Embedded Systems Design Course

Applying the mbed microcontroller

Modular design and

programming techniques

These course notes are written by R.Toulson (Anglia Ruskin University) and T.Wilmshurst
(University of Derby). (c) ARM 2012

These course notes accompany the textbook “Fast and effective embedded system design :
Applying the ARM mbed”

1
 Modular design and programming
techniques
• Developing advanced embedded systems
• Functions and subroutines
• Working with 7-segment displays
• Building mbed projects with functions
• Modular programming
• Using header files
• Creating a modular program

2
 Developing advanced embedded
systems
• When working on large, multi-functional projects it is particularly important to
consider the design and structure of the software. It is not possible to program all
functionality into a single loop!

• The techniques used in large multifunctional projects also bring benefits to individuals
who work on a number of similar design projects and regularly reuse code.

• Good practice for embedded system design includes:

– Code that is readable, structured and documented
– Code that can be tested in a modular form
– Reuses existing code utilities to keep development time short
– Support multiple engineers working on a single project
– Allow for future upgrades to be implemented

• There are a number of C/C++ programming techniques which enable these design
requirements to be considered…

3
 Functions and subroutines
• A function (sometimes called a subroutine) is a portion of code
within a larger program

• A function performs a specific task and is relatively independent of

the main code

4
 Functions and subroutines
To demonstrate the use of functions, we will look at
examples using a standard 7-segment LED display.

Note that the 8-bit byte for controlling the

individual LED’s on/off state is configured as:

(MSB) DP G F E D C B A (LSB)

5
 Working with 7-segment displays
• A 7-segment display is actually just 8 LEDs in a single package. We can
therefore connect each LED pin to an mbed pin to display a chosen number.

#include "mbed.h"

• For example, the DigitalOut A(p5);

DigitalOut B(p6);
code here uses a DigitalOut C(p7);
DigitalOut D(p8);
digital output for DigitalOut E(p9);
each LED segment DigitalOut
DigitalOut
F(p10);
G(p11);
and switches the DigitalOut DP(p12);

correct LEDs on and int main() {

A=1;
off to display the B=1;
C=1;
number 3. D=1;
E=0;
F=0;
G=1;
DP=0;
}

6
 Working with 7-segment displays
• You may see that this code can get a little #include "mbed.h"

intensive; it is a very simple operation but: DigitalOut

DigitalOut
A(p5);
B(p6);
– we have defined a large number of digital outputs DigitalOut
DigitalOut
C(p7);
D(p8);
– we have to set each output to a very specific value in DigitalOut E(p9);
DigitalOut F(p10);
order to display a single number DigitalOut G(p11);
DigitalOut DP(p12);

int main() {
• There is an issue with scalability here: A=1;
B=1;
C=1;
– What if we want to change the number regularly? Or D=1;
output a number based on the result of a calculation? E=0;
F=0;
– What if we need more digits, i.e. decimal places or G=1;
DP=0;
numbers with tens, hundreds, thousands etc? }

7
 // program code for Exercise 1
#include "mbed.h"
DigitalOut A(p5); // segment A
• If we want our LED DigitalOut B(p6); // segment B
DigitalOut C(p7); // segment C
display to continuously DigitalOut D(p8); // segment D
DigitalOut E(p9); // segment E
count from 0-9, our DigitalOut F(p10); // segment F
DigitalOut G(p11); // segment G
code might look DigitalOut DP(p12); // segment DP
something like this → int main() {
while (1) { // infinite loop
A=1; B=1; C=1; D=1; E=1; F=1; G=0; DP=0; // set LEDs '0'
wait(0.2);
• Exercise 1: connect a 7- A=0; B=1; C=1; D=0; E=0; F=0; G=0; DP=0; // set LEDs '1'
wait(0.2);
segment display to the A=1; B=1; C=0; D=1; E=1; F=0; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '2'
mbed and verify that wait(0.2);
A=1; B=1; C=1; D=1; E=0; F=0; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '3'
the code example wait(0.2);
A=0; B=1; C=1; D=0; E=0; F=1; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '4'
continuously counts wait(0.2);
A=1; B=0; C=1; D=1; E=0; F=1; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '5'
from 0-9 wait(0.2);
A=1; B=0; C=1; D=1; E=1; F=1; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '6'
wait(0.2);
A=1; B=1; C=1; D=0; E=0; F=0; G=0; DP=0; // set LEDs '7'
wait(0.2);
A=1; B=1; C=1; D=1; E=1; F=1; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '8'
wait(0.2);
A=1; B=1; C=1; D=1; E=0; F=1; G=1; DP=0; // set LEDs '9'
wait(0.2);
}
}

8
• Before moving on to functions, we
// program code for Exercise 2
can simplify our code using a #include "mbed.h"
BusOut object. BusOut Seg1(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12); // ABCDEFGDP

int main() {
while (1) { // infinite loop
• The BusOut object allows a number Seg1=0x3F; // 00111111 binary LEDs to '0'
wait(0.2);
of digital outputs to be configured Seg1=0x06; // 00000110 binary LEDs to '1'
and manipulated together. wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x5B; // 01011011 binary LEDs to '2'
wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x4F; // 01001111 binary LEDs to '3'
• We can therefore define a BusOut wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x66; // 01100110 binary LEDs to '4'
object for our 7-segment display wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x6D; // 01101101 binary LEDs to '5'
and send the desired data byte wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x7D; // 01111101 binary LEDs to '6'
value in order to display a chosen wait(0.2);
number. Seg1=0x07; // 00000111 binary LEDs to '7'
wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x7F; // 01111111 binary LEDs to '8'
wait(0.2);
• Exercise 2: Verify that the code Seg1=0x6F;
wait(0.2);
// 01101111 binary LEDs to '9'

here performs the same }

}
functionality as that in the previous
exercise.

9
• There are some issues with this
current method for coding the 7- // program code for Exercise 2
#include "mbed.h"
segment display:
BusOut Seg1(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12); // ABCDEFGDP

int main() {
– If we wanted to add a second 7- while (1) { // infinite loop
segment display and count from 0- Seg1=0x3F; // 00111111 binary LEDs to '0'
wait(0.2);
99, we would clearly have a Seg1=0x06; // 00000110 binary LEDs to '1'
wait(0.2);
problem – we’d need to write lots Seg1=0x5B; // 01011011 binary LEDs to '2'
of extra code! wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x4F; // 01001111 binary LEDs to '3'
wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x66; // 01100110 binary LEDs to '4'
– There is also very little flexibility wait(0.2);
with this coding method – if we Seg1=0x6D; // 01101101 binary LEDs to '5'
wait(0.2);
want to change the functionality Seg1=0x7D; // 01111101 binary LEDs to '6'
slightly (for example to display wait(0.2);
Seg1=0x07; // 00000111 binary LEDs to '7'
every third number or to change wait(0.2);
the timing) we have to make quite Seg1=0x7F; // 01111111 binary LEDs to '8'
wait(0.2);
a lot of changes Seg1=0x6F; // 01101111 binary LEDs to '9'
wait(0.2);
}
}
– There is a better way to program
this type of functionality; using
functions

10
 C function syntax
• The correct C function syntax is as follows:
Return_type function_name (variable_type_1 variable_name_1, variable_type_2 variable_name_2,…)
{
... C code here
... C code here
}

• As with variables, all functions must be declared at the start of a program

• The declaration statements for functions are called prototypes
• The correct format for a function prototype is the same as in the function
itself, as follows:

Return_type function_name (variable_type_1 variable_name_1, variable_type_2 variable_name_2,…)

11
 Designing a C function
• It is beneficial for us to design a C function that inputs a count variable and
returns the 8-bit value for the corresponding 7-segment display, for
example:
char SegConvert(char SegValue) { // function 'SegConvert'
char SegByte=0x00;
switch (SegValue) { //DPGFEDCBA
case 0 : SegByte = 0x3F;break; // 00111111 binary
case 1 : SegByte = 0x06;break; // 00000110 binary
case 2 : SegByte = 0x5B;break; // 01011011 binary
case 3 : SegByte = 0x4F;break; // 01001111 binary
case 4 : SegByte = 0x66;break; // 01100110 binary
case 5 : SegByte = 0x6D;break; // 01101101 binary
case 6 : SegByte = 0x7D;break; // 01111101 binary
case 7 : SegByte = 0x07;break; // 00000111 binary
case 8 : SegByte = 0x7F;break; // 01111111 binary
case 9 : SegByte = 0x6F;break; // 01101111 binary
}
return SegByte;
}

• Note that this function uses a C ‘switch/case’ statement which performs

like an ‘If’ operation with a number of possible conditions.

12
 Implementing a C function
#include "mbed.h"
BusOut Seg1(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12);// A,B,C,D,E,F,G,DP
• Exercise 3: Verify that the char SegConvert(char SegValue); // function
prototype
following program, using int main() { // main program
the SegConvert function, while (1) {
for (char i=0;i<10;i++) {
// infinite loop

performs the same Seg1=SegConvert(i);

wait(0.2);
functionality as in }
}
Exercises 1 and 2. }
char SegConvert(char SegValue) { // function 'SegConvert'
char SegByte=0x00;
switch (SegValue) { //DPGFEDCBA
case 0 : SegByte = 0x3F;break; // 00111111 binary
case 1 : SegByte = 0x06;break; // 00000110 binary
case 2 : SegByte = 0x5B;break; // 01011011 binary
case 3 : SegByte = 0x4F;break; // 01001111 binary
case 4 : SegByte = 0x66;break; // 01100110 binary
case 5 : SegByte = 0x6D;break; // 01101101 binary
case 6 : SegByte = 0x7D;break; // 01111101 binary
case 7 : SegByte = 0x07;break; // 00000111 binary
case 8 : SegByte = 0x7F;break; // 01111111 binary
case 9 : SegByte = 0x6F;break; // 01101111 binary
}
return SegByte;
}

13
 Reusing functions to reduce programming
effort
• Exercise 4: To explore the power of function reuse, add a second 7-segment display
to pins 13-20. You can now update the main program code to call the SegConvert
function a second time, to implement a counter which counts from 0-99.

// main program code for Exercise 4

#include "mbed.h"
BusOut Seg1(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12); // A,B,C,D,E,F,G,DP
BusOut Seg2(p13,p14,p15,p16,p17,p18,p19,p20);
char SegConvert(char SegValue); // function prototype

int main() { // main program

while (1) { // infinite loop
for (char j=0;j<10;j++) { // counter loop 1
Seg2=SegConvert(j); // tens column
for (char i=0;i<10;i++) { // counter loop 2
Seg1=SegConvert(i); // units column
wait(0.2);
}
}
}
}

// SegConvert function here...

14
 Summary of C functions
• Functions can be used to:
– Process and manipulate data; we can input data values to a function, which returns
manipulated data back to the main program. For example, code mathematical
algorithms, look up tables and data conversions, as well as control features which may
operate on a number of different and parallel data streams
– Allow clean, efficient and manageable code to be designed
– Allow multiple engineers to develop software features independently, and hence enable
the practice of modular coding

• Functions can also be reused, which means that engineers don’t have to
re-write common code every time they start a new project
• Notice that in every program we also have a main() function, which is
where our main program code is defined

15
 Building complex mbed projects with
functions
• Before discussing modular coding, we will design a more advanced mbed
project using a number of functions
• Exercise 5: Write a program which reads a two digit number from a host
terminal keyboard and outputs that number to two 7-segment displays
– Four function prototypes are declared prior to the main program function:

void SegInit(void); // function to initialise 7-seg displays

void HostInit(void); // function to initialise the host terminal

char GetKeyInput(void); // function to get a keyboard input from the terminal

char SegConvert(char SegValue); // function to convert a number to a 7-segment byte

– We will also use the mbed serial USB interface to communicate with the host PC and
two 7-segment displays as in the previous exercises

16
 Building mbed projects with functions
Create a new project and add the following to your main.cpp file:
// main program code for Exercise 5
#include "mbed.h"
Serial pc(USBTX, USBRX); // comms to host PC
BusOut Seg1(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12); // A,B,C,D,E,F,G,DP
BusOut Seg2(p13,p14,p15,p16,p17,p18,p19,p20); // A,B,C,D,E,F,G,DP

void SegInit(void); // function prototype

void HostInit(void); // function prototype
Char GetKeyInput(void); // function prototype
char SegConvert(char SegValue); // function prototype

char data1, data2; // variable declarations

int main() { // main program

SegInit(); // call function to initialise the 7-seg displays
HostInit(); // call function to initialise the host terminal
while (1) { // infinite loop
data2 = GetKeyInput(); // call function to get 1st key press
Seg2=SegConvert(data2); // call function to convert and output
data1 = GetKeyInput(); // call function to get 2nd key press
Seg1=SegConvert(data1); // call function to convert and output
pc.printf(" "); // display spaces between 2 digit numbers
}
}

// add function code here...

17
 Building mbed projects with functions
• The following functions need to be added after your main program code:
// functions for Exercise 5
void SegInit(void) {
Seg1=SegConvert(0); // initialise to zero
Seg2=SegConvert(0); // initialise to zero
}

void HostInit(void) {
pc.printf("\n\rType two digit numbers to be displayed on the 7-seg display\n\r");
}

char GetKeyInput(void) {
char c = pc.getc(); // get keyboard data (note numerical ascii range 0x30-0x39)
pc.printf("%c",c); // print ascii value to host PC terminal
return (c&0x0F); // return value as non-ascii (bitmask c with value 0x0F)
}

// copy SegConvert function here too...

• You will also need to copy in the code for the SegConvert function

• Your code should now compile and run

18
 Modular programming
• Large projects in C and C++ need splitting into a number of different
files. This approach improves readability and maintenance.
• For example:
– The code for an embedded system might have one C file for the
control of the attached peripherals and a different file for controlling
the user input.
– It doesn’t make sense to combine these two code features in the same
source file.
– If one of the peripherals is updated, only that piece of the code needs
to be modified.
– All the other source files can be carried over without change.
– Working this way enables a team of engineers to work on an single
project by each taking responsibility for a software feature.

19
 Modular programming
• Modular coding uses header files to join multiple files together.

• In general we use a main.cpp file to call and use functions, which are
defined in feature specific .cpp files.

• Each .cpp definition file should have an associated declaration file, we call
this the ‘header file’.

• Header files have a .h extension and typically include declarations only, for
example compiler directives, variable declarations and function prototypes.

• A number of header files also exist from within C. These can be used for
more advanced data manipulation or arithmetic. For example, math.h can
be included to more easily perform trigonometric functions.

20
• To fully understand the design approach to
modular coding, it helps to understand the
way programs are pre-processed, compiled
and linked to create a binary execution file
for the microprocessor.

• First a pre-processor looks at a particular

source (.cpp) file and implements any pre-
processor directives and associated header
(.h) files.
– Pre-processor directives are denoted with a
‘#’ symbol.

• The compiler then generates an object file

for the particular source code.

• Object and library files are then linked

together to generate an executable binary
(.bin) file.

21
 Modular programming
• We commonly use the #include directive to tell the pre-processor to include any code or
statements contained within an external header file.
• When including predefined C header files, we must put the filename in <>, for example:
#include <string.h>

• When we include our own header files, we put the filename in quotations, for example:
#include "myfile.h"

• It is important to note that

#include acts as a cut and paste
feature. If you include "afile.h"
and "bfile.h" where both files
also include "cfile.h" You will have
two copies of the contents of
“cfile.h".
• The compiler will therefore see
instances of multiple declarations
of foobar and highlight an error.

22
 Using header files
• We can use the #ifndef pre-processor directive to ensure that header code
is only ever included once by the linker.
• #ifndef means literally ‘if not defined’.
• We can define a pre-processor variable (using #define) at the start of a
header file, and then only include that header code if the variable has not
previously been defined.
• This way the header code is only included once for linking.
• As good practice it is therefore recommended to use the following
template for header files:
// template for .h file
#ifndef VARIABLENAME_H // if VARIABLENAME_H has not previously been defined
#define VARIABLENAME_H // define it now

// header declarations here…

#endif // end of the if directive

23
 Using header files
• Header files usually contain
– #include statements for built in C libraries and bespoke function libraries
– Function prototypes

• Additionally, we should include details of any mbed Objects which are

required to be manipulated from outside the source file. For example:
– a file called functions.cpp may define and use a DigitalOut object called ‘RedLed’
– If we want any other source files to manipulate RedLed, we must also declare the Object
in the header file using the extern type, as follows:
// functions.h file
#ifndef FUNCTIONS_H // if FUNCTIONS_H has not previously been defined
#define FUNCTIONS_H // define it now

extern DigitalOut RedLed; // external object RedLed is defined in functions.cpp

// other header declarations here…

#endif // end of the if directive

– Note that we don’t need to define the specific mbed pins here, as these will have
already been specified in the object declaration in functions.cpp

24
 Creating a modular program
• Exercise 6: Create the same keyboard controlled, 7-segment display
project as in Exercise 5 using modular coding techniques, i.e. with
multiple source files as follows:
– main.cpp – contains the main program function
– HostIO.cpp – contains functions and objects for host terminal control
– SegDisplay.cpp – contains functions and objects for 7-segment display output

• We also need the following associated header files:

– HostIO.h
– SegDisplay.h

• Note that, by convention, the main.cpp file does not need a header file

25
 Creating a modular program
• Create a new project and add the required modular files
– To add new files, right click on your project and select ‘New File…’

• The main.cpp file will hold the same main function code as before, but
with #includes to the new header files
// main.cpp file for Exercise 6
#include "mbed.h"
#include "HostIO.h"
#include "SegDisplay.h"

char data1, data2; // variable declarations

int main() { // main program

SegInit(); // call function to initialise the 7-seg displays
HostInit(); // call function to initialise the host terminal
while (1) { // infinite loop
data2 = GetKeyInput(); // call function to get 1st key press
Seg2 = SegConvert(data2); // call function to convert and output
data1 = GetKeyInput(); // call function to get 2nd key press
Seg1 = SegConvert(data1); // call function to convert and output
pc.printf(" "); // display spaces between 2 digit numbers
}
}

26
 Creating a modular program
// SegDisplay.cpp file for Exercise 6
• The SegInit and SegConvert
functions are to be ‘owned’ #include "SegDisplay.h"
BusOut Seg1(p5,p6,p7,p8,p9,p10,p11,p12); // A,B,C,D,E,F,G,DP
by SegDisplay.cpp, as are BusOut Seg2(p13,p14,p15,p16,p17,p18,p19,p20); // A,B,C,D,E,F,G,DP
the BusOut objects named
void SegInit(void) {
‘Seg1’ and ‘Seg2’. Seg1=SegConvert(0); // initialise to zero
Seg2=SegConvert(0); // initialise to zero
}
• The SegDisplay.cpp file
char SegConvert(char SegValue) { // function 'SegConvert'
should therefore be as char SegByte=0x00;
follows: switch (SegValue) { //DP G F E D C B A
case 0 : SegByte = 0x3F; break; // 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 binary
case 1 : SegByte = 0x06; break; // 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 binary
case 2 : SegByte = 0x5B; break; // 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 binary
case 3 : SegByte = 0x4F; break; // 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 binary
case 4 : SegByte = 0x66; break; // 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 binary
case 5 : SegByte = 0x6D; break; // 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 binary
case 6 : SegByte = 0x7D; break; // 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 binary
case 7 : SegByte = 0x07; break; // 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 binary
case 8 : SegByte = 0x7F; break; // 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 binary
case 9 : SegByte = 0x6F; break; // 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 binary
}
return SegByte;
}

27
 Creating a modular program

• Note that SegDisplay.cpp file has a #include to the SegDisplay.h header

file.

• SegDisplay.h should be as follows:

// SegDisplay.h file for Exercise 6

#ifndef SEGDISPLAY_H
#define SEGDISPLAY_H

#include "mbed.h"

extern BusOut Seg1; // allow Seg1 to be manipulated by other files

extern BusOut Seg2; // allow Seg2 to be manipulated by other files

void SegInit(void); // function prototype

char SegConvert(char SegValue); // function prototype

#endif

28
 Creating a modular program
• The DisplaySet and GetKeyInput functions are to be ‘owned’ by
HostIO.cpp, as is the Serial USB interface object named ‘pc’.

• The HostIO.cpp should therefore be as follows:

// HostIO.cpp code for Exercise 6

#include "HostIO.h"
#include "SegDisplay.h" // allow access to functions and objects in SegDisplay.cpp

Serial pc(USBTX, USBRX); // communication to host PC

void HostInit(void) {
pc.printf("\n\rType two digit numbers to be displayed on the 7-seg display\n\r");
}

char GetKeyInput(void) {
char c = pc.getc(); // get keyboard data (note numerical ascii range 0x30-0x39)
pc.printf("%c",c); // print ascii value to host PC terminal
return (c&0x0F); // return value as non-ascii (bitmask c with value 0x0F)
}

29
 Creating a modular program

• Note that HostIO.cpp file has #includes to both the HostIO.h and the
SegDisplay.h header files.

• HostIO.h should be as follows:

// HostIO.h file for Exercise 6

#ifndef HOSTIO_H
#define HOSTIO_H

#include "mbed.h"
extern Serial pc; // allow pc to be manipulated by other files

void HostInit(void); // function prototype

char GetKeyInput(void); // function prototype

#endif

• Your Exercise 6 program should now compile and run

30
 Extended Task
• Exercise 7:
Create a modular project which uses a host terminal application and a
servo motor.
The user can input a value between 1-9 which will move the servo motor
to a specified position. An input of 1 moves the servo to 90 degrees left
and 9 moves the servo to 90 degrees the right. Numbers in between 1-9
move the servo to a relative position, for example the value 5 will point
the servo to the centre.
You can reuse the GetKeyInput function from the previous exercise.
You may also need to create a look up table function to convert the input
value to a sensible PWM duty cycle value associated with the desired
servo position.

31
 Summary
• Developing advanced embedded systems
• Functions and subroutines
• Working with 7-segment displays
• Building mbed projects with functions
• Modular programming
• Using header files
• Creating a modular program

32