15

GYPSUM PRODUCTS

Products of gypsum are used extensively in dentistry. Gypsum was found in

mines around the city of Paris, so it is also called plaster of Paris. This is a
misnomer as gypsum is found in most countries. The mineral gypsum
CaSO4. 2H2O is usually white to yellowish white in color and is found as a
compact mass. Gypsum is also an industrial by-product. For centuries gypsum
has been used for construction purposes and making statues. Alabaster, a form
of gypsum which is white in color was used for building in ancient times. Besides
dentistry gypsum is also used in orthopedics for splinting fractured bones.

APPLICATIONS
1. Impression plaster was used extensively in the past for impressions of the
mouth and face.
2. Various types of plasters are used to make moulds, casts and dies
over which dental prostheses and restorations are made (Figs 15.1
A to E).
3. To attach casts to an articulator (Fig. 15.1 D).
4. For bite registration (e.g., to record centric jaw relation).
5. Dental investments: When plaster is mixed with silica it is known
as dental investment. They are used to form moulds into which
molten metal is cast.

Figures 15.1 A to E: Gypsum products are widely used in dentistry. (A) An orthodontic model with a plaster base; (B) a cast
with removable die made from die stone; (C) a plaster mold used in denture construction; (D) mounting plaster for mounting
casts on an articulator; (E) dental restorations are constructed on stone working casts.

SUPPLIED AS
Powders of various colors in small preweighed sachets, in medium sized bags or
containers or in large bags, sacks or bins (bulk) (Figs 15.2 A to C).

CLASSIFICATION
ADA/ANSI Specification No. 25/ ISO 6873:1998:
Type 1 — Dental plaster, impression
Type 2 — Dental plaster, model
 Basic DENTAL MATERIALS

A B C

Figures 15.2 A to C: Gypsum products are supplied in a variety of forms; as preweighed sachets, in medium sized containers
or in large bags or sacks (bulk packing). (A) Mounting plaster; (B) High strength stone (die stone) in 1 to 3 kg container; (C)
dental stone (can range from 5 to 25 kg bulk pack).

Type 3 — Dental stone, model

Type 4 — Dental stone, die, high strength, low expansion
Type 5 — Dental stone, die, high strength, high expansion

TYPE 1 OR DENTAL PLASTER, IMPRESSION

Impression plaster (Fig. 15.3 A) was one of the earliest impression materials in
dentistry. Because of its rigidity (not elastic), it often had to be fractured to remove
it from undercut areas in the mouth. The fractured pieces were then reassembled
outside and a cast poured. Since the introduction of better materials, it is rarely
used as an impression material. Currently, it is more useful as a bite registration
material. Impression plaster may be flavored to make it more acceptable by the
patient. It is colored to help the dentist and technician distinguish between the
cast material and the impression. Impression plaster sometimes contain potato
starch to make it soluble. After the cast has hardened, the impression and cast,
are put in hot water. The starch swells and the impression disintegrates, making
it easy to separate the cast. This type is often called ‘soluble plaster’.

USES
1. For making impressions in complete denture and maxillofacial prosthetics
(not used currently for this purpose).
2. Bite registration material.

IDEAL PROPERTIES
1. The setting time should be under accurate control. The dentist must have
sufficient time to mix, load the impression tray, carry the loaded tray to the
patient’s mouth and place it in position. However, once in position the plaster
should harden promptly, so that there is minimum discomfort to the patient.
The setting time desirable is 3 to 5 minutes.
2. For better accuracy the setting expansion should be low. Both setting time
and expansion are controlled by modifiers (accelerators and retarders) added
by the manufacturers.
3. The plaster should have enough strength to fracture cleanly without
crumbling to facilitate removal from undercuts.

COMPOSITION
Dental plaster + K2SO4 + Borax + Coloring and flavoring agents.

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Figures 15.3 A to E: The 5 types of gypsum products in

dentistry. (A) Type 1—Impression plaster, (B) Type 2—Dental
plaster, (C) Type 3—Dental stone, (D) Type 4—Die stone,
High strength low expansion, (E) Type 5—Die stone, high
strength, high expansion.

TYPE 2 OR DENTAL PLASTER, MODEL

Synonyms: Model plaster, laboratory plaster (Fig. 15.3 B).

USES
1. For making study casts and models.
2. To make molds for curing dentures.
3. For mounting casts on articulator.

REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL CAST MATERIAL

1. It should set rapidly but give adequate time for manipulation.
2. It should set to a very hard and strong mass.
3. It should flow into all parts of the impression and reproduce all the minute details.
4. It should neither contract nor expand while setting.
5. After setting it should not warp or change shape.
6. It should not lose its strength when subjected to moulding and curing
procedures.

COMPOSITION
Contains beta hemihydrate and modifiers.

TYPE 3 OR DENTAL STONE, MODEL

Synonym: Class I stone or Hydrocal (Fig. 15.3 C).

USES
For preparing master casts and to make molds.

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COMPOSITION
 Alphahemihydrate
 2 to 3% coloring matter
 K2SO4—Accelerator
 Borax—Retarder
Some commercial dental stones contain a small amount of beta hemihydrate to
provide a mix of smoother consistency.
A stone with a setting time established by the addition of proper quantities of
both accelerator and retarder is called ‘balanced stone’. Typical accelerators are
potassium sulfate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle Salts). Typical
retarders are sodium citrate and sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Borax).
 The compressive strength varies from 3000 to 5000 psi.
 The setting expansion of dental stone is 0.06% to 0.12%.
 Hardness: 82 RHN.

TYPE 4 OR DENTAL STONE, DIE, HIGH STRENGTH, LOW EXPANSION

Synonyms: Class II stone, die stone, densite, improved stone.

USES
Die stone (Fig. 15.3 D) is the strongest and hardest variety of gypsum product.
It is used when high strength and surface hardness is required, e.g., dies used
for inlay, crown and bridge wax patterns.
A thick mix is prepared as per manufacturer’s instruction and vibrated into a
rubber base impression. The base for such a model is poured in dental stone or
dental plaster. Die stone should be left for twenty four hours to gain maximum
hardness and the cast should be separated one hour after pouring. The abrasion
resistance of die stone is not high as other die materials like epoxy resin.

TYPE 5 OR DENTAL STONE, DIE, HIGH STRENGTH, HIGH EXPANSION

It is the most recent gypsum product (Fig. 15.3 E) having a higher compressive
strength than Type 4 stone. Improved strength is attained by making it possible
to lower the w/p ratio even further. Setting expansion has been increased from
a maximum of 0.10 to 0.30%. This is to compensate for the shrinkage of base
metal alloys, during solidification (see Casting Alloys). Hard Rock, Jade Rock
and Resinrock XL5 (by Whipmix) and Denflo-HX are examples of Type 5 stone

USES
To prepare dies with increased expansion.

MANUFACTURE OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS

The process of heating gypsum for the manufacture of plaster is known as
calcination. Mined gypsum is ground and heated. When heated, gypsum (calcium
sulphate dihydrate) loses part of its water of crystallization and changes to
calcium sulphate hemihydrate. On further heating, the remaining water of
crystallization is lost. First, hexagonal anhydrite (soluble anhydrite) is formed.
Later, orthorhombic anhydrite (insoluble anhydrite) is formed.

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110-130°C 130-200°C 200-1000°C
CaSO4.2H2O —————> CaSO4.½H2O —————> CaSO4 —————> CaSO4
(Calcium sulphate (Calcium sulphate (Hexagonal (Orthorhombic
dihydrate) hemihydrate) anhydrite) anhydrite)

Alpha and Beta Hemihydrate

Depending on the method of calcination there are two forms of hemihydrates.
 (β) Beta hemihydrate (plaster)
 Alpha hemihydrate (stone)
 Alpha modified hemihydrate (die stone)

Note: Chemically both α and β types are the same. They differ mainly in crystal size and form. The β type is spongy and
irregular. Whereas, α crystals are more dense and prismatic. Some authors suggest that the use of α and β prefixes
should be discontinued.

Manufacture of Dental Plaster

Gypsum is ground and heated in an open kettle on kiln at a temperature of 110
to 130° C. The process is called dry-calcination. β type of crystals are formed.
Microscopically Fibrous aggregate of fine crystals with capillary pores. They
are then ground to breakup the needlelike crystals. This improves packing.

Heat
CaSO4.2H2O ———————> CaSO4.1/2H2O
110°-130°C (β hemihydrate)

Manufacture of Dental Stone

Gypsum is calcined under steam pressure in an autoclave at 120 to 130°C at 17
lbs/sq. inch for 5 to 7 hours. Thus, the product obtained is much stronger and
harder than β hemihydrate.

120°-130°C
CaSO4.2H2O ————————————> CaSO4.½H2O
17 lbs/sq. inch pressure (α hemihydrate)
Microscopically Cleavage fragments and crystals in the form of rods and
prisms.

Manufacture of High Strength (α α modified) Stone

The gypsum is calcined by boiling it in 30% calcium chloride solution. The
chlorides are then washed away or autoclaved in presence of sodium succinate
0.5%. These particles are the densest of all three types. After controlled grinding
these powders have an even higher apparent density and yield a stronger set.
Microscopically cuboidal in shape.

SETTING REACTION
When plaster is mixed with water it takes up one and a half molecules of water,
i.e., it regains its water of crystallization and becomes calcium sulphate dihydrate.

(CaSO4)2 .H2O + 3H2O ——> 2 CaSO4.2H2O + unreacted (CaSO4)2 . ½H2O + Heat

Hemihydrate + Water ——> Dihydrate + Unreacted hemihydrate + Heat

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The reaction is exothermic and is the same for all gypsum products. The amount
of water required to produce a workable mix varies between the products. As
evident from the above reaction not all of the hemihydrate converts to dihydrate.
The amount of conversion is dependent on the type of stone. The highest
conversion rate is seen in plaster (90%). In Type 4 and 5 stone the dihydrate
content is about 50%.

THEORIES OF SETTING
Three theories have been proposed:
1. Colloidal theory
2. Hydration theory
3. Dissolution - precipitation theory

COLLOIDAL THEORY
The theory proposes that when mixed with water, plaster enters into a colloidal
state through a sol-gel mechanism. In the sol state, hemihydrate combines with
water (hydrates) to form dihydrate. As the water is consumed the mass turns to a
‘solid gel’.

HYDRATION THEORY
The hydration theory suggests that rehydrated plaster particles join together
through hydrogen bonding to the sulfate groups to form the set material.

DISSOLUTION - PRECIPITATION THEORY (CRYSTALLINE THEORY)

This theory is more widely accepted. According to the theory, the plaster dissolves
and reacts to form gypsum crystals which interlock to form the set solid. The
setting reaction is explained on the basis of difference in solubility of hemihydrate
and dihydrate. Hemihydrate is four times more soluble than dihydrate.
 When hemihydrate is mixed in water it forms a fluid workable suspension.
 Hemihydrate dissolves until it forms a saturated solution.
 Some dihydrate is formed due to the reaction. Solubility of dihydrate is much
less than hemihydrate, the saturated hemihydrate is supersaturated with
respect to the dihydrate.All supersaturated solutions are unstable. So the
dihydrate crystals precipitate out.
 As the dihydrate precipitates out, the solution is no longer saturated with
hemihydrate and so it continues to dissolve. The process continues until no
further dihydrate precipitates out of the solution.
Initially there is little reaction and thus little or no rise in temperature. This
time is referred to as induction period. As the reaction proceeds gypsum is formed
in the form of needlelike clusters, called spherulites (Fig. 15.4). Continued
growth and intermeshing of crystals of gypsum leads to thickening and hardening
of the mass into a strong solid structure.

EXCESS WA
EXCESS TER
WATER
The actual amount of water necessary to mix the calcium sulphate hemihydrate is greater than the amount required for
the chemical reaction (18.61 gm of water per 100 gm of hemihydrate). This is called excess water.
The excess water itself does not react with the hemihydrate crystals. It is eventually lost by evaporation once the gypsum
is set. The excess water serve only to aid in mixing the powder particles and is replaced by voids.

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Figure 15.4: Structure of set gypsum showing needle-like

clusters. A single crystal is called a spherulite (inset).

The Microstructure of Set Gypsum

The set material consists of an entangled aggregate of gypsum crystals
(Fig. 15.4) having lengths of 5 to 10 μm. Two distinct types microscopic porosity
can be seen in the mass.
 Microporosity caused by residual unreacted water. These voids are spherical
and occur between clumps of gypsum crystals.
 Microporosity resulting from growth of gypsum crystals. These voids are
associated with setting expansion and are smaller than the first type. They
appear as angular spaces between individual crystals in the aggregate.

MANIPULATION

PROPORTIONING
To secure maximum strength a low water/powder ratio should be used. The
water should be measured and the powder weighed.

Water/Powder Ratio
The W/P ratio is a very important factor in deciding the physical and chemical
properties of the final product.
Example The higher the water-powder ratio, the longer is the setting time and
weaker will be the gypsum product. Therefore, water/powder ratio should be kept
as low as possible but at the same time sufficient to produce a workable mix.

Water Requirement of a Product is Affected by

1. Shape and compactness of crystals Thus, irregular, spongy plaster particles
need more water than the denser stone.
2. Small amounts of surface active materials like gum arabic plus lime markedly
reduce water requirement of all gypsum products.
3. Particle size distribution Grinding of the powder breaks up needle like crystals.
This improves packing characteristics and reduces the water needed.

Recommended W/P Ratio

 Impression plaster : 0.50 to 0.75
 Dental plaster : 0.45 to 0.50
 Dental stone : 0.28 to 0.30
 Die stone, Type 4 : 0.22 to 0.24
 Die stone, Type 5 : 0.18 to 0.22
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Figure 15.5: Stone/plaster dispenser.

INSTRUMENTS
Flexible rubber/plastic bowl, stiff bladed spatula.

PROCEDURE FOR HAND-MIXING

 Water is taken first to prevent adherence of dry powder to the sides of the
bowl. Water and powder are dispensed according to the recommended W/P
ratio. The powder is sifted into water in the rubber bowl. Plaster/stone
dispensers are also available (Fig. 15.5).
 It is allowed to settle for 30 seconds to minimize air entrapment.
 The mix is stirred vigorously. Periodically wipe the inside of the bowl with a
spatula to ensure wetting of the powder and breaking up of lumps. Continue
till a smooth creamy mix is obtained. Spatulation should be completed in 45
to 60 seconds.
 Vibrate the mix (using a mechanical vibrator (Fig. 15.6) or by repeated
tapping against a bench) and pour it into the impression, taking care not to
entrap air (Fig. 15.7).

The mixing equipment must be meticulously clean. There should be no particles of set plaster from a previous mix
sticking to the bowl or spatula. These if present will act as additional nuclei of crystallization and cause faster setting. No
air must be trapped in the mixed mass. It causes loss of surface detail and weakens the cast.

MECHANICAL MIXING
Mechanical mixing under vacuum gives stronger and denser casts. However,
the equipment is expensive.

Figure 15.6: Stone/plaster vibrator. Figure 15.7: A vibrator improves the flow and reduces voids,
thereby improving strength and accuracy.

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SETTING TIME
The time elapsing from the beginning of mixing until the material hardens is
called setting time.
Mixing time is the time from the addition the powder to the water until mixing
is complete. A mixing time of 1 minute is usually sufficient.
Working time is the time available to work with the mix for the intended purpose,
i.e., one that maintains an even consistency. At the end of the working period the
material thickens and is no longer workable. The freshly mixed mass is semifluid
in consistency and quite free flowing. A working time of 3 minutes is usually
sufficient.
Initial setting time As the reaction proceeds, more hemihydrate crystals react
to form dihydrate crystals. The viscosity of the mass is increased and it can no
longer be poured. The material becomes rigid (but not hard). It can be carved
but not moulded. This is known as initial setting time.
Final setting time The time at which the material can be separated from the
impression without distortion or fracture.

Measurement of Setting Time

Usually by some type of penetration tests. Occasionally, other tests are used.
1. Loss of gloss method As reaction proceeds the gloss disappears from the
surface of plaster mix (sometimes used to indicate initial set).
2. Exothermic reaction The temperature rise of the mass may also be used
for measurement of setting time as the setting reaction is exothermic.
3. Penetration tests By using penetrometers.

Types of Penetrometers
 Vicat needle
 Gillmore needles
Vicat needle (Fig. 15.8) It weighs 300 gm and the needle diameter is 1 mm. The
time elapsing from the start of mixing till the needle does not penetrate to the
bottom of the plaster is the setting time. The setting time obtained with the
Vicat needle is similar to the initial Gillmore.
Gillmore needles Two types—small and large (Fig. 15.9). The small
Gillmore needle has a 1/4 lb weight and a diameter of 1/12" (2.12
mm) while the large Gillmore has a 1 lb wt and diameter of 1/24"
(1.06 mm).

Figure 15.9: Gillmore appara-

tus. Besides dentistry it is also
used in general industry to
determine initial and final set
times of Portland cement,
masonry cement, hydrated lime,
Figure 15.8: Vicat needle. mortars, etc.

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Initial Gillmore The time elapsing from the start of mixing until the time when
the point of the 1/4 lb Gillmore needle no longer penetrates the surface is the
initial setting time.
Final Gillmore Similarly the time elapsing from the start of mixing until the
point of the 1 lb Gillmore needle leaves only a barely visible mark on the surface
of the set plaster is known as the final setting time.

Factors Affecting Setting Time

1. Manufacturing process.
2. Mixing and spatulation (time and rate).
3. Water/Powder ratio.
4. Temperature.
5. Modifiers.
Manufacturing Process
1. If calcination is incomplete and excess gypsum (dihydrate) is left in the final
product, the resulting plaster will set faster.
2. If soluble anhydrite is in excess, plaster will set faster.
3. If natural anhydrite is in excess, plaster will set slow.
4. Fineness: Finer the hemihydrate particle size, the faster the set, because
— Hemihydrate dissolves faster and
— The gypsum nuclei are more numerous and therefore, crystallization is
faster.
Mixing and spatulation Within limits the longer and faster the plaster is mixed,
the faster it will set because nuclei of crystallization are broken and well
distributed within the mass.
Water/Powder ratio More the water used for mixing, the fewer the nuclei per
unit volume. Thus setting time will be prolonged.
Temperature On increasing from a room temperature of 20°C to a body
temperature of 37°C, the rate of the reaction increases slightly and the setting
time is shortened. As the temperature is raised above 37°C the rate of reaction
decreases and the setting time is lengthened. At 100°C the solubilities of
hemihydrate and dihydrate are equal, in which case no reaction can occur and
the gypsum will not set.
Modifiers (Accelerators and Retarders) Modifiers are chemicals added in order
to alter some of the properties and make it more acceptable to the dentist. If the
chemical added decreases the setting time it is called an accelerator, whereas if
it increases the setting time it is called a retarder.

Accelerators and retarders not only modify setting time, they also affect other properties like setting expansion and strength.

Accelerators
 Finely powdered gypsum (up to 1%) is added by manufacturers to accelerate
setting time. Acts by providing additional nuclei of crystallization. One source
of gypsum is slurry water.
 In low concentrations, salts like sodium or potassium sulphate (2 to 3%) and
sodium chloride (up to 2%) are accelerators. They act by making the
hemihydrate more soluble.

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Retarders
Retarders generally act by forming a layer on the hemihydrate to reduce its
solubility. It also inhibits the growth of gypsum crystals.
 Borax (1- 2%) is the most effective retarder. During setting it forms a coating
of calcium borate around the hemihydrate. Thus, the water cannot come in
contact with the hemihydrate.
 In higher concentrations, sodium chloride (3.4% to 20%) and sodium sulphate
act as retarders. In higher concentrations, the salt precipitates and poisons
the nuclei of crystallization.
 Acetates, borates, citrates, tartrates and salts like ferric sulphate, chromic
sulphate, aluminium sulphate, etc., are retarders, which act by nuclei poisoning
by reducing the rate of solution of hemihydrate or by inhibiting growth of
dihydrate crystals. Some additives react with hemihydrate, e.g., soluble tartrates
and citrates precipitate calcium tartrate and citrate, respectively.
 Colloids such as gelatine, glue, agar, coagulated blood, etc. are effective
retarders, presumably acting by nuclei poisoning. Contact with the gypsum
during setting results in a soft, easily abraded surface.
To avoid The impression should be thoroughly rinsed in cold water to remove
blood and saliva before pouring.

PROPERTIES
The important properties of gypsum products are
1. Setting expansion
2. Strength
3. Hardness and abrasion resistance
4. Reproduction of detail

SETTING EXPANSION
Setting expansion is of two types
1. Normal setting expansion
2. Hygroscopic setting expansion
NORMAL SETTING EXPANSION (0.05 TO 0.5%)
All gypsum products show a linear expansion during setting, due to the outward
thrust of the growing crystals during setting. Crystals growing from the nuclei
not only intermesh but also intercept each other during growth.
Importance of setting expansion In dentistry, setting expansion may be both
desirable and undesirable depending on the use. It is undesirable in impression
plaster, dental plaster and stone as it will result in an inaccurate cast or change
in the occlusal relation if used for mounting. ADA/ANSI/ISO requirements for
setting expansion for the various types is given in (Table 15.1).
Increased setting expansion is desired in case of investment materials as it
helps to compensate the shrinkage of the metal during casting.
Control of setting expansion
1. Mechanical mixing reduces setting expansion when compared to hand mixed
stone.
2. Increase in W/P ratio reduces the setting expansion.
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Table 15.1 * % Setting * Comp str. Hardness * (μm) Detail

Expansion (1 hr) (MPa) (Dry)(RHN) Reproduction
Properties of
Type 1 0.15 max 4 min 8 max 75 + 8
various
Type 2 0.30 max 9 75 + 8
gypsum
Type 3 0.20 max 20 82 50 + 8
products Type 4 0.10 max 35 92 50 + 8
Type 5 0.16 min 0.30 max 35 50 + 8

*Minimum requirement ADA sp. No. 25

3. Modifiers generally reduce the setting expansion.

4. Potassium sulphate 4% solution reduces setting expansion from 0.5 to 0.06 %.
5. Sodium chloride and borax also decrease setting expansion.
For accuracy in dental procedures, the setting expansion has to be minimized.
The manufacturers achieve this by addition of K2SO4. This however, reduces
the setting time. To counteract this, retarders like borax are also added (borax
also reduces setting expansion).
HYGROSCOPIC SETTING EXPANSION
When a gypsum product is placed under water before the initial set stage, a
greater expansion is seen. This is due to hygroscopic expansion. When expansion
begins, externally available water is drawn into pores forming in the setting
mass and this maintains a continuous aqueous phase in which crystal growth
takes place freely. Under dry conditions this additional water is not available
and as expansion occurs the aqueous phase in the mix is reduced to a film over
the growing crystals. It is greater in magnitude than normal setting expansion.
Importance Used to expand some gypsum bonded investments.

STRENGTH
The strength increases rapidly as the material hardens after the initial setting.

Factors Affecting Strength

The free water content (excess water) The greater the amount of free water in
the set stone, the less the strength.
Wet strength is the strength when excess free water (more than is necessary for
reaction) is present in the set gypsum. The wet strength (1 hour compressive
strength) for model plaster, dental stone, and die stone are 12.5, 31 and 45 MPa
respectively.
Dry strength is the strength of gypsum when the excess free water is lost due to
evaporation. It is two or more times greater than the wet strength.
Excess water may be removed from gypsum cast by low-temperature drying.
But there is no strength increase until the last 2% of free water (Fig. 15.10) is
removed. This strength increase on drying is reversible, thus soaking a dry cast
in water reduces its strength to the original level. Many products have strength
values in excess of the ADA requirements. One Type 4 product claims a wet
strength (1 hr) of 67 MPa and a dry strength of 121.6 MPa.
Temperature Gypsum is stable only below about 40°C. Drying at higher
temperatures must be carefully controlled. Loss of water of crystallization occurs
rapidly at 100°C or higher and causes shrinkage and a reduction in strength.

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Figure 15.10: Effect of drying on the strength of dental stone.

Other factors affecting strength are:

 W/P ratio The more the water, the greater the porosity and less the strength.
 Spatulation Within limits, strength increases with increased spatulation.
 Addition of accelerators and retarders Lowers strength.
TENSILE STRENGTH
Gypsum is a brittle material, thus weaker in tension than in compression.
The one hour tensile strength of model plaster is approximately 2.3 MPa. When
dry, the tensile strength doubles. The tensile strength of dental stone is twice
than that of plaster.
Significance Teeth on a cast may fracture while separating from the
impression. Since in practice fracture of gypsum typically occurs in tension,
tensile strength is a better guide to fracture resistance.
Time at which cast can be used The cast cannot be used as soon as it reaches
its final setting (as defined by the Vicat and Gillmore tests). This is because the
cast has not reached its full strength. Technically the cast can be used when it
has attained at least 80% of its one hour strength. Current products are ready
for use in 30 minutes.

HARDNESS AND ABRASION RESISTANCE

Dies and casts are often used to construct restorations and prostheses. A good
surface hardness and abrasion resistance is therefore essential.
Hardness is related to the compressive strength. The higher the compressive
strength of the hardening mass, the higher the surface hardness. After the
final setting occurs, the surface hardness remains practically constant until
most of the excess water is dried, after which it increases.
The surface hardness increases at a faster rate than the compressive strength
since the surface of the hardened mass reaches a dry state earlier than the
inner portion of the mass. Commercial hardening solutions are available to
increase the surface hardness of stone. However, surface hardness and abrasion
resistance are not always related, for example, epoxy resin is more abrasion
resistant than die stone, even though die stone is the more harder of the two.

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FLOW
The flow of freshly mixed gypsum depends on the amount of water used (W/P
ratio). The greater the amount of water used, the greater would be the flow.
However, a correctly proportioned mix has sufficient flow. Vibrating the mix
greatly improves the flow. The flow reduces as it approaches its initial set.

REPRODUCTION OF DETAIL
Gypsum products reproduce detail accurately (Table 15.1).
Significance This property is important for:
 Impression plaster because it has to accurately duplicate oral tissues
 Cast material has to duplicate all the detail recorded by the impression.
Factors which affect detail reproduction include compatibility with the
impression material, trapped air bubbles in the mix and surface contaminants
like saliva. Use of a mechanical vibrator and proper technique considerably
improve detail reproduction.

SPECIALIZED GYPSUM PRODUCTS

Some gypsum products are manufactured for specific uses in dentistry. Each
type is developed with specific physical properties suitable for the particular
purpose.

DENTAL CASTING INVESTMENTS

Uses
To prepare refractory molds for casting dental
alloys.
Adding a refractory material like silica or quartz or
crystobalite to dental plaster or stone permits it to
withstand high temperatures. These are called
Figure 15.11: Gypsum bonded investment dental casting investments (Fig. 15.11) (detailed
(Courtesy: CODS, Manipal). in Chapter on investments).

DIVESTMENT

Uses
To make refractory dies.
It is a combination of die stone and gypsum-bonded investment mixed with
colloidal silica. A die is made and the wax pattern constructed on it. Then the
entire assembly (die and pattern) is invested in the divestment (normally the
wax pattern is removed from the die and invested separately).
The setting expansion of the material is 0.9% and thermal expansion is 0.6% when
heated to 677°C. The advantage of divestment is that the wax pattern does not
have to be removed from the die, thus distortion of the pattern can be avoided.

SYNTHETIC GYPSUM
It is possible to make alpha and beta hemihydrate from the by-products during
the manufacture of phosphoric acid.

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 Gypsum Products
15

Figure 15.12: Orthodontic stone (kalabhai) and model. Figure 15.13: Mounting plaster.

The synthetic product is usually more expensive than that made from natural
gypsum, but when the product is properly made, its properties are equal to or
exceed the latter. However, manufacture is difficult and a few have succeeded
(e.g., Japan and Germany).

ORTHODONTIC STONE
For orthodontic study models many orthodontists prefer to used white stone or
plaster (Fig. 15.12). These products have a longer working time for pouring of
multiple models. To produce a glossy surface, finished models may be treated
with ‘model glow’ model soap.
RESIN MODIFIED STONES
A new resin fortified die stone (e.g., ResinRock, Whipmix corporation) is available.
It is a blend of synthetic resin and alpha gypsum. These stones are less brittle,
have improved surface smoothness and increased resistance to abrasion. When
mixed it forms a creamy, thixotropic mix which flows more easily under vibration.
Their compressive strength can be as high as 79 MPa.
MOUNTING PLASTER
Plaster used for attaching the cast to the articulator is known as mounting
plaster (Fig. 15.13). Regular plaster (type II) is used for this purpose. However,
plaster specialized for this purpose are available commercially. Important
properties for these products include a low setting expansion (0.09) which is
important for the accuracy of the mounting, low strength (12 MPa) which allows
easy separation from the cast and fast setting time (3 minutes).

FAST SETTING STONE

These are exceptionally fast setting stones (2 minutes) with an early high
compressive strength (1 hour - 41 MPa) which allows separation of the cast
from the impression in 5 minutes. An example includes Snap stone (Whipmix).

CARE OF GYPSUM
CARE OF THE CAST
If the gypsum cast has to be soaked in water it must be placed in a water bath in
which plaster debris is allowed to remain constantly on the bottom of the container
to provide a saturated solution of calcium sulfate at all times. This is known as
‘slurry water’. If the cast is washed in ordinary water, surface layer may dissolve,

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hence slurry water is used to preserve surface details. Such a procedure also
causes a negligible expansion. All gypsum casts must be handled carefully as
any departure from the expected accuracy may result in a poorly fitting appliance.
STORAGE OF THE POWDER
 As plaster is hygroscopic it should be kept in air tight containers. When the
relative humidity is more than 70%, plaster starts taking up moisture
initiating a setting reaction. This produces small crystals of gypsum which
act as nuclei of crystallization. Thus in the early stages, moisture contaminated
plaster sets faster. In later stages, as the hygroscopic action continues, the
entire hemihydrate mass is covered by more crystals of gypsum. The water
penetrates the mass with difficulty, thereby delaying setting. Thus heavily
moisture contaminated stone or plaster sets slower. The humidity factor is a
major consideration in parts of India with high atmospheric humidity.
 It should be kept clean with no dirt or other foreign bodies.

INFECTION CONTROL
There has been an increased interest over possible cross contamination to dental
office personnel through dental impressions. If an impression has not been
disinfected it is wise to disinfect the stone cast.
Gypsum products may be disinfected by:
1. Immersing cast in a disinfection solution.
2. Addition of disinfectant into the stone.
3. Overnight gas sterilization while treating patients known to have an infection
(impractical for routine use).

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DENTAL PLASTER AND DENTAL STONE

Though chemically identical, their differences are detailed in (Table 15.2):

Table 15.2 Plaster Stone

Manufacture Dry calcination Wet calcination
Comparison of
plaster and Particle size/shape Larger, irregular porous Smaller, regular and
dense
stone
W/P ratio Requires more water Requires less water
Porosity Porous More dense
Properties Lower strength and hardness Greater strength and
hardness
Application Used when strength is Used when greater
not of primary importance strength and hardness is
(e.g., diagnostic casts) required (e.g., dies,
master casts)

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