Spring

16

The Design and Optimization of a

Steam Turbine Cycle using Reheating
and Regeneration

Nicole Smirnoff

The City College of New York

Grove School of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thermal System Analysis and Design
Professor Rishi S. Raj
 2

Abstract
The purpose of this project is to design and optimize a steam turbine cycle given an
inlet pressure and power requirement. The ideal steam turbine cycle is known as
the Rankine cycle. In order to increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle, heat
should be added at a high temperature and/or removed at a low temperature. Using
thermodynamics, the concepts of reheating and regeneration are applied to increase
the efficiency of the Rankine cycle. Reheating is the idea of reheating the steam after
it has gone through the turbine. Regeneration is the concept of adding feed water
heaters that extract steam from the turbine for heating water exiting the condenser,
therefore requiring less work for the compressor.
 3

Table of Contents

Abstract.......................................................................................................................2
Introduction.................................................................................................................4
Rankine Cycle............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Improving the Rankine Cycle.............................................................................................................................. 6
Reheating.................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Regeneration............................................................................................................................................................. 7
Approach.....................................................................................................................9
Requirements............................................................................................................................................................ 9
Steam Tables............................................................................................................................................................. 9
Cycle One...................................................................................................................10
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 10
Result......................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Cycle Two...................................................................................................................13
Step One...................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 14
Result......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Step Two..................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 18
Result......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Cycle Three.................................................................................................................20
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 21
Cycle Four..................................................................................................................23
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Cycle Five...................................................................................................................27
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 28
Cost Effectiveness of Feedwater Heaters....................................................................33
Real Rankine Cycle with Reheating and Regeneration................................................34
Calculation............................................................................................................................................................... 35
Conclusion..................................................................................................................37
References.................................................................................................................39
 4

Introduction
Rankine Cycle
The ideal cycle for a vapor powered system is known as the Rankine cycle.
The Rankine cycle operates on the following four steps:
Step 1 to 2: Isentropic compression in a pump
Step 2 to 3: Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
Step 3 to 4: Isentropic expansion in a turbine
Step 4 to 1: Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
These steps are illustrated by Figures 1a, the physical representation of the cycle,
and 1b, the T-s diagram for the cycle.

(a) (b)
Figure 1: The Rankine Cycle

Beginning with step 1 of the cycle, water enters the pump as a saturated
liquid and is compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler. It
then enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at step 2 where it is heated to the
maximum temperature that the materials can stand without melting, 1000 ℉ in our
case. The water, now a steam or superheated vapor, enters the turbine at step 3
where it spins the rotors and expands isentropically, dropping the pressure and
temperature of the steam. The steam produces work by rotating the shaft connected
to an electric generator. The steam leaves the turbine as a saturated liquid-vapor
mixture with a high quality, 87%, or low moisture content, 13% in our case. The
mixture enters the condenser at step 4 where it is condensed to a saturated liquid at
a constant pressure. Heat is rejected into a heat sink such as the atmosphere or a
lake. The saturated liquid enters the pump again, completing the cycle.
A few things that can be noted about the Rankine cycle that will help with the
calculations are that the pressure, P, at 1 and 4 is equal, the pressure at 2 and 3 is
equal, the entropy, s, at 1 and 2 is equal, and the entropy at 3 and 4 is equal.
 5

P1=P 4
P2=P3
s1=s 2
s3=s 4

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be found through analysis of each step
of the cycle. The steady-flow energy equation per unit mass for the steam turbine
cycle is written as
( q ¿ −qout ) + ( w¿ −wout ) =he −hi

where q is the heat added or removed, w is the work done on or by, and h is the
enthalpy at the exit or inlet of each step.
Work is required for the pump to compress the saturated liquid to the
operating pressure of the boiler. Since the process is isentropic, there is no heat
added and therefore the work done by the pump is

w pump =h2−h 1=v ( P2 −P 1)

where h1 is the enthalpy of the compressed liquid at P1,v is the specific

volume of the compressed liquid at P1, and P1 and P2 are the pressures at step 1 and
2 respectively. This equation is useful for finding the enthalpy at point 2 with
knowing all other parameters.
Heat is added to the boiler at steps 2 to 3 and there is no work so

q ¿=h3−h 2

Work is done by the turbine and there is no heat so

w turb=h3−h 4

Heat is removed from the condenser and there is no work so

q out =h 4−h1

The overall net work is

w net =wturb −w pump =q¿ −q out =( h3−h2 ) −(h4−h1)

Therefore the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is

w net q out h4 −h1

ηth = =1− =1−
q¿ q¿ h3 −h2
 6

Improving the Rankine Cycle

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be improved or increased by
two ways: increase the temperature at which heat is added and/or decrease the
temperature at which heat is rejected.
Lowering the temperature at which the water enters the
condenser increases the total area of the T-s diagram, also
known as the net work (Figure 2). This also decreases the
pressure in the condenser. The issue with this is that
there is a minimum pressure that the condenser can
operate on. The pressure cannot fall below the saturation
pressure corresponding to the temperature of the heat
sink, a lake or river that the heat is rejected into. Also a
low condenser pressure increases the chances of an air
leak into the condenser and the moisture content of the
steam, which decreases the turbine efficiency.
Increasing the temperature at which heat is added
can be done by superheating the steam or by increasing
the boiler pressure. Superheating increases both the net
work and the heat input, as seen in the shift of point 3 to Figure 2 – The effect of
3’, increasing the thermal efficiency (Figure 3a). The lowering the temperature at
moisture content decreases as seen in the shift of point 4 which heat is rejected
to 4’. Increasing the boiler pressure increases the
temperature at which boiling takes place, increasing the thermal efficiency overall
(Figure 3b). There is a maximum temperature at which these can be done due to
metallurgical considerations; in this case it is 1000℉.

(a) (b)

Figure 3 – The effect of increasing the temperature at which heat is added

 7

Reheating
The concept of reheating is illustrated by Figure 4 and is as follows: superheat the
steam before it enters the turbine (point 3), expand the steam in the turbine (step 3
to 4), reheat it (step 4 to 5), and expand again to the condenser pressure (step 5 to
6).

Figure 4 – The Reheat Rankine Cycle

The heat added to the system is now equal to both the original heat added
from steps 2 to 3 and the heat added from steps 4 to 5.

q ¿=q2−3 +q 4−5=( h3−h 2) +(h5 −h4 )

The work done by the turbine is now equal to both the work done by the high
pressure turbine (steps 3 to 4) and the low pressure turbine (steps 5 to 6)

w turb=w HP+ w LP =( h3 −h4 ) +(h5 −h6 )

The overall efficiency of the reheat cycle becomes

w net q out h 4−h1

ηth = =1− =1−
q¿ q¿ ( h3−h2 ) +( h5−h 4 )

This reheat process can be done a number of times. However, it is not practical to
have more than two reheat stages because the efficiency increase from the second
reheat is half of that of the first reheat.

Regeneration
The idea of regeneration is to extract steam from the turbine to raise the
temperature of the liquid leaving the pump before it enters the boiler in order to
decrease the amount of heat added to the boiler. This increases the efficiency and
 8

also removes air that may have leaked into the condenser by deaerating the water
leaving the pump, also called the feedwater. The device that uses the extracted
steam to heat the feedwater is conveniently called the feedwater heater.
There are two types of feedwater heaters: open and closed. Open feedwater
heaters mix the steam with the feedwater directly. Closed feedwater heaters employ
the steam to heat a coil that in turn heats the feedwater. In this paper only open
feedwater heaters will be used to improve the Rankine cycle.
Steam at the boiler pressure enters the turbine at step 5 where it expands to
the feedwater heater pressure. A portion of that expanded steam (a mass of y
kilograms) is extracted into the open feedwater heater at step 6. The rest of the
steam (a mass of 1-y kilograms) continues to expand isentropically to the condenser
pressure at step 7. The condensed water, or feedwater, enters a pump at step 1
where it is compressed to the open feedwater pressure. The feedwater enters the
heater at step 2 where it mixes with the steam from step 6, increasing in
temperature due to the steam. The water leaves the heater at step 3 where it enters
a second pump to be compressed to the boiler pressure. The water enters the boiler
at step 4 where it is heated, now requiring less heat because of its higher
temperature. Figure 5 illustrates this cycle.

Figure 5 – The Open Feedwater Heater Regenerative Rankine Cycle

This cycle can be described by the following equations. The fraction of the steam
extracted from the turbine is equal to the mass fraction.

y= ṁ6 / ṁ5
The heat added to the boiler is
q ¿=h5−h 4

Since the mass of the steam entering the condenser is (1-y), the heat removed from
the condenser becomes
q out =(1− y )(h7−h1)
 9

The work of the turbine is a combination of both the change in enthalpy from step 5
to 6 (steam extracted to the feedwater heater) and the change in enthalpy of the
remaining steam that enters the condenser.

w turb=( h5−h 6 ) +(1− y)(h6−h 7)

The total pump work is equal to the work done by both of the pumps

w pump =( 1− y ) w pump I + w pump II

where
w pump I =v 1 ( P2−P1 )
w pump II =v 2 ( P 4−P3 )

Approach
Requirements
Inlet pressure: 1850 psi
Inlet temperature (max temp of system): 1000℉
Power Requirement: 180,000 KW
Highest efficiency possible
Steam moisture content: 13%

Steam Tables
The overall goal is to find the enthalpy at each point in order to find the efficiency at
the end. Knowing the entropy at some points will help in finding the enthalpy at
other points due to isentropic processes. The entropy is also used to determine the
moisture content. The enthalpy at point 1 is always going to be found using the
Saturated Water Table A-5E. The enthalpy at point 2, which is in the compressed
water region, is always going to be found using the equation for the work of the
pump. The enthalpy at point 3, which is in the superheated region is found using
interpolation of the Superheated Water Table A-6E because the values for the inlet
pressure are not available in the steam tables. The enthalpy at point 4 can either be
in the superheated region, which is not desirable, or in the saturated liquid-vapor
region, desirable. To find the enthalpy at the former, interpolation must be done
within the Superheated Water Table A-6E. To find enthalpy at the latter, the
moisture content must be found using the known entropy as well as the entropy
values in the Saturated Water Table A-5E. The enthalpy is found using the moisture
content and the enthalpy values in the Saturated Water Table A-5E.
 10

Cycle One
The purpose of Cycle One is to find the optimal pressure at point 4 in order to have a
moisture content of 13% for a simple Rankine cycle. Calculations are done to
generate two curves: moisture content vs. pressure at point 4 and efficiency vs.
pressure at point 4. The moisture content curve is used to find the pressure that
corresponds to 13% moisture content. The efficiency curve is then employed to find
the efficiency that corresponds to this pressure. The following calculation for the
pressure at state 1 and 4 of 1 psi is repeated for pressures of 5, 10, and 15 psi in
order to generate the curves. Figure 6 illustrates this cycle.

Figure 6 – Simple Rankine Cycle

Calculation

State 1: Saturated Water

P1=1 psi

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h1 =hf @ P =69.74
Btu f t3
v=v 1=v f @ P =0.016136
1
lbm 1
lbm

State 2: Compressed Water

P2=1850 psi
 11

144 i n2 Btu 144

h2 =h1 +v ( P2−P1 ) ( 778 lbf f t 3 )
=69.72+ ( 0.016136 ) ( 1850−1 )( )
778
Btu
h2 =75.2622
lbm

State 3: Superheated Water

P3=P2 =1850 psi(constant pressure process 2¿ 3)

T 3=1000 ° F

The entropy and enthalpy at 1850 psi is found by interpolating between the
pressures and the entropy at a temperature of 1000 ° F using the Superheated Water
Table A-6E:

Entropy Enthalpy
Pressure ( psi ) Btu Btu
(lbm R ) ( )
lbm
1750 1.5789 1482.3
P3=¿ 1850 1.57126 1479.02
2000 1.5598 1474.1

Btu Btu
s3=1.57126 h3=1479.02
lbm R lbm

State 4: Saturated Liquid Vapor Mixture

P4 =P1=1 psi( constant pressure process 1¿4)

Btu
s4 =s3=1.57126 (isentropic process 3¿4)
lbm R

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

Btu Btu
s g @ P =1.9779 h g @ P =1105.8
4
lbm R 4
lbm

Btu Btu
sfg @ P =1.8453 h fg@ P =1036
4
lbm R 4
lbm

The moisture content, (1-x), at point 4 is obtained by the following:

s g@ P −s4 1.9779−1.5716
( 1−x 4 )= s 4
=
1.8453
=0.220365
fg @ P4
 12

The enthalpy at point 4 can be found using the quality.

h 4=h g @ P −( 1−x 4 ) hfg @ P =1105.8−( 0.220365 )( 1036 )

4 4

Btu
h 4=877.88
lbm

The efficiency of this cycle is found using all of the values found for enthalpy at each
point in the cycle.

Btu Btu Btu Btu

h1 =69.74 h2=75.2622 h3=1479.02 h4 =877.88
lbm lbm lbm lbm

w net q out h4 −h1 877.88−69.74

ηth = =1− =1− =1−
q¿ q¿ h3 −h2 1479.02−75.2622

ηth =0.4243=42.43 %

Result
The results from the calculations are summarized in Table 1.

Pressure (psi) Moisture Content Efficiency

1 0.2204 0.424302
5 0.16954 0.381247
10 0.1439 0.359256
15 0.127543 0.345253

Table 1 – Summary of Cycle One Calculations for Moisture Content and

Efficiency

The values from Table 1 are illustrated in Figures 7 and 8. Since the desired
moisture content is 13%, the corresponding value of pressure can be found using
the best-fit equation shown in Figure 7. From performing this calculation, the
pressure is 14.7925 psi. Using Figure 8, the efficiency corresponding to this pressure
is found using the best-fit curve to be 0.34, or 34%.
 13

Figure 7 – Graph of Moisture Content and Pressure

Figure 8 – Graph of Efficiency and Pressure

Cycle Two
The purpose of this cycle is to add reheating. In the first step, the reheat pressure
that corresponds to the highest efficiency is found. In the second step, the pressure
at point 6 that corresponds to the required moisture content of 13% is found. Figure
9 illustrates this cycle.
 14

Figure 9 – Rankine Cycle with Reheating

Step One
The following calculation for a reheat pressure ( P4 ) of 200 psi is repeated for 300,
500, 600, 700, and 800. The reason for skipping 400 psi is that the entropy at point
6 due to the reheat pressure is lower than what is available on the steam tables for
interpolation. For reheat pressures of 200 and 300 psi the moisture content is
negative at point 6. Therefore it is necessary to employ the Superheated Water
Table A-6E in order to determine enthalpy and entropy at the pressure at point 6
(14.7925 psi). For all other values considered the enthalpy can be found directly
using the moisture content as seen in Cycle One.

Calculation

State 1: Saturated Water

P1=14.7925 psi

The enthalpy and specific volume are found by interpolation using the Saturated
Water Table A-5E.

Enthalpy Specific Volume

Pressure ( psi ) Btu f t3
( )
lbm ( )
lbm
14.696 180.16 0.01671
P1=¿ 14.7925 180.4933 0.0167132
15 181.21 0.01672
 15

h1 =hf @ P =180.4933
Btu f t3
v=v 1=v f @ P =0.0167132
1
lbm 1
lbm

State 2: Compressed Water

P2=1850 psi
144 i n2 Btu 144
(
h2 =h1 +v ( P2−P1 ) )
778 lbf f t 3
=180.4933+ ( 0.0167132 ) (1850−14.7925 ) ( )
778
Btu
h2 =186.1704
lbm

State 3: Superheated Water

P3=P2 =1850 psi(constant pressure process 2¿ 3)

The entropy and enthalpy at 1850 psi is found by interpolation in the previous
calculation (Cycle One).
Btu Btu
s3=1.57126 h =1479.02
lbm R 3 lbm

State 4: Superheated Water

P4 =200 psi( REHEAT PRESSURE )

Btu
s4 =s3=1.57126 (isentropic process 3¿4)
lbm R

The enthalpy at 200 psi is found by interpolation of the entropy above and below
the value of s4 =s3 using the Superheated Water Table A-6E.

Entropy Enthalpy
Btu Btu
( lbm R ) ( )
lbm
1.5602 1210.9
s4 =¿1.57126 1220.6626
1.5943 1241

Btu
h 4=1220.6626
lbm

State 5: Superheated Water

P5=P 4=200 psi(constant pressure process 4¿5)

T 3=1000 ° F
 16

Using the Superheated Water Table A-6E:

Btu
s5=1.843
lbm R

Btu
h5 =1529.6
lbm

State 6:

P6=P1 =14.7925 psi(constant pressure process 4 ¿5)

Btu
s6 =s 5=1.843 (isentropic process 5¿6)
lbm R

The vapor and evaporation entropy and enthalpy are found by interpolation using
the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

Pressure ( psi ) sg ( lbmBtuR ) s ( lbmBtuR )

fg hg
Btu
( lbm ) h fg
Btu
( lbm )
14.696 1.7566 1.4441 1150.3 970.12
P6=¿14.7925 1.7561 1.4441 1150.4269 969.9137
15 1.7549 1.4441 1150.7 969.47

The moisture content, (1-x), at point 6 is obtained by the following:

s g@P 6−s 1.7561−1.843

( 1−x 6 ) = s 6
=
1.4441
=−0.0602
fg @ P 6

Since the above equation gives negative moisture content, point 6 is in the
superheated water region and therefore the Superheated Water Table A-6E must be
used. The only available pressures are 10 and 15 psi. First interpolation must be
done to find the enthalpy at a pressure of 10 psi and entropy of s6 . This must be
repeated for 15 psi. Lastly, interpolation must be done between these pressures to
find the enthalpy at a pressure of 14.7925 psi. This same process has to be used for
the reheat pressure of 300 psi. However, for all the other pressures, the quality is
positive and therefore enthalpy can be found directly.

10 psi 15 psi
Entropy Enthalpy Entropy Enthalpy
Btu Btu Btu Btu
( lbm R ) ( )
lbm (lbm R ) ( )
lbm
1.8207 1165.5 1.5602 1202.2
s6 =¿1.843 1181.5866 s6 =¿1.843 1215.8144
1.8469 1241 1.5943 1221.1
 17

Btu
Pressure ( psi ) Enthalpy ( lbm )
10 1215.8144
P6=¿14.7925 1220.6626
15 1181.5866
Btu
h6 =1220.6626
lbm

If the moisture content is positive, point 6 is in the saturated liquid vapor region.
The enthalpy at point 6 can be found using the quality x 6.

h6 =h g @ P −( 1−x 6 ) hfg @ P
6 6

The efficiency of this cycle is found using all of the values found for enthalpy at each
point in the cycle.
Btu Btu
h1 =180.4933 h2 =186.1704
lbm lbm

Btu Btu
h3 =1479.02 h 4=1220.6626
lbm lbm

Btu Btu
h5 =1529.6 h =1220.6626
lbm 6 lbm

w net q out h 6−h1 1220.6626−180.4933

ηth = =1− =1− =1−
q¿ q¿ ( h3−h2 ) +(h5−h 4 ) ( 1479.02−186.1704 ) +(1529.6−1220.6626)

ηth =0.35453=35.453 %

Result
The results are summarized in Table 2 below and illustrated in Figure.

Reheat Pressure (psi) Efficiency

200 0.35453
300 0.36041
500 0.36248
600 0.36218
700 0.36160
800 0.36073
 18

Table 2 – Summary of Cycle Two Step One Calculations for Reheat Pressure
and Efficiency

Figure 10 – Graph of Efficiency and Reheat Pressure

It is clear from Figure 10 that the optimal reheat pressure in this cycle is 500 psi
because it has the highest efficiency out of all the pressures considered in this
calculation. Rather than fit the curve with a trendline, 500 psi is chosen to be the
reheat pressure. Making this choice will simplify calculations because all of the
information at this pressure is readily available in the steam tables as well as from
the calculations done above.

Reheat pressure=P 4=500 psi

ηth =36 %

Step Two
The following calculation for 1 psi to obtain the optimal pressure at point 6 with
moisture content of 13% is repeated for 5, 10, and 15 psi.

Calculation

State 1: Saturated Water

P1=1 psi

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

 19

h1 =hf @ P =69.74
Btu f t3
v=v 1=v f @ P =0.016136
1
lbm 1
lbm

State 2: Compressed Water

P2=1850 psi
144 i n2 Btu 144
h2 =h1 +v ( P2−P1 )(778 lbf f t )
3 ( )
=69.72+ ( 0.016136 ) ( 1850−1 )
778
Btu
h2 =75.2622
lbm

State 3: Superheated Water

P3=P2 =1850 psi(constant pressure process 2¿ 3)

The entropy and enthalpy at 1850 psi is found by interpolation in the previous
calculation (Cycle One).
Btu Btu
s3=1.57126 h =1479.02
lbm R 3 lbm

State 4: Superheated Water

P4 =500 psi(OPTIMAL REHEAT PRESSURE FOUND ∈STEP ONE)

Btu
s4 =s3=1.57126 (isentropic process 3¿4)
lbm R
Btu
h 4=1311.8854
lbm

State 5: Superheated Water

P5=P 4=500 psi(constant pressure process 4¿5)

T 3=1000 ° F

Using the Superheated Water Table A-6E:

Btu
s5=1.7376
lbm R

Btu
h5 =1521
lbm

State 6: Saturated Water Vapor Mixture

P6=P1 =1 psi(constant pressure process 6¿1)

 20

Btu
s6 =s 5=1.7376 (isentropic process 5¿6)
lbm R

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

Btu Btu
s g @ P =1.9779 h g @ P =1105.4
6
lbm R 6
lbm

Btu Btu
sfg @ P =1.8453 h fg@ P =1035.7
6
lbm R 6
lbm

The moisture content, (1-x), at point 4 is obtained by the following:

s g@P −s6 1.9779−1.7376

( 1−x 6 ) = s 6
=
1.8453
=0.13022
fg @ P6

The enthalpy at point 4 can be found using the quality.

h6 =h g @ P −( 1−x 6 ) hfg @ P =1105.4−( 0.13022 )( 1035.7 )

6 6

Btu
h 4=970.5283
lbm

Result
The calculations for the rest of the pressures are summarized in Table 3 and
illustrated in Figure 11.

Pressure (psi) Moisture Content

1 0.13022
5 0.06618
10 0.03333
15 0.01214

Table 3 – Summary of Cycle Two Step Two Calculations

 21

Figure 11 – Graph of Moisture Content and Pressure at Point 6

It is clear that at a pressure of 1 psi there is approximately 13% moisture content.

Therefore we can choose 1 psi to be our pressure at point 6 in order to simplify
calculations.
The efficiency of this cycle is now
w net q out h6 −h1 970.5283−69.74
ηth = =1− =1− =1− =0.4415
q¿ q¿ ( h3−h2 ) + ( h5 −h4 ) ( 1479.02−75.2622 )+ ( 1521−1311.8854 )

P1=1 psi
ηth =44.15 %

Cycle Three
In this cycle feedwater heaters are introduced. An open feedwater heater will be
attached to the high-pressure (HP) turbine at point 6. By adding a feedwater heater,
a fraction of the total steam in the turbine is extracted to mix with water exiting the
first pump at step 3. Figure 12 illustrates this cycle.
 22

Figure 12 – Rankine Cycle with Reheating and 1 Feedwater Heater at the High
Pressure Turbine

Calculation

State 1: Saturated Water

P1=1 psi

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h1 =hf @ P =69.72
Btu f t3
v=v 1=v f @ P =0.016136
1
lbm 1
lbm

State 2: Compressed Water

P2=500 psi
144 i n2 Bt u 144
h2 =h1 +v 1 ( P2−P1 ) ( 778 lbf f t)3 ( )
=69.72+ ( 0.016136 )( 500−1 )
778
Btu
h2 =71.2107
lbm

State 3: Saturated Water

P3=500 psi

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

 23

h3 =hf @ P =449.51
Btu f t3
v3 =v f @ P =0.01975
3
lbm 3
lbm

State 4: Compressed Water

P4 =1850 psi
144 i n2 Btu 144
(
h 4=h 3+ v 3 ( P 4−P3 ) )
778 lbf f t 3 ( )
=449.51+ ( 0.01975 )( 1850−500 )
778
Btu
h 4=454.4449
lbm
State 5: Superheated Water

P5=1850 ps i(constant pressure process 4¿5)

The enthalpy at this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 3 in the previous cycles.

Btu
h5 =1479.02
lbm

State 6: Superheated Water

P6=500 psi(REHEAT PRESSURE∧LOCATION OF FEEDWATER HEATER)

The enthalpy of this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 4 found in Cycle Two Step
One.
Btu
h6 =1311.8854
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h3 −h2 449.51−71.2107
m 6= =
h6 −h2 1311.8854 −71.2107

m 6=0.3049

State 7: Superheated Water

P7=500 psi ( constant pressure process 5¿6 )

The enthalpy of this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 5 found in Cycle Two Step
One.
Btu
h7 =1521
lbm
 24

State 8: Saturated Water Vapor Mixture

P8=1 psi

The enthalpy of this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 6 found in Cycle Two Step
Two.
Btu
h8 =970.5283
lbm

The total efficiency of this cycle is equal to

w net q out ( 1−m6 ) ( h8 −h1 ) ( 1−0.3049 ) ( 970.5283−69.72 )

ηth = =1− =1− =1− =
q¿ q¿ ( 1−m6 ) ( h3 −h2 ) +( h5−h 4 ) ( 1−0.3049 )( 449.51−71.2107 ) + ( 1479.02−454.4449 )

ηth =46.48 %

Cycle Four
In this cycle an open feedwater heater will be added to the intermediate pressure
(IP) turbine. Two new states are added, 2 and 10. State 10 is the location of the new
open feedwater heater. The open feedwater heater added in Cycle Three to state 6 is
now on state 8. Figure 13 illustrates this cycle.

Figure 13 – Rankine Cycle with Reheating and 2 Feedwater Heaters

 25

Calculation

State 1: Saturated Water

P1=1 psi

State 1 in this cycle is the same as state 1 in Cycle Three.

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h1 =hf @ P =69.72
Btu f t3
v=v 1=v f @ P =0.016136
1
lbm 1
lbm

State 2: Compressed Water

P2=250 psi
144 i n2 Btu 144
h2 =h1 +v 1 ( P2−P1 ) ( 778lbf f t 3)=69.72+ ( 0.016136 ) ( 250−1 ) ( )
778
Btu
h2 =70.4639
lbm

State 3: Saturated Water

P3=250 psi

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h3 =hf @ P =376.09
Btu f t3
v3 =v f @ P =0.01865
3
lbm 3
lbm

State 4: Compressed Water

P4 =500 psi

144 i n2 Btu 144

h 4=h 3+ v 3 ( P 4−P3 ) (
778 lbf f t 3 )
=376.09+ ( 0.01865 )( 500−250 )
778 ( )
Btu
h 4=376.9529
lbm

State 5: Saturated Water

P5=500 psi
 26

State 5 in this cycle is the same as state 3 in Cycle Three.

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h5 =hf @ P =449.51
Btu f t3
v5 =v f @ P =0.01975
5
lbm 5
l bm

State 6: Compressed Water

P6=1850 psi

State 6 in this cycle is the same as state 4 in Cycle Three.

144 in2 Btu 144

(
h6 =h5 + v 5 ( P6 −P 5 ) )
778 lbf f t 3 ( )
=449.51+ ( 0.01975 ) ( 1850−500 )
778
Btu
h6 =454.4449
lbm

State 7: Superheated Water

P7=1850 psi(constant pressure process 6 ¿7)

The enthalpy at this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 3 in the Cycles One and
Two and state 5 in the previous cycle.
Btu
h7 =1479.02
lbm

State 8: Superheated Water

P8=500 psi( REHEAT PRESSURE∧LOCATION OF HP FEEDWATER HEATER)

State 8 in this cycle is the same as state 6 in Cycle Three. However the mass
extracted is different because of the addition of states in this cycle.

The enthalpy of this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 4 found in Cycle Two Step
One.
Btu
h8 =1311.8854
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h5 −h4 449.51−376.9529
m 8= =
h8 −h4 1311.8854−376.9529
 27

m 8=0.07761

State 9: Superheated Water

P9=500 psi ( constant pressure process 8¿9 )

State 9 in this cycle is the same as state 7 in Cycle Three.

The enthalpy of this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 5 found in Cycle Two Step
One.
Btu
h 9=1521
lbm

State 10: Superheated Water

P10=250 psi( LOCATION OF NEW FEEDWATER HEATER)

The entropy at this state is equal to the entropy of state 9, which is the same as state
5 in Cycle Two Step One.
Btu
s10=1.7376
lbm R

Using the Superheated Water Table A-6E, interpolation is done to find the enthalpy.

Entropy Enthalpy
Btu Btu
( lbm R ) ( )
lbm
1.6974 1371.4
s10=1.7376 1419.88194
1.7406 1423.5

Btu
h10=1419.88194
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h3 −h2 376.9529−70.4639
m10=( 1−m8) =(1−0.07761)
h10 −h2 1419.88194−70.4639

m 10=0.2089

State 11: Saturated Water Vapor Mixture

 28

P11 =1 psi

State 11 in this cycle is the same as state 8 in Cycle Three.

The enthalpy of this state is equal to the enthalpy at state 6 found in Cycle Two Step
Two.
Btu
h11 =970.5283
lbm
The efficiency of this cycle is

w net q out ( 1−m8 −m10) ( h11−h 1 ) ( 1−0.07761−0.2089 ) ( 970.5283−69.72 )

ηth = =1− =1− =1−
q¿ q¿ ( 1−m8 ) ( h 9−h8 ) + ( h7−h6 ) ( 1−0.07761 ) ( 1521−1311.8854 ) + ( 1479.02−454.4449 )

ηth =47.2 %

Cycle Five
In this cycle two open feedwater heaters will be added to the low pressure (LP)
turbine. Seven new states are added, 2 to 6 and 15 to 16. State 15 and 16 are the
locations of the new open feedwater heater. The open feedwater heater added in
Cycle Three to state 6 became state 8 in Cycle Four and state 12 in this cycle. The
open feedwater heater added in Cycle Four to state 10 is now state 14. Figure 14
illustrates this cycle.

Figure 14 – Rankine Cycle with Reheating and 4 Feedwater Heaters

 29

Calculation

State 1: Saturated Water

P1=1 psi

State 1 in this cycle is the same as state 1 in Cycle Three and Four.

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h1 =hf @ P =69.72
Btu f t3
v=v 1=v f @ P =0.016136
1
lbm 1
lbm

State 2: Compressed Water

P2=10 psi
144 i n2 Btu 144
h2 =h1 +v 1 ( P2−P1 ) ( 778lbf f t 3)=69.72+ ( 0.016136 ) ( 10−1 )
778 ( )
Btu
h2 =69.7469
lbm

State 3: Saturated Water

P3=10 psi(constant pressure process 2¿3)

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h3 =hf @ P =161.25
Btu f t3
v=v 3 =v f @ P =0.01659
3
lbm 3
lbm

State 4: Compressed Water

P4 =20 psi
144 i n2 Btu 144
h 4=h 3+ v 3 ( P 4−P3 ) ( 778 lbf f t )
3
=161.25+ ( 0.01659 )( 20−10 )
778( )
Btu
h 4=161.2807
lbm

State 5: Saturated Water

 30

P5=20 psi(constant pressure process 4 t o 5)

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

h5 =hf @ P =196.27
Btu f t3
v=v 5 =v f @ P =0.01683
5
lbm 5
lbm

State 6: Compressed Water

P6=250 psi
144 in2 Btu 144
h6 =h5 + v 5 ( P6 −P 5 ) ( 778 lbf f t)3 ( )
=196.27 + ( 0.01683 ) ( 250−20 )
778

Btu
h6 =196.9865
lbm

State 7: Saturated Water

P7=250 psi(constant pressure process 6¿7)

State 7 in this cycle is the same as state 3 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h7 =376.09
lbm

State 8: Compressed Water

P8=500 psi

State 8 in this cycle is the same as state 4 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h8 =376.9529
lbm

State 9: Saturated Water

P9=500 psi(constant pressure proces s 8¿ 9)

State 9 in this cycle is the same as state 5 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h 9=449.51
lbm
 31

State 10: Compressed Water

P10=1850 psi

State 10 in this cycle is the same as state 6 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h10=454.4449
lbm

State 11: Superheated Water

P11 =1850 psi(constant pressure process 10¿11)

State 11 in this cycle is the same as state 7 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h11 =1479.02
lbm

State 12: Superheated Water

P12=500 psi(REHEAT PRESSURE∧LOCATION OF HP FEEDWATER HEATER)

State 12 in this cycle is the same as state 8 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h12=1311.8854
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h9−h8 449.51−376.9529
m 12= =
h12−h8 1311.8854−376.9529

m 12=0.07761

State 13: Superheated Water

P13=500 psi ( constant pressure process 12¿13 )

State 13 in this cycle is the same as state 9 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h13=1521
lbm
 32

State 14: Superheated Water

P14=250 psi( LOCATION OF IP FEEDWATER HEATER)

State 14 in this cycle is the same as state 10 in Cycle Four.

Btu
h14 =1419.88194
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h7−h6 376.09−196.9865
m 14=(1−m 12) =(1−0.07761)
h 14−h6 1419.88194−196.9865

m 14=0.13509

State 15: Superheated Water

P15=20 psi( LOCATION OF 1 ST LP FEEDWATER HEATER)

The entropy at this state is equal to the entropy of state 5 in Cycle Two Step One.

Btu
s15=1.7376
lbm R

Using the Superheated Water Table A-6E, interpolation is done to find the enthalpy.

Entropy Enthalpy
Btu Btu
( lbm R) ( )
lbm
1.7319 1156.2
s15=1.7376 1160.1966
1.7406 1162.3

Btu
h15=1160.1966
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h5−h4 196.27−161.2807
m 15=(1−m 12−m 14) =(1−0.07761−0.13509)
h 15−h4 1160.1966−161.2807

m 15=0.027577
 33

State 16: Superheated Water

P16=10 psi( LOCATION OF 2 ND LP FEEDWATER HEATER)

The entropy at this state is equal to the entropy of state 5 in Cycle Two Step One.

Btu
s16=1.7376
lbm R

Using the Saturated Water Table A-5E:

Btu Btu
s g @ P =1.7875 h g @ P =1143.1
16
lbm R 16
lbm

Btu Btu
sfg @ P =1.50391 h fg@ P =981.82
16
lbm R 16
lbm

The moisture content, (1-x), at point 16 is obtained by the following:

s g @ P −s 16 1.7875−1.7376
( 1−x 16 ) = s 16
=
1.50391
=0.0331802
fg@ P 16

The enthalpy at point 16 can be found using the quality.

h16 =hg @ P −( 1−x 16 ) h fg@ P =1143.1− ( 0.0331802) ( 981.82 )

16 16

Btu
h16 =1110.523
lbm

The mass extracted from the turbine at this point is equal to

h3 −h2 161.25−69.7469
m16=( 1−m12−m14 −m15) =( 1−0.07761−0.13509−0.027577 )
h16−h 2 1110.523−69.7469

m16=0.06679

State 17: Saturated Water Vapor Mixture

P17=1 psi

State 17 in this cycle is the same as state 11 in Cycle Four and state 8 in Cycle Three.

Btu
h17 =970.5283
lbm
The efficiency of this cycle is
 34

w net q out ( 1−m12−m14−m15−m16 ) ( h17−h1 ) ( 1−0.07761−0.13509−0.027577−0.06679 ) ( 9

ηth = =1− =1− =1−
q¿ q¿ ( 1−m12 ) ( h13−h 12) + ( h11−h10 ) ( 1−0.07761 )( 1521−1311.8854 ) + ( 1479.02

ηth =48.73 %

Cost Effectiveness of Feedwater Heaters

It is apparent that the efficiency of the cycle increases with the addition of feedwater
heaters. However, it must be noted that feedwater heaters are rather expensive. If
the price of a feedwater heater is taken to be $1.25 million, in order to justify this
cost in 10 years, a feedwater heater would have to produce at least $125,000 in
savings per year.
A cost analysis can be done to determine the optimal amount of feedwater heaters.
The industry standard for a maximum number of feedwater heaters is 9. The
amount of money in savings is

savings/ year= price × power × time× change∈efficiency

Price of electricity : $ 0.19/kWh

Power requirement :180,000 kW
Time :8760 hours / year

Number of Efficiency Change in Efficiency Savings per year

FWH
0 0.44150056 0 0
1 0.46480529 0.02330473 $6,981,910.63
2 0.47208878 0.00728349 $2,182,074.25
4 0.48729573 0.01520695 $4,555,880.37

Table 4 – Cost Analysis Summary

 35

Yearly Savings vs. Number of FWH

$8,000,000.00
$7,000,000.00
Savings per year $6,000,000.00
$5,000,000.00
f(x) = 6833416.46 exp( − 0.32 x )
$4,000,000.00
$3,000,000.00
$2,000,000.00
$1,000,000.00
$-
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of Feedwater Heaters

Figure 15 – Graph of Yearly Savings and Number of Feedwater Heaters

Figure 15 is a plot of the number of feedwater heaters and the amount of savings
they generate. The savings for 4 feedwater heaters was divided in half in order to
account for a third water heater and the change of efficiency between the third and
the second feedwater heater.
Taking the derivative of the exponential function fit by Excel, setting it equal to
negative 125,000 (in order to obtain a positive number), and solving for x gives us
the optimal number of feedwater heaters: 9. As mentioned earlier the standard is 9.

y=7 × 106 e−0.317 x

y ' =−2.219 ×10 6 e−0.317 x =−125,000
x=9.07413

Optimal number of FWH=9

Real Rankine Cycle with Reheating and Regeneration

All of the above has made the assumption that the Rankine cycle is operating ideally.
However, in reality, this is not the case. There is pressure loss, heat loss, and
practically anything can go wrong. This can be described in an increase in entropy.
All of the processes above that were considered isentropic are not isentropic in
reality. The second law of thermodynamics leads to the belief that entropy always
increases.
In order to include the increase in entropy, the enthalpy at each point must be
recalculated. Each enthalpy found will lead to a recalculation of the enthalpy at the
next point. This procedure is incredibly time consuming. Therefore, in an attempt to
save time, a different approach will be taken.
 36

The work of a real pump is

w
wP, R= P, I
ηP

where w P , R is the work of a real pump, w P , I is the work of an ideal pump, and η P is
the pump efficiency given by the manufacturer.
Similarly, the heat added to a real boiler is
qB ,I
qB, R=
ηB

where q B , R is the heat added to a real boiler, q B , I is the heat added to an ideal boiler,
and η B is the boiler efficiency given by the manufacturer.
The work of a real turbine is
w T , R =wT , I ηT

where w T , R is the work of a real turbine, w T , I is the work of an ideal turbine, and ηT
is the turbine efficiency given by the manufacturer.

The overall efficiency of the real Rankine cycle including reheating and regeneration
given by Cycle 5 is
w net w T , R−w P , R
η R= =
q¿ qB, R

The mass flow rate into the boiler can be found as well using the net work and the
power requirement.
P= ṁw net
P P
ṁ= =
w net wT , R−w P , R

Calculation

The work of a pump in a simple Rankine cycle is

w pump =h2−h 1=v ( P2 −P 1)

Since there are now five pumps and four feedwater heaters, the equation of the total
work from the ideal pumps can be written as

w P , I =(1−m12−m14 −m15−m16 ) ( h2−h 1) +(1−m12−m 14−m15 ) ( h4−h3 ) +(1−m 12−m 14) ( h6−h5 ) +( 1−m12 ) ( h8−h7

Substituting the values of enthalpy and mass from Cycle 5 gives

Btu
w P , I =6.337
lbm
 37

The work of a turbine in a simple Rankine cycle is

w turb=h3−h 4

In this case which includes reheating and regeneration with four feedwater heaters
and 3 turbines, the total work of all of the turbines is

w T , I =(1−m12−m 14−m15−m16 ) ( h16−h17 ) +(1−m 12−m 14−m 15) ( h15 −h16 ) +(1−m 12−m14 ) ( h14−h15) +(1−m12 ) ( h 1

Substituting the values from Cycle 5 gives

Btu
w T , I =599.6005
lbm

The heat added to a simple Rankine cycle is

q ¿=h3−h 2

This equation is modified to include reheating and regeneration and is written as

q B , I = ( h11 −h10 ) +(1−m12)(h13−h12)

Substituting the values from Cycle 5 gives

Btu
q B , I =1217.46096
lbm

The efficiencies were found

η P=0.9=90 %
η B=0.8=80 %
ηT =0.87=87 %

The real work done by the pumps is

w P , I 6.337 Btu
wP, R= = =7.04111
ηP 0.9 lbm

The heat added to a real boiler is

qB ,I 1217.46096 Btu
qB, R= = =1521.8262
ηB 0.8 lbm

The work of a real turbine is

 38

Btu
w T , R =wT , I ηT = (599.6005 )( 0.87 )=521.65246
lbm

Therefore the real efficiency of Cycle 5 is

w net w T , R−w P , R 514.6113

η R= = = =0.338
q¿ qB, R 1521.8262

η R=33.8 %

The mass flow rate into the boiler is

Btu
ṁ=
P
=
P
w net wT , R−w P , R
=
180,000 kW
514.6113
Btu
lbm
( 3412.14
1 kW
hr
)
lbm
ṁ=1,193,493
hr

Conclusion
Cycle One is done to familiarize us with the calculations necessary to obtain the
enthalpy, entropy, moisture content, and efficiency of a Rankine cycle. The purpose
of Cycle Two was to introduce reheating to increase the efficiency of the cycle and
minimize the moisture content. Cycles Three to Five introduce regeneration by
adding feedwater heaters to increase the temperature of the water entering the
boiler, decreasing the amount of heat required to raise the temperature to 1000° F,
and thereby increasing the efficiency of the entire cycle. Based on cost analysis the
optimal number of feedwater heaters is found to be 9. Below is a summary of the
results.

Cycle 1

P1=14.7925 psi
nth =34 %

Cycle 2

Step 1

Reheat pressure=P 4=500 psi

ηth =36 %
 39

Step 2

P1=1 psi
ηth =44.15 %

Cycle 3

m 6=0.3049
ηth =46.48 %

Cycle 4

m 8=0.07761
m 10=0.2089
ηth =47.2 %

Cycle 5

m 12=0.07761
m14=0.13509
m 15=0.027577
m16=0.06679
ηth =48.73 %

Cost Analysis

Optimal number of FWH=9

Real Cycle

Btu
w pump =7.04111
lbm

Btu
w turbine=521.65246
lbm

Btu
q ¿=1521.8262
lbm

η Real=33.8 %
 40

Mass Flow Rate

lbm
ṁ=1,193,493
hr

References
Cengel, Y. A., & Boles, M. E. (2015). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (8th
Edition ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.