, sales are recorded at the
Sales 970 selling price and are only adjusted if the sales
discount is taken. Therefore, the accounts
Sales discounts 30
receivable and sales would be recorded at the
b. Accounts receivable 970 nondiscounted price of $1,000.
Sales 970 Choice (a) is incorrect because sales discounts
c. Accounts receivable 1,000 under the gross method are not recorded when
the sale is made. In addition to this, sales
Sales 1,000
discounts would be entered with a debit, not a
d. Accounts receivable 970 credit entry. Choice (b) would be correct if the
Sales discounts 30 Austin Company recorded sales using the net
Sales 1,000 method. Choice (d) is incorrect because sales
discounts are not recorded at the sale under the
gross method.

14. Using the information in question 13, Answer: b
assume that payment is made 5 days after Cash 970
the sale. What would be the correct entry?
Sales discounts 30
a. Cash 1,000
Accounts receivable 1,000
Accounts receivable 970
Sales discounts 30 Using the gross method, if the discount is taken
for the full invoice amount, cash will be recorded
b. Cash 970 as a debit at the amount the buyer remits. The
Sales discounts 30 difference between the remitted amount and the
Accounts receivable 1,000 balance in the accounts receivable is credited to
the sales discount account. The accounts
c. Cash 1,000 receivable account is credited for the full amount.
Choice (a) is incorrect because it overstates cash
d. Accounts receivable 1,000 by recording the full amount when the buyer has
Cash 970 only remitted the discounted amount. This choice
Sales discounts 30 also shows the sales discount as a credit when it
should be a debit. This choice also leaves a
portion ($1,000 − $970 = $30) of the account
receivable on the books. Choice (c) is incorrect
because the discount is not recorded even though
the payment was submitted during the discount
period. Choice (d) is incorrect because the entry is
reversed. Cash and sales discounts should be
debited and accounts receivable should be
credited.

Problem-Solving Strategies
Cash Discounts
In order to encourage prompt payment on credit sales many companies offer cash discounts. The terms are
usually expressed as a numerical abbreviation such as: 2/10, n/30. In this form the first set of numbers
represents the amount of discount if the invoice is paid in the required number of days. In this example
the discount would be 2% if paid within 10 days of the invoice date. The second set of numbers gives the
due date of the invoice. In this example the invoice is due 30 days from the invoice date. This term is
usually pronounced as “net 30.”
If a company offers cash (or sales) discounts, they have two methods they can record the sale and
subsequent payment; the gross method and the net method.
To explain the two different methods we will use the following information:
River Chase Outfitters sells rafts and tubes on terms of 2/10, n/30. On January 2, 2011, they sell $800
worth of merchandise to Jerry’s Tube Rentals.
1. Gross Method. Using the gross method, the selling company records the initial sale for the full
amount and does not assume the buyer will take the cash discount. Using the information above, the
entry would look like this on River Chase’s books:

Sales 800
If the customer takes the discount, the cash received is debited and a sales discount account is also
debited. The full amount of the accounts receivable is credited.
Cash ($800 - (.02 × $800) 784

Sales discounts 16
If the customer does not pay the invoice within the discount period (10 days in our example), the
entry would ignore sales discounts and look like this:
Cash 800
2. Net Method. In the net method it is assumed at the time of sale that the customer will take the cash
discount. River Chase will record the account receivable and sales as the amount of sale less the
discount.
Accounts receivable [$800 - (.02 × $800)) 784

Sales 784
If the customer pays within the discount period the cash received is debited and accounts receivable
is credited.
Cash 784

If the customer does not pay the invoice within the discount period (10 days in our example), the
total sales amount of $800 would be debited to cash. The amount of the accounts receivable initially
entered ($784) would be credited and a new account for (sales discounts not taken) would be
credited for the difference between the cash paid and the accounts receivable balance.
Cash 800
Sales discount not taken 16
Strategy: An easy way to remember which method is the gross method and which is the net method is
to remember that the term “net” in accounting usually means that something is subtracted to
arrive at the correct amount. In this instance the “net” that is subtracted is the assumed sales
discount that the customer will take. Therefore the net method means that you will subtract
the discount at the first entry.
Allowance Method
When sales are made on credit there will be some accounts that will not be collected. There are two ways
to handle these bad debt expenses. One is the direct write-off method, which creates bad debt expense
once an account has been deemed uncollectible. The other, the allowance method, enables companies to
match expenses with revenues in the current period and to properly value their receivables.
Strategy: The direct write-off method is not considered to follow generally accepted accounting
principles if the amount of bad debt expense is material in amount. Of course, if the amount of
bad debt expense is not material, then the use of the direct write-off method would be
allowed.
Under the allowance method a company will utilize historical data about actual bad debts to estimate what
current bad debt expense is likely to be. Once this estimate has been established, an amount is debited to
bad debt expense and credited to an allowance for doubtful accounts. This allowance for doubtful
accounts is a contra-asset account that is offset against accounts receivable to show the amount that the
company expects to collect from their accounts receivable, which is called the net realizable value of the
accounts receivable.
There are two ways that a company can estimate their bad debt expense: (1) as a percentage of sales,
sometimes called the income statement approach, or (2) as a percentage of accounts receivables,
sometimes called the balance sheet approach.
Strategy: It is easy to remember which method is called the income statement approach and which is
called the balance sheet approach. Just remember that sales are found on the income
statement and accounts receivables are on the balance sheet. Therefore, the method that
uses sales is the income statement approach and the method that uses receivables is the
balance sheet approach.

Percentage of Sales Method
If a company chooses to use sales as its estimate, it will generally use only credit sales because cash sales
will never generate bad debts. However, if the percentage of credit sales to total sales is constant, total
sales can be used. This method is based on matching the bad debt expense to the revenue (sales) in the
period in which the expense helped to generate the revenue.
If the Kyle Corporation had net credit sales for the year of $275,000 and bad debts have historically
amounted to 3.5% of credit sales, then bad debt expenses would be estimated to be $9,625 ($275,000 ×
.035). Kyle would make the following adjusting entry to record bad debt expenses:
Bad debt expense 9,625

Allowance for doubtful accounts 9,625
The advantage to this approach is that it is simple and provides a good theoretical application of the
matching principle. Because this method focuses on an expense account, any existing balance in the
allowance account is ignored when determining the amount of the adjusting entry and that is the
disadvantage of this method; there is less emphasis on the net realizable value of the accounts receivable.
Percentage of Receivables Method
Instead of using sales as a basis for bad debt expense, a company may choose to focus on the accounts
receivable that are outstanding. In this method, the goal is to determine the ending balance in the
allowance for doubtful accounts and by extension the net realizable value of the accounts receivable.
For example, assume that the Kyle Corporation has determined that 4% of the $175,000 accounts
receivable balance will be uncollectible. Based on this the company expects that $7,000 of the accounts
receivable will be uncollectible therefore the net realizable value of the accounts receivable should be
$168,000 ($175,000 − $7,000). Because the allowance for doubtful accounts is a contra account to
accounts receivable, we need the allowance for doubtful accounts balance to be $7,000. Because we are
concerned about the ending balance of the allowance account, we must use the existing balance in that
account to determine the amount of the adjusting entry. If we assume that the allowance account has a
credit balance of $1,000 before the adjusting entry, we can determine how much is needed in the
adjusting entry to reach our desired balance of $7,000.
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts

1,000 (current balance)
7,000 (desired balance)
It is obvious from the above account that we need an adjusting entry with a credit of $6,000 to allowance
for doubtful accounts. Based on this analysis the adjusting entry would be:

This method can further be enhanced by analyzing the individual accounts. Looking at the actual accounts
it may be possible to determine a better estimate of which accounts will become uncollectible. The best
way to determine which accounts are more likely to become uncollectible is to look at how old the
accounts are. An account that is only 10 days old is much more likely to be collected than an account that
is 120 days old. Based on this knowledge, we can prepare an “aging” schedule that shows the various

amounts based on their ages. We can then apply a percentage to each age group and get a much more
realistic estimate of the total amount of uncollectible accounts and the amount required in the allowance
for doubtful accounts.
An example of an aging schedule is provided in Example 7-2 of the text.
Writing Off Uncollectible Accounts
When an account is determined to be uncollectible, we must remove it from our accounts receivable. To
do that we just debit the allowance for doubtful accounts and credit accounts receivable. The entry for
Kyle Corporation to write off a $500 account would look like this:
Allowance for doubtful accounts 500

If a customer whose account has previously been written off pays, it is best to reestablish the account and
then record the payment. To reestablish the account, we would just reverse our previous entry to write
the account off:

Once the account has been reestablished we would record the payment as normal:
Cash 500
Generating Immediate Cash from Accounts Receivable
If a company has the need or desire to accelerate the receipt of cash from accounts receivable they have
three options: (1) pledging, (2) assigning, or (3) factoring (sale) of the accounts receivable. FASB
Statement 140 has very specific guidelines on when these accounts receivable have been transferred. The
chart in Exhibit 7-2 of the text provides a graphic overview of how to determine which of the three options
a company has used.
Pledging of Accounts Receivables

If a company pledges accounts receivables, they are essentially using the accounts receivable as collateral
for a loan. The company would keep control and continue to collect the accounts receivable. They would
record the loan as a liability and note the fact that the accounts receivable are pledged.
Assigning of Accounts Receivables
Assignment of accounts receivable is usually very similar to pledging, with the basic difference being that
the company that is borrowing against the accounts receivable uses the amount they collect to pay off the
amount borrowed. To protect the finance company against the threat of uncollectible accounts or sales
returns and allowances, the amount advanced to the borrower is usually smaller than the total of the
accounts receivables being assigned.

As an example, assume that the Jerry Moore Company assigns $100,000 of its accounts receivable to a
finance company on March 1, 2011. The finance company advances Jerry Moore 85% of the receivables
and charges a $1,000 service charge. In addition, the finance company charges a 10% rate of interest to
any outstanding balance. The entry to record this:
Cash [($100,000 × 0.85) − $1,000] 84,000

Assignment service charge 1,000
Note payable ($100,000 × 0.85) 85,000
Accounts receivable assigned 100,000

At the end of March, the Moore Company has collected $18,000 of the accounts receivable.
Cash 18,000
Accounts receivable assigned 18,000
It pays this amount as well as the interest payment to the finance company.
Note payable 18,000

Interest expense ($85,000 × 0.10 × 1/12) 708
Cash 18,708
Factoring of Accounts Receivables
Factoring of accounts receivable is the same as selling the accounts receivables. When receivables are
factored the company selling the accounts receivable removes them from their financial records and
records the cash received as well as the fee paid to the factor (buyer). In addition, most factors will
reserve 10% to 20% of the amount factored to protect against uncollectible accounts and sales returns
and allowances. Once the accounts have been collected or written off, any of the reserve that has not
been used is returned to the selling company. This reserve is usually recorded as a receivable on the
books of the seller.
On June 1, 2011, Richie Williams Corporation factors $150,000 of receivables. The factor requires a 15%
reserve and charges a 12% fee. The entry to record this would be as follows:
Cash [($150,000 × 0.85) − $18,000] 109,500

Receivable from factor ($150,000 × 0.15) 22,500
Factor expense ($150,000 × 0.12) 18,000

Test Your Knowledge
1. The December 31, 2011, balance sheet of the Tampa Corporation included the following information
pertaining to accounts receivable:
Trade Accounts Receivable $420,000

Less: Allowance for Doubtful Accounts (21,500) $398,500
During 2012, the following transactions occurred:
a. New sales on account $973,000

b. Collections from past credit sales 847,000
c. Accounts receivable written off as uncollectible 28,500
d. Collections of accounts previously written off
as uncollectible 900
e. Recorded bad debt expense estimate using an
aging analysis that indicates an Allowance for
Doubtful Accounts balance of $24,900 is needed
Required: (1) Prepare summary journal entries to record each of the above facts.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(2) Calculate the net realizable value of accounts receivable that will appear on Tampa's
December 31, 2012, balance sheet.

2. The records of Eric Elsner Corporation showed the following preadjustment information on December
31, 2011:
Net sales (80% on credit) $350,000
Accounts receivable $160,000

Allowance for doubtful accounts $4,100 (debit balance)
Prepare journal entries to record the estimates for bad debt expense assuming:
(a) Bad debts are estimated to be 4% of credit sales.
(b) Bad debts are estimated to be 3% of net sales.
(c) An aging schedule determines that uncollectible accounts should be $13,000.
3. In March 2011, the Forsyth Company had the following transactions:
March 4 Sales of $5,300 with terms on 3/15, n30

March 12 Received partial payment of $3,395 on March 4 sales
March 28 Received balance of payment for March 4 sales
(a) Prepare the journal entries assuming that Forsyth uses the gross method of recording sales.
(b) Prepare the journal entries assuming that Forsyth uses the net method of recording sales.

ANSWERS TO TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
1. (1) (a) Accounts receivable 973,000

Sales 973,000
(b) Cash 847,000

(c) Allowance for doubtful accounts 28,500

(d) Accounts receivable 900

Cash 900
(e) Bad debts expense 31,000

$24,900 needed as a credit balance

in the allowance account plus the
$6,100 debit balance in the
allowance account prior to
adjustment
(2) $420,000 Balance at December 31, 2011

973,000 Credit sales in 2012
(847,000) Collections of accounts receivable in 2012
(28,500) Accounts written off as uncollectible in 2012
$517,500 Receivables balance at December 31, 2012
(24,900) Allowance for Doubtful Accounts balance at December 31, 2012
$492,600 Net realizable value of receivables at December 31, 2012
2. (a) Credit sales = 80% of Net Sales: $350,000 × 0.80 = $280,000 credit sales
Bad debt is estimated to be 4% of credit sales: $280,000 × 0.04 = $11,200

Note that because the percentage of sales method was used, the existing balance in the
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts was ignored.
(b) Bad debt is estimated to be 3% of net sales: $350,000 × 0.03 = $10,500

Note that because the percentage of sales method was used, the existing balance in the
Allowance for Doubtful Accounts was ignored.

(c) Uncollectible accounts are estimated to be $13,000. The normal balance for the Allowance
for Doubtful Accounts is a credit balance. Because the preadjusted balance is a $4,100
debit balance, in order to get a $13,000 credit balance we need to credit Allowance for
Doubtful Accounts $17,100.

3. (a) March 4 Accounts receivable 5,300

Sales 5,300
March 12 Cash 3,395

Sales discounts 105
Sales Discount = $3,500 × 0.03 = $105
March 4 Cash ($5,300 - $3,500) 1,800

Remaining Accounts Receivable balance = $5,300 - $3,500 = $1,800
(b) March 4 Accounts receivable 5,141

Sales 5,141
Sales = [$5,300 - ($5,300 × 0.03)] = $159
March 12 Cash 3,395

March 4 Cash 1,800

Sales discount forfeited 54
Remaining Accounts Receivable balance = $5,141 − $3,395 = $1,746
Cash Paid = $1,746 ÷ 0.97 = $1,800
Sales Discounts Forfeited = $1,800 − $1,746 = $54

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Cash and Receivables: Objectives

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CHAPTER

After careful study of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Identify items of cash (and cash equivalents).

2. Understand the importance of cash management.

3. Discuss revenue recognition when the right of return exists.

4. Understand the credit policies related to accounts receivable.

6. Estimate and record bad debts using a percentage of sales.

7. Estimate and record bad debts using an aging analysis.

8. Explain pledging, assignment, and factoring of accounts receivable.

9. Account for short-term notes receivable.

7-2 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

(a) the sales price is known at the date of sale

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-3

7-4 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Generating Immediate Cash from Accounts Receivable

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-5

(a) face value of note

7-6 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false.

1. Cash included in a sinking fund would Answer: False

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-7

12. The direct write-off method of Answer: False

7-8 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

17. When a company pledges its accounts Answer: False

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The measurement of cash on hand classified Answer: (c) certificates of deposit.

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-9

7-10 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-11

7-12 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Choice (a) is incorrect because it fails to calculate

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-13

7-14 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-15

7-16 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Accounts receivable 800

Cash ($800 - (.02 × $800) 784

Accounts receivable [$800 - (.02 × $800)) 784

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-17

7-18 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Bad debt expense 9,625

Percentage of Receivables Method

Allowance for Doubtful Accounts

7,000 (desired balance)

Bad debt expense 6,000

Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables 7-19

An example of an aging schedule is provided in Example 7-2 of the text.

Writing Off Uncollectible Accounts

Allowance for doubtful accounts 500

Accounts receivable 500

Generating Immediate Cash from Accounts Receivable

Pledging of Accounts Receivables

Assigning of Accounts Receivables

7-20 Chapter 7: Cash and Receivables

Cash [($100,000 × 0.85) − $1,000] 84,000

Accounts receivable assigned 100,000

Note payable 18,000

Factoring of Accounts Receivables

Cash [($150,000 × 0.85) − $18,000] 109,500