SBS5311 HVACR II

http://ibse.hk/SBS5311/

Principles of Refrigeration

Ir. Dr. Sam C. M. Hui

Faculty of Science and Technology
E-mail: cmhui@vtc.edu.hk

Oct 2017
Contents

• Basic Concepts
• Refrigerants
• Selection of Refrigerants
High Temperature Reservoir
• Refrigeration Cycles
Heat Rejected

R Work Input

Heat Absorbed

Low Temperature Reservoir

 Thermal energy moves from left to right through five loops of heat
transfer (i.e. heat pump)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Indoor air Chilled Refrigerant Condenser Cooling
loop water loop loop water loop water loop

* The knowledge of refrigeration systems would help HVAC engineers in selection

of the equipment and fitting it properly into overall system, defining practices
consistent with safety and safety standards of the industry, and restrictive regulations
on refrigerant production, recovery, and release for environmental concerns.
(Source: www.energyefficiencyasia.org)
 Basic principles of refrigerator and heat pump

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
Basic Concepts

• Refrigeration can offer cooling, dehumidifying,

and also heating (by heat pump) for air
conditioning
• Common space & product temperatures
• Air Conditioning = 24 °C
• High temperature refrigeration = 12 °C
• Medium temperature refrigeration = 2 °C Industrial,
food, cold
• Low temperature refrigeration = -23 °C chain,
• Extra low temperature refrigeration = -32 °C medicine,
cryogenics
 Basic Concepts

• Refrigeration
製冷

• The cooling effect of the process of extracting heat

from a lower temperature heat source, a substance
or cooling medium, and transferring to a higher
temperature heat sink, to maintain the temperature
of the heat source below that of surroundings
• Refrigeration systems
• Combination of components, equipment & piping
connected to produce the refrigeration effect
(* See also: The History of Refrigeration http://www.arca53.dsl.pipex.com/index_files/frig3.htm)
Basic Concepts

• Three types of refrigeration systems:

• Vapour compression 蒸氣壓縮
• Mechanical refrigeration using compressors, condensers and
evaporators
• Vapour absorption 蒸氣吸收
• Produce refrigeration effect by thermal energy input
• Liquid refrigerant produce refrigeration during evaporation; the
vapour is absorbed by an aqueous absorbent
• Air or gas expansion (air or gas cycle) 空氣膨脹
• Air or gas is compressed to a high pressure; it is then cooled by
surface water or air and expanded to low pressure to produce
refrigeration effect
• For air conditioning and pressurization of aircrafts
Vapour compression system

Vapour absorption system

Videos:
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ! LEARN AND GROW (3:34)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cobFAMZDS0o
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM ! LEARN AND GROW (3:38)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ll8Ku-mFQxE
 The air cycle – the work from the expander provides a portion of the
work input to the compressor

Air cycle refrigeration works on the reverse

Brayton or Joule cycle.
qL qL
COPR = =
wnet , in wcomp , in − wturb , out
(* See also: Air cycle machine - Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_cycle_machine)

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 Basic Concepts

• Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning

equipment is dominated by vapour
compression refrigeration technology built
upon the thermodynamic principles of the
reverse Carnot cycle*
• Refrigerant changes phases during cooling and
used again and again

(* See also: The Reversed Carnot Cycle http://thermodynamics-engineer.com/429-2/)

Basic Concepts

• Four basic components of vapour compression

refrigeration systems
• Compressor – raises the temperature and pressure
of the refrigerant
• Condenser – removes heat that was added to the
system by the evaporator and compressor
• Metering device – controls refrigerant flow to the
evaporator
• Evaporator – heat is absorbed from the space
 Basic components and piping of a refrigeration system

Discharge
Line

Compressor Condenser
Suction Metering
Line Device
Liquid
Line

Evaporator

(Source: Thomson Delmar Learning)

 Basic components illustrated in the shape of a “baseball diamond”
Metering
Device

Evaporator Condenser

Compressor
(Source: Thomson Delmar Learning)
Basic Concepts

• Terminology
• Refrigerant:
• A primary working fluid to produce refrigeration in a
refrigeration system
• Cooling medium:
• Working fluid cooled by refrigerant during evaporation
to transport refrigeration from a central plant to remote
equipment (e.g. chilled water, brine, and glycol)
• Liquid absorbent:
• Working fluid (e.g. lithium bromide and ammonia) to
absorb vaporised refrigerant (water) after evaporation in
an absorption refrigeration system
 Refrigerants
製冷劑 、冷媒 、雪種

• Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature

and low pressure and release heat at a higher
temperature and pressure
• Most refrigerants undergo phase changes during
heat absorption (evaporation) and heat releasing
(condensation)
• A refrigerant can either be a single chemical
compound or a mixture (blend) of multiple
compounds
(Video: Refrigerants How they work in HVAC systems (8:53) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMqoKLli0Y4)
(* See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigerant)
 Classification of fluids used as refrigerants

(Source: NPTEL E-learning course -- Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Lesson 26 Refrigerants
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105129/26)
 Refrigerants

• Numbering system for refrigerants

• For hydrocarbons & halocarbons (halogenated)
• ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34
• 1st digit: number of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds
• 2nd digit: number of carbon atoms minus one
• 3rd digit: number of hydrogen atoms plus one
• Last digit: number of fluorine atoms
• For example, R-11 = CFCl3 ; R-12 = CF2Cl2 ; R-22 =
CHF2Cl; R-123 = CHCl2CF3
• Today’s refrigerants are predominantly from a group
of compounds called halocarbons (halogenated
hydrocarbons) or specifically fluorocarbons
(* “Halogen”, from the Greek roots hal- (“salt”) and -gen (“to produce”), i.e. produce sodium salts.)
 Numbering system and types of refrigerants

(Source: http://www.fwdengineers.com/2017/01/17/refrigerant-history-and-nomenclature-part-2/)
 Fully halogenated CFCs and not fully halogenated HCFCs

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

 Refrigerants

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 氟氯化碳

• Contains only chlorine, fluorine & carbon atoms;
fully halogenated
• CFCs were first developed by General Motor’s
researchers in the 1920’s and commercialized by Dupont
as “Freons” family of refrigerants, such as R-11, R-12,
R-113, R-114, R-115
• Inert, colourless, odourless, low toxicity, low
flammability and low reactivity
• Also used in aerosol cans, blowing agents, solvents,
degreasing, cleaning, fire extinguishers, asthma inhalers
(* See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon)
Refrigerants

• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 氟氯烴

• Contain hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine & carbon
atoms and are not fully halogenated
• Smaller lifetime in atmosphere than CFCs & cause
far less ozone depletion (ODP = 0.02 to 0.1)
• Such as R-22, R-123, R-124
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 氫氟碳化物
• Contains only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon
atoms; cause less ozone depletion, but high GWP
• Such as R-134a, R-410a, R-407c, R-404a
 Ozone depletion in the atmosphere

(Video: Refrigerant types and their future (12:40) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J77a0keM2Yk)

(* See also: CFCs (The Ozone Hole) http://www.theozonehole.com/cfc.htm)
 Environmental impacts of common refrigerants

(Source: http://www.zondits.com/article/14037/brief-history-co2-refrigerant)
 Refrigerants

• Assess environmental impacts of refrigerants

• Ozone depletion potential (ODP) 臭氧破壞潛勢
• Ratio of ozone depletion rate compared with R-11
• Global warming potential (GWP) 全球暖化潛勢
• Global warming effect compared with R-11 or CO2
• HCFC’s near azeotropic & HCFC’s zeotropic
• Blends of HCFCs with HFCs
• Transitional or interim refrigerants, scheduled for
restricted production starting in 2004
(* See also: CFCs (The Ozone Hole) http://www.theozonehole.com/cfc.htm)
Refrigerants
• HFC’s azeotropic blends or azeotropic (共沸)
• Azeotropic = mixture of multiple refrigerants that evaporate
& condense as a single substance and do not change in
volumetric composition or saturation temperature when
evaporate or condense
• ASHRAE assign numbers R-500 to 599 for azeotropic
• Such as R-507 (blend of R-125/R-143)
• HFC’s near azeotropic (近共沸)
• Mixture of refrigerants whose characteristics are near those
of an azeotropic
• ASHRAE assign numbers R-400 to 499 for zeotropic
• Such as R-404A (R-125/R-134a/R-143a) and R-407B (R-
32/R-125/R-134a)
Refrigerants

• Zeotropic or non-azeotropic (非共沸)

• Including near azeotropic
• Show a change in composition due to the difference
between liquid & vapour phases, leaks, and the
difference between charge & circulation
• A shift in composition causes change in
evaporating & condensing temperature/pressure
• Middle between dew point & bubble point is often
taken as evap. & cond. temp. for the blends
 Refrigerants

• Inorganic compounds
• ASHRAE assign numbers R-700 to -799
• Ammonia (NH3) R-717, carbon dioxide (CO2) R-744, air
R-729, water (H2O) R-718, sulphur dioxide (SO2) R-764
• Natural refrigerant, do not deplete ozone layer
• CFCs
• Long lifetime (centuries)
• Cause ozone depletion (ODP = 0.6 – 1)
• Such as R-11, R-12, R-113, R-114, R-115
(See also: List of refrigerants - Wikidpedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants)
Refrigerants

• Halons (or BFCs)

• Contain bromide, fluorine & carbon atoms
• R-13B1, R-12B1 (used in very low temp. systems)
• Very high ozone depletion (ODP for R-13B1 =10)
• Montreal Protocol (1987) & Vienna
Convention (1985)
• Restrict the production & consumption of CFCs &
BFCs
• Phase-out of CFCs, BFCs, HCFCs and their blends
 Time line for refrigerants

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
Selection of Refrigerants

• Concerns of each application are different, e.g.

transport, large chiller, small air-conditioner,
industrial plant, refrigerator/freezer
• Important practical issues e.g. system design, size,
initial and operating costs, safety, reliability, and
serviceability etc. depend very much on the type of
refrigerant selected
• Environmental issues such as ODP and GWP
and their relation to the refrigerants used
Selection of Refrigerants

• Selection of refrigerant for a particular

application is based on the following
requirements:
• 1. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties
• Such as suction/discharge pressure, isentropic index
• 2. Environmental and safety properties
• Such as ODP, GWP, toxicity, flammability
• 3. Economics
• Inexpensive and easily available
Selection of Refrigerants

• In early 1990s
• R-11: widely used for centrifugal chillers
• R-12: for small & medium systems
• R-22: for all vapour compression systems
• R-502 (CFC/HCFC blend) for low-temp. systems
• Hong Kong
• Ozone Layer Protection Ordinance
• See website of Environmental Protection Dept.
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/
ozone_layer_protection/wn6_info.html
 Import of ozone depleting substances in Hong Kong

(Source: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/air_maincontent.html)
 Import banning of products containing HCFCs in phases in Hong Kong

(Source: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/ozone_layer_protection/wn6_info.html)
Selection of Refrigerants

• Alternative refrigerants (transitional)

• R-123 (HCFC, ODP = 0.02), replace R-11
• R-245a (ODP = 0), replace R-11 (longer term?); high GWP
• R-134a (HFC, ODP = 0), replace R-12
• Not miscible with mineral oil, synthetic lubricant is used; high GWP
• R-404A (R-125/R-134a/143a) and R-407C
• HFCs near azeotropic, ODP = 0; long-term alternatives to R-22
• R-507 (R-125/R-134a)
• HFC’s azeotropic, ODP = 0; long-term alternatives to R-502
• Synthetic lubricant oil is used
• R-402A (R-22/R-125/R-290) as short-term drop-in replacement
 Different generations of refrigerants

(Source: http://coolingindia.in/blog/post/id/13925/refrigerants-past-present--future)
 Properties of second and third generation refrigerants

(Source: http://coolingindia.in/blog/post/id/13925/refrigerants-past-present--future)
 Classification of alternative refrigerants

(Source: http://coolingindia.in/blog/post/id/13925/refrigerants-past-present--future)
 Selection of Refrigerants
氫氟烯烴

• Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) + HFO blends

• The fourth generation refrigerants; the molecules
are named olefins or alkenes
• Unsaturated HFCs, with at least one carbon-carbon
double bond, such as:
• R-1234yf: for automotive air conditioning (replace R-134a)
• R-1234ze: for large chillers (replace R-134a, R-404a)
• R-1233zd: for industrial HVAC & buildings (replace R-123)
• Zero OZP, low GWP that reduce environmental
impact while offering energy efficiency
(* See also: HFO refrigerants explained - KTH http://www.kth.se/en/itm/inst/energiteknik/forskning/ett/projekt/koldmedier-med-lag-gwp/low-
gwp-news/nagot-om-hfo-koldmedier-1.602602)
Selection of Refrigerants

• Natural refrigerants
• Such as ammonia (NH3, R-717) carbon dioxide
(CO2, R-744), and propane (R-290)
• Advantages:
• Environmentally friendly, high volumetric efficiency
• Drawbacks:
• Danger of suffocation, high pressure, toxicity,
flammability, explosion risk
• High safety standard is needed
• Safety standards can differ between regions and
countries
 Evolution of alternative refrigerants

HC’s = hydrocarbons

(Source: http://www.vtechonline.com/r448a-r449a-r513a-refrigerant-charging.html)
Selection of Refrigerants

• Required properties of refrigerants

• Safety (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34)
• Toxicity: Class A (lower) and Class B (higher)
• Flammability:
• Class 1 – no flame propagation
• Class 2 – lower flammability
• Class 3 – higher flammability
• Such as “A1” Group: R-134a & R-22; “B2”: ammonia
• Effectiveness of refrigeration cycle (kW/TR)
• Lubricant oil miscibility
• Compressor displacement
Selection of Refrigerants

• Desired properties:
• Evaporative pressure > atmospheric
• Non-condensable gas will not enter the system
• Lower condensing pressure (lighter construction)
• High thermal conductivity (better heat transfer)
• Dielectric constant compatible w/ air
• An inert refrigerant (avoid corrosion, erosion)
• Refrigerant leakage can be detected
 HVAC refrigerant cylinders: All refrigerant canisters are expected to
sport a uniform colour by 2020. Do you know why?

(Source: http://www.achrnews.com/articles/133531-hvac-refrigerant-cylinders-are-over-the-rainbow)
 Timeline of refrigerant history (nearly all of the historically used
refrigerants were flammable, toxic, or both)

Water, Petrol ether Sulfur dioxide Dilene, methylene

sulfuric acid + naphtha (SO2) + methyl chloride

1950

Ether + natural Ammonia/ Ammonia Methylchloride Fluoro- Hydrochloro

refrigerants water (NH3, (NH3) (CH3Cl) carbon fluoro-
(CO2, NH3, H2O) H2O) (CFC), carbon
“Freon” (HCFC)
(Source: Refrigerant Safety (US-EPA) http://www.epa.gov/snap/refrigerant-safety)
 Refrigerant safety classification from ASHRAE Standard 34

LFL = lower flammability limit; UFL = upper flammability limit; TLV-TWA = threshold limit value-time weighted average

(Source: Refrigerant Safety (US-EPA) http://www.epa.gov/snap/refrigerant-safety)

Refrigeration Cycles

• Refrigeration process
• Change of thermodynamic properties and the
energy & work transfer
• 1 ton of refrign. (TR) = 12,000 Btu/h (3.516 kW)
• Refrigeraton cycles
• Closed cycle and open cycle
• Vapour compression cycles:
• Single-stage, multi-stage, compound, cascade
• Pressure-enthalpy (p-h) or Mollier diagram
• Temperature–entropy (T-s) diagram
 The ideal reversed Carnot cycle:
(a) circuit and (b) temperature–entropy (T-s) diagram

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
Refrigeration Cycles

• Ideal single-stage cycle

• Isentropic compression, pressure losses neglected
• qrf = refrigeration capacity
• Win = work input to compressor
• Coefficient of performance (COP)
• COP = qrf / Win
• Refrigerator: produce refrigeration effect
• Heat pump: produce heating effect
• Subcooling and superheating
 Refrigeration cycle -- vapour compression cycle

3
Condenser
High
4 Pressure
Side

Expansion
Device Compressor

2 Low
1
Pressure
Side
Evaporator

(Video: Refrigeration Cycle Video Animation (1:30) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MqnyaUNxs9A)

 Simple vapour compression cycle
with pressure and enthalpy values for R134a

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 The temperature rise or ‘ lift ’ of the refrigeration cycle is increased by
temperature differences in the evaporator and condenser

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 Refrigeration cycle -- vapour compression cycle

3 2

4 1

Enthalpy kJ/kg

System COP normally includes all the power

inputs associated with the system, i.e. fans and
pumps in addition to compressor power.
A ratio of System COP to Carnot COP (for the
process) is termed system efficiency index,
SEI.
(See also: Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle Calculator http://engr.usask.ca/classes/ME/227/Refrigeration/js/)
Refrigeration Cycles

• Two-stage compound systems w/ flash cooler

• Multi-stage compression connected in series
• Higher compression efficiency, greater refrig. effect
• Compressor ratio
• Flash cooler: an economizer to subcool liquid
refrigerant to saturated temperature
qref (1 − x)(h1 − h9 )
COPref = =
Win (1 − x)(h2 − h1 ) + (h4 − h3 )
 Two-stage compound systems w/ flash cooler

* Where the ratio of suction to discharge pressure is high enough to

cause a serious drop in volumetric efficiency or an unacceptably high
discharge temperature, vapour compression must be carried out in
two or more stages.
 Two-stage compound systems and T-s diagram

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
Refrigeration Cycles

• Casade system characteristics

• Two independently operated single-stage systems
• Connected by a cascade condenser
• Main advantages
• Different refrigerants, oils and equipment can be used
• Disadvantages: more complicated

qref m& l (h1 − h4 )

COPref = =
Win m& l (h2 − h1' ) + m& h (h6 − h5 )
Cascade system and p-h diagram
 Cascade system and T-s diagram

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
Refrigeration Cycles

• Absorption cycle
• Such as ammonia and lithium bromide systems
• Absorption of ammonia gas into water, and of water
vapour into lithium bromide
• Refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is drawn into
the absorber by the liquid absorbant. The liquor is then
pumped up to condenser pressure and the vapour is
driven off in the generator by direct heating
• The heat energy to the generator may be any form of
low-grade energy such as oil, gas, hot water or steam, or
from solar radiation
 Absorption cycle: basic circuit

(Source: Hundy, G. F., Trott, A. R. and Welch, T. C., 2008. Refrigeration and Air-conditioning, 4th ed.)
 Vapour absorption refrigeration

Condenser Generator

Hot
Side

Evaporator

Cold Absorber
Side
 Absorption refrigeration system with solar energy at generator

(Source: Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 8th edition, by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles)
Further Reading

• NPTEL E-learning course -- Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112105129/
• Lesson 10 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
• Lesson 11 Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems:
Performance Aspects And Cycle Modifications
• Lesson 12 Multi-Stage Vapour Compression Refrigeration
• Lesson 13 Multi-Evaporator And Cascade Systems
• Lesson 14 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems
• Lesson 25 Analysis Of Complete Vapour Compression
Refrigeration Systems
• Lesson 26 Refrigerants