UNIT 6 WORD ACCENT, STRESS AND RHYTHM

IN CONNECTED SPEECH
Structure

6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Word Accent
6.2.1 Dividing a word into syllables
6.2.2 Degrees of prominence
6.2.3 Levels of stress
6.2.4 Placement of stress on the word
0.2.5 Patterns of stress in Englisll words
6.2.6 Functions of word stress in English
6.2.7 Some rules for placement of prima~ystress on words
6.3. Stress and Rhythm in Connected Speech
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Rhythm
6.3.3 Influence of stress on rhythm in English
6.3.4 Wenk forms i n English
6.3.5 Contracted forms
6.3.6 Use of strong forms of grammatical words
6.4 Let Us Sum Up
6.5 Exercises
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Answer to Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we shall study (a) how words of more than one syllable receive stress, (b)
the patterns of word stress in English, (c) the function of word stress, and (d) some
rules for placement of primary stress on derived words. We shall then look at stress
in connected speech. We shall examine the influence of stress on rhythm in English
and also look at those factors that contribute to the characteristic rhythm of English.

After completing this Unit you should be able to

(0 divide a word into syllables

(i i) recognize the different patterns of word stress
(iii) identify those 2-syllable words (that are spelt exactly alike), the grammatical
function of which can be differentiated by means of stress alone.
(iv) identify the stressed syllable in words of more than one syllable.
0) produce words with the primary stress on the right syllable
(vi) apply the rules for word stress to other w ~ r d with
s similar endings
(vii) identify the stressed syllables in connected speech
(vii i) identify and produce weak forms and contracted foms of words
(ix) produce utterances with correct stress and rhythm

, 6.1 INTRODUCTION

In Units 4 and 5 we learnt to recognize and produce the consonants and vowels of
English, in different combinations in words. In Unit 3 we familiarized ourselves with
the syllable in English - its structure and types. In this unit we look at the next higher
unit - the word, which can be comprised of one or two or even upto seven syllables. 21
Of the syllables in a word we will pay special attention to the one that receives
 primary stress. It is as much an essential part of tl;e identity of English words ah are
the sounds that may form words. Though word stress in English is by and large
unpredictable, it is possible to frame rules for primary stress on words with some
derivational suffixes. Not all the derivational suffixes affect stress. We need t_o lwow
the suffixes that affect stress and those that do not affect stress. When words are
fitted into utterances they.contribute to the rhythm of-English. Utterances have
strings of words, some of which are stressed and some are not. While the stressed
syllables in words tend to occur at roughly regular intervals of time, the inst tressed
syllables between thein are weakened. Indeed some words that are predisposed to
being unstressed even have weak forms.

In this unit we study not only the character and forin of words as said in isolat~onbut
also the relationship between stress and rhythm in utterances. 1I
1
6.2 WORD ACCENT
6.2.1 Dividing a Word into Syllables

As we have already seen (Unit 4) a syllable consists of an obligatory V element and

one, two or three elements before the V element and Coto C4eleinents after the V
element. One,.two or inore syllables can make up a word. In a word of illore than
one syllable, some syllables are heard as more prominent than others.

Now it is easy for us to say how many syllables a word has. We just need to count the
number of vowels sounds in each word. There are as many syllables in a word as
there are V elements. For example, the words cgll, c~liect,collection, have one, two.
and t h e e vowel sounds respectively and therefore consists of one, two and three
syllables respectively. All of us agree on the number of syllables a word consists of,
But we do not always agree as lo where to divide the syllable. Let us look at a few
examples.

There would apparently be few difference of opinion as to where we should divide

the following words.

The word pelican has three syllables. The syllable division is pe - li - can

has two syllables Pe - ter

Philosouhv has 4 syllables phi - lo - so - phy.

I

However these words could alternatively be divided like this -

Pel - i - can
or
Pel - ic - an

Pet -er
Phil-0s-oph - y

Some more examples of alternatives ways of dividing words into syllables are

ability discuss mist alee

ab-il-it-y dis - cuss inis - take ,

a-bi-li-ty disc-uss mi-stake
I
22
Now, which alternative for each word is the correct one?-you might ask. Are there Accent, Stress
any guidelines that we can follow when we divide words into syllables? Yes, there &Rhythm ,
are a few guidelines which would help us to do this.

(a) As far as possible start a syllable with a consonant where there is one, e.g.

Differ + di-ffer
Prefer 3 pre-fer
Locate -9 lo-cate

If possible end a syllable with a consonant and begin it with a consonant when there
are two. For example,

There may, however, be exceptions to these rules. For example, the word extra - e k1
s 2 t3 r" a can fulfil both conditions 1 and 2. It can be divided into syllables in three
different ways.

(a) el<- stra

(b) eks - tra
(c) ekst - ra

In this case anyone of the first two alternatives would be acceptable. The third
alternative is not well balanced, though possible. Another criterion we need to lceep
in mind for the division of words into syllables is the coinbinatorial possibilities in
the language. Let us look at the followi~~gwords, for instance.

The word fender could be divided in threc possible ways - (a) fen - der
or (b) fe - nder
or (c) fend-er

The first division is acceptable while the second division is not. The reason for this is
that in a syllable in English an initial consonant cluster - 4 is not possible. The third
alternative does not follow rule 2. Similarly, in the word silver the alternative
divisions are sil-ver or si-lver or silv-er. Only the first one is the most acceptable, as
it follows rule (2) according to which we should as far as possible, end a syllable with
a consonant and begin it with a consonant when there are two. Thus the first syllable
sil ends with Ill and the second syllable s r begins with a consonant. The second
-
alternative, is not quite acceptable because in English the consonant sequence y! does
not occur in the initial position in a syllable. The third alternative does not follow
rule (2) and is therefore not acceptable.

It would be very convenient to refer to the dictionary for the division of words into
syllables. Very often a phonemic transcription of word like account, command,
assunze, exit, exempt makes it easier for us to divide them into syllables, because the
double letters, and the single letters x which stands for two sounds /ks/or/gz/, make it
difficult for us to mark syllable division.

6.2.2 Degrees o Prominence

f
Words can have one or more than one syllable. In English for example, there are

B
words wit two, three, four, five, six or even seven syllables. The words,point, lost,
threat, sa t, grade all have one syllable. Some words with two or more than two
syllabIes are -
 2 syllables 3 syllables 4 syllables
English Phonetics
and Phonology-II
never fallacy cap&tljze
c~lzr cglgbrgte fynda~nental
rapid c_ap&l cgntgnarbn
fellow dptjny formality
packet juvenile philosophy

5 syllables 6 syllables

In English words of two or more tlian two syllables, the speaker uses several degrees
of a~ticulalo~yenergy. The listener perceives only two degrees - tlie syllable that
s/he perceives as prominent and the syllables tliat are not prominent. What are tlie
phonetic factors tliat contribute to or are responsible for p~.oininence?

The factors responsible fdr prominence are:

(a) Loudness: The breatli force used by a speaker and the greater muscular
energy involved is heard as greater loudness or stl.ess. In a word of more
than 3 syllables several degrees of articulatory energy is used. For example,
one of the syllables is heard as the loudest of all and that is la.
in calcgl_atig-~
The syllable is heard as tlie second loudest. Listeners can perceive two
degrees of loudness clearly and therefore the majority of listeners are in
agreement regarding two degrees of stress. Listcners seldom agree as to
which syllables have the third, fourth or fiA11 degree or loudness because
these degrees of loudness are not clearly perceptible to the naked car.

(b) Pitch Change: In English stress alone is not an efficient marker of

prominence. If we change& c tlie loudness, ilie perceptual effect of stress is
not very strong. The pattern of accent in a word becomes clearer when the
syllable that is prominent is associated with pitch cl~ange.For example, the
word 'insult' as a noun is recognised not only because the speaker uses extra
breath force and thus stresses the iirst syllable, but also because illere is a
pitch change on the first syllable. In other words when Ilie word 'insult' is
said, the first syllable, in addition to being heard as louder tlian tlie second
syllable, carries pitch change, that is, a movement of pitcli from high to low
or low to high., The pitch change is generally indicated by a slantinn line
aboveand before tlie stressed syllable if the word is said with a falling pitch
as shown on the word'@. It is generally marked with a slanting line
below and before tlie stressed syllal~leif it is said with a rising pitch, like this
-,Wt.However, when a word is said in isolation we generally use a
falling pitch,

(c) A third factor that plays an important part in prominence is the quality of a
voyel. A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is
different from the vowels in the neighbouring syllables. If we take a
nonsense word like 1ta:ta:ta:ta:land change one of the vowels, we
get/ta:ti:ta:ta:/. The odd syllable /ti:/ will be heard as more prominent.
hldeed, in words of more than one syllable, the syllable that has a vowel that
is different from the weak vowels, pal-titularly /a/ and also /I/ and /u/ in weak
syllables, stands out against a background of these weak syllables, and is
often a stressed syllable.
(d) Another factor that is responsible for prominence is the quantity br length of Accent, Stress
syllables. If one of the syllables in a word,of more than one syllabl&is made & Rhythm
longer than the others, there is quite a strong tendency for that syllable to be
heard as prominent.

Prominence, than is produced by 4 main factors (a) loudness (b) pitch, (c)
quality and (d) quantity. Generally, these factors work in combination,
though syllables may sometimes be made prominent by means of only one or
two of them. Experiments have shown that these factors do not have equal
importance; the strongest effect is produced by pitch, and length is also a
powerful factor. Loudness and quality have much less effect.

j.2.3 Levels of Stress

So far we have talked about the factors that play an important role in the perception
of the prominent syllable in a word. We have referred to the stressed syllable as
contrasted with the unstressed or weak syllables in a word. This might give the
impression that there is only a very simple distinction between stressed and
unstressed syllables. As we have said earlier, the listener is able to perceive two
degrees of stress and the remaining syllables in a word of more than three syllables
are unstressed. What is the first level or highest level of stress? What helps us to
perceive this level of stress? Let us take the word organisation for example.
Listeners identify the syllable sa as the most prominent. This prominence results
from a pitch movement from a higher pitch to a lower pitch in addition to the greater
loudness with which the syllable is produced. When we wish to refer to the type of
stress which is characterized by pitch movement we call it primary or tonic stress.
The first syllable g in organisation is perceived as next in prominence to s.It is
characterized to a large extent by loudness or extra breath force and may have no
pitch prominence in relation to its neighbours. This type of stress may be called
secondary or non-tonic or rhythmic. The syllable g on the other hand will always
be associated with a pitch change when the word is said in isolation. The remaining
three syllables would be grouped together and described as weak or unstressed. The
primary stress may be marked with a vertical stroke above and in front of the syllable
in question, and the secondary stress wit11 a vertical stroke below and in front of the
syllable.

We have now identified two levels of stress: primary o r tonic and secondary or
non-tonic and another level which could be called unstressed g d be regarded as
being the absence of any perceivable amount of prominence. Phoneticians
distinguish between primary and secondary stress by referring to the former as
accent.

6.2.4 Placement of Stress on t h e W o r d

This brings us to a question which most non-native second or foreign language

learners would ask. How do we know which syllable in a word must be stressed?
How do we know that the syllable we select is the correct syllable? These questions
do not have simple answers. In English, word stress cannot be decided in relation to
the syllable in the word. In other words, word stress is not fixed and therefore not
attached to a single syllable, as it is in the case of French where the last syllable is
usually stressed or in the case of Czech where the first syllable is usually stressed, or
in the case of Polish where the syllable before the last - the penultimate syllable - is
stressed. In some other languages, such as Spanish and Italian, rules governing the
placement of stress in the majority of words can formulated. In English we cannot
give any simple rules regarding placement of stress. Some words are stressed on the
first syllable, some on the second syllable, others on the third syllable and so on.
Owing to the different patterns of word stress, we need to consult the dictionary for
the pronunciation of words, which includes the sequence of vowels and consonants
that a word is made up of and the syllable that receives the stress. ,Why is it
English Phonetics necessary to stress the right syllable in word? It is necessary because word stress
and Phonology-I1 patternsicontribute as much to the identity of a word as its sequence of phonemes. So
much so, that sometimes a word inay be unintelligible or be mistaken for another
word. For example, the word below pronounced with stress on the first syllable
instead of the second, would be mistaken for the word 'billow. The word develop
pronounced with stress on the first syllable instead of the second might be mistaken
for the word 'double uv.

6.2.5 P a t t e r n s of Stress in English Words

Let us look at examples of patterns of word stress in English.

(a) Words o f m syllables with stress on the first syllable,

(i) 'able (vi) 'dozen (xi) 'instant " (xvi) 'subject

(noun/adj)
(ii) 'almost (vii) 'fortune (xii) 'interest (xvii) 'welcome

(iii) 'answer (viii) 'govern (xiii) 'paper (xviii) 'wisdom

(iv) 'awkward (ix) 'honest (xiv) 'question (xix) 'woman

(v) 'business (x) 'husband (xv) 'second (xx) 'yellow

(b) Words of two syllables with stress on the second syllable

(i) a'bove (vi) be'come (xi) e'vent (xvi) in'stead

(ii) ad'dress (vii) be'tween (xii) ex'change (xvii) my'self

, (iii) ad'mit (viii) de'fence (xiii) ex'pense. (xviii) per'haps

(iv) ad'vance (ix) de'gree (xiv) for'bid (xix) sug'gest

(v) ap'pear (x) en'tire (xv) for'get (xx) to'wards

(c) Words of three syllables with stress on the first syllable.

(i) 'absolute (vi) 'character (xi) 'memory (xvi) 'properly

(ii) 'advertise (vii) 'delicate (xii) 'minister (xvii) 'industry

(iii) 'agency (viii) 'educate (xiii) 'passenger (xvii) 'relative

(iv) 'avenue (ix) 'hesitate (xiv) 'prejudice (xix) 'yesterday

(v) 'bicycle (x) 'library (xv) 'probable

(d) Words oft& syllables with stress on the second syllable

(i) adlventure (vi) con'sider (xi) enlcourage (xvi) falmiliar

(ii) all ready (vii) conltinue (xii) eslsential (xvii) irnlmediate

(iii) a'nother (viii) delcision (xiii) exlample (xviii) im 'portant

(iv) cornlmercial (ix) de1velop (xiv) exlistence (xix) to lbacco

26
(v) comlparison (x) di'rection (xv) ex'penseive (xx) tolmarrow
 You could listen to these words on tape and repeat them. Accent, Stress
& Rhythm
(e) Three syllable words with the primary stress on the third syllable

(i) compre'hend (vi) engi'neer

(ii) disaplpear (vii) introlduce

(iii) diap'point (viii) recom'mend

(iv) domi'neer (ix) - reprelsent

(v) employ'ee (x) repro 'duce

(f) Words of foul.syllables wit11 the primary stress 011 the first syllable
(i) 'categorize (vi) 'melancholy (xi) 'temperament

(ii) 'corrugated (vii) 'commentary (xii) 'territory

(iii) 'dynamism' (viii) 'percolator

(iv) 'educated (ix) 'pomegranate

I
(v) helicopter (x) 'salivary

(g) Words of four syllables with the primary stress on the second syllable.
(i) delficiency (vi) hy'pocrisy (xi) phi'losophy

(ii) delgenerate . (vii) in'telligent (xii) re'ciprocal

(iii) e'mancipate (viii) par'ticular (xiii) ther'inometre

(iv) fe'lirzitate (ix) ri'diculous (xiv) malnipulate

(v) con'spiracy (x) relvqsible (xv) delmocracy

, (h) Words of four syllables that receive primary stress on the third syllable.

(i) advanltageous
(ii) appalratus
(iii) correslpondent
(iv) disa'bedient
(v) indelpendence
(vi) semo'lina , , ,

(i) Words of five syllables with the primary stress on the second syllable

(i) in'corrigible
(ii) i'conoclasm
(ii) de'cipherable
(iv) . co'operative
(v) pe1rambulator I

(i) Words of five syllables with the primary stress on the third syllable
I
I
.. (i) c~srno~~olitian I
(ii) elec'tricity 27 I

.. ,
1
I
1
1

. ' . I
 English Phonetics (iii) inter'national
and Phonology-ZZ (iv) sensi'bility
(v) philolsophical
(vi) ophthal'mology
, (k) Words off& syllables with primary stress on the fourth syllable.

(i) aristo'cratic
(ii) characte'ristic
(iii) octoge'narian
(iv) organi'zation
(v) experilmental

(I) Words of& syllables with primary stress on the fourth or fiRh syllables

(i) autobi'ography
(ii) meteorollogical
(iii) orgilnality .
(iv) characterilzation
(v) experimenltation

Thus all the different patterns that we have just looked at are clearly indicative of the
fact that word stress in English is to a large extent unpredicatable, and therefore needs
to be learnt.

6.2.5 Functions of Word Stress in English

(a) Word stress in English sometimes helps us to distinguish between the

grammatical function of words that have identical spelling. In other words,
stress in a sense determines whether these words function as nouns/adjectives
or as verbs in a sentence. Some two-syllable words conform to the general
nountverb stress pattern distinction, and some words containing more than
t y o syllables also exhibit distinctive stress patterns. This distinction made by
.-
the shift in primary stress. When two-syllable words function as nouns or
adjectives they are stressed on the first syllable and when they function as
. verbs they receive the stress on the second syllable.

For example,

Word NounIAdjective Verb

(spelling) - (transcription) (transcription)

absent 'absant
1
'
ab sent
accent aksant aklsent
compound 1k~inaund kamlpaund
1
I
compress k~mpres kam' pres
conduct k~ndnkt kan' d ~ k t
conflict 'k~nflikt kan'fl ikt
contract '
k~ntrakt kan'trakt
I
contrast Ikontra:st kanltra:st
convict 'k~nvikt kanlvikt - j
desert 'dezat . dilza:t ij
. export 'eksps:t rk1sp3:t
frequent I fri:kwant fri:'kwent
object . '~bd31kt ab1d3ekt
perfect Ip3:fikt palfekt
permit lp3:mrt pa'mit
/
28 present Iprewnt prr 'zent
produce I pr~dlu:s praldju:s
 project 'prndzekt pra'd3elct Accent, Stress
1
rebel rebal rr'bel & Rhythm
refuse 'refju:~ rrliju:z

(b) Some times word stress is associated with the morphological structure of
words, that is, the way words are derived with the addition of prefixes and
,suffixes. The stress shifts as longer words are derived from smaller words,
and change their grammatical forms. Look at the following words, for
example. They are derivationally related, and the primary stress is marked on
each word.

a'cademy aca'demic acade'mician

'democrat delmocracy demo'cratic

'diplomat di'plom?cy diplo'matic

'family : fa'miliar famili'arity

'hypocrite hy 'procrisy hypolcritical

I
mechanism me'chanical mecliani 'zation
I
monotone moltlotony mono'tonic
mo'notonous
'photograph pho'tography photo'graphic
I
politics litical poli'tician

(c) Word accent also helps to distinguish between some compound words and
noun phrases (adjective +noun, or noun + noun) and verb - plus - adverbial
collocations. Look at the following words, for example

Compound Noun Phrase etc.

'blackbird 'black bird

'copperplate 'copper 'plate
'crossword 'cross 'word
1
bluebottle 'blue 'bottle
'grandmother I grand 'mother
'greenfly 'green 'fly
1 1
put-on put 'on
1
'walkout walk 'out
9

6.2.6 Some Rules for Placement of Primary Stress on Words

We have so far seen that word stress is 'free', In other words, it is not predictable. In
a word of more than one syllable it is not easy to predict where the stress is to be
placed. It is fixed only in the limited sense that a given word receives the stress
nearly always on the same syllable. This might give us the impression that we have
to learn the stress pattern of each word in English. While this might be true of a large
number of two-syllable words, it does not always apply to &I the words in English.
There are regularities in word stress patterns to which there are very few exceptions.
They are like rules that can be applied to words with similar suffixes. Let us look at
those regularities in word stress that enable us to frame rules for the placement of
word stress, and also enable us to predict word stress to a large extent.

(a) The first rule that we need to remember is that all English words have some 29
stress (primary or secondary) on the first or the second syllable. For
 example, in words of two syllables we have seen that words are stressed
EzgIi.~hPtionci'ics
d ~ t ? d~ : I I . ' L ' I s o ~ Q ~ ~ - I I
either on tlie first or the second syllable. Longer words, that is some words to
which prefixeslsuffixes are added may receive the primaly stress on the third,
fourth or fifth syllable and the secondary stress on either the first or second
syllables. For example, in the words Icalc~~'lation and Isensibi'lity, the third
syllable receives the primary stress, and the first syllable the secondary stress.
If however, longer words receive the primary stress on the first or tlie second
syllable, then secondary stress is less likely on any other syllable.

(b) The second rule that we need to remember is that no inflectional sr.~ffixis
stressed, nor does it affect stress. In other word, inflections of number, tense,
pelson, degree, etc. do not affect stress nor are they accented. For example,

table tables
garage garages
en'joy en'joyed
cor'rect cor'recting
mi'stake mi'stalten
se'lect se'lects
'clever 'cleverer
'ugly 'ugliest '

(c) The following derivational suffixes are not stressed and do not affect stress
either. Look at these suffixes and the exa~npleswe have for each.

postage, brealtage
ap'pearance, 'goverance (but 'maintenance)
soflen, brighten
subsistence
doer, keeper
lioness, goddess
dutiful, faithf~ll
classify, falsify
childhood, manhood
cowa~.dice
childish, foolish
cre'ative, at'traclivc (but 'negative)
airnless, careless
faitlif~~l
ly, happily
governnicnt, postponement
boldness, heaviness
governor
scholarship, fellowship
laughter
enclosure, failure
bloody, woolly
'citizen

(d) Some derivational suffixes receive stress and some others affect word stress.
In other words, when these suffixes arc added lo the stem there is a shift in
primly stress, either to the suftix itself or to a syllablc other than the one
stressed in the stem. For example, in the word enl'ploy the primary stress is
on the second syllable. If the suffix -ee is added to emlploy the primary
stress shifls to the suffix itself, so we get ,e~nplov'ee. Similiarly, we havc
ad'dress bnt laddres'see. Another example of a suffix Illat affects prima~y
stress is - ental.'Govet.nment changes to the stress pattern Igovernl~nentaI
with tlie addition o f - a d . Also, tlie stress paitern In o
' mchanges lo
of'ficial when we adcl the suffix - id,'ceremony becomes ,ccre'tnonial.
'D

-
 Given below is a list of some important endings that affect word stress, with Accent, Qtress
examples for each ending. The rule for placement of word stress (primary) in the & Rhythm
case of each ending is also melltioned -1, -2, -3 mean, respectively, the first, the
second and the third syllable from the end. These rules determine only the primary
accent.

2. -eer, -ee
ca'reer
Imounlai'neer
I chimpan'zee

3. -esque ... -1
gso'tesque ,pictulresque

4. . ique .. . -1
plny'sique tech'nique

5. -ental
I frunda'men tal
seg'mental

6. -ial ... -2
I al-ti'ficial es'sential
Icere'monial official
, confi'dent ial re'medial

gram'marian rnu'sician
li'brarian ,phoneltician
lo'giciatn , Istatis'tician
ma'gician I total i'tarian

laca'demic ro'rnantic
ar'tistic Iscien'tific
Iphilo'sopl~ic se'inantic
I pholo'graphic Isyste'matic

1 eco'nomics pho'nemics
lin'guistics pho'netics
,rnathelmatics -.

Exceptions: 'Arabic, 'chaleric, 'rhetoric, a'rihmetic, 'catholic

'lunatic, 'politics

10. -ion ... -2

ad'mission per'mission
col'lection re'visioll
compe'tition sub'tnissian 1

di'vision so'lution 31
loccu'pation vo'cation

-
English Phonetics
and phonology-11 1 1. -ience ... -2

con'venience 'lenience
o'bedience

12. -itis
bron'chitis

'anxious con'tinuous
in'dustrious 'virtuous
la'borious pro'miscuous
lu'xurious
re'bellious
vic'torious

14. -iency .... -3

efficiency pro'ficiency

15. -ate ... -3

'~ompli~cate olrigilnate
'edu,cate 'fortunate
'hesitate

bi'ography bi'ology bi'ometry

ge'ography ge'ol ogy ge'ometry
pho'tography pho'nology trig'nometry
psy'chology
zo'ology

bi'ographer bi'ologist
ge'ographer ge'ologist
pho'tographer pho'nologist
psy'chologist
zo'ol ogist

leco'nomical geo'metrical

'
geo'graphical
lpsycho'logical
Iphilo'sophical
,,typolgraphical
 i
Accent, Stress
6.3 STRESS AND RHYTHM PN CONNECTED SPEECH & Rhythm

6.3.1 Introduction
We have already discussed word stress at length and have seen that there are levels of
stress - primary stresslaccent which is characterized by loudness and pitch
movement andsecondary stress which is characterized by loudness or extra breath
force only. We have said that in English, a word of more than one syllable, one of
t6G syllables is said to receive the primary stress. We shall now try to understand
what rhythm means in general, what it means with reference to language - English, in
particular, what the relationship between stress and rhythm in connected speech is
and what features contribute to the rhythm of English.

6.3.2 Rhythm
Rhythm is the regular periodic recurrence of certain patterns of colour, design or
sound. Rhythm in-a painting or in embroidery would refer to the even spacing or
distribution of colour and design. In music, a certain kind of beat or sound complex
that continues to be repeated at equal intervals of time constitutes its rhythm. One
can detect the rhythm of a heart beat. In language, rhythm refers to the recurrence of
certgin patterns of sound in utterances constituting a text.

Rhythm in the languages of the world is roughly of two types. Some phoneticians
have in the past claimed that in some languages (e.g. French), syllables constituting
utterances, whether stressed or not tend to occur at equal intervals of time. The time
taken to move from one stressed syllable to the next is generally in proportion to the
number of unstressed syllables between them. Such languages have what is called a
syllable-timed rhythm. Some other languages according to this theory have a
stress-timed rhythm. In these languages, stressed syllables have a tendency to occur
at roughly regular intervals of time, irrespective of the number of unstressed
svllables. occurring between one stressed svllable and the next. English according to
this theory belongs to this second category of languages. Tliis theory, has so far,
neither bee validated nor refuted beyond doubt. However, we do recognise that the
i
rhythm of ngiish is different from the rhythm of Indian languages and has to the
learnt. We have, for instance, to recognise the very important difference in English
between strong and weak syllables; some languages do not have such a noticeable
difference.

6.3.3 Influence of Stress on Rhythm in English

You must have noticed that utterances in English are a series of close knit groups
each comprising stressed and unstressed syllables. Rhythmic grouping correlates
with a stressed syllable followed by unstressed syllables upto the next stressed
syllable but not including it.

Let us look at the following sentences for instance. They can have the rhythmic
groups indicated by the vertical lines.

I. I'want torgo to/'Delhi to-/'morrow

2. 'Tell him tofgo to the /'market
3. I'want you tollstand there and Phold it for me.
4. 'Make me somerpuppets for the fshow
5. We 'went for a /'walk in thefpark.

he rhythmic groups in each of these sentences are closely knit. This does not imply
that there is necessarily a pause between each group. In fact there is no pause
.., ,between each group, for it is held together in the utterance.
English Phonetics Notice that in each of the sentences above, the nu&ber of unstressed syllables
and Plzonology-II between the stressed syllables is more or less the same, thus giving them a fairly
regular rhythmic beat. In sentence 1 there is one unstressed syllable between two
stressed syllables - to/to/to/-row/in to-morrow. Similar'ly in sentences 2,3, 4 and 5,
there are two unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables.

2. hirn to/to the /ket in market.

In the third rhythmic group there is only one unstressed syllable.

3. you tolthere andlif for me

only the last group has three unstressed syllables.

4. me some/for the/

5. for a /in the/

Owing to the same number of unstressed syllables in each utterance the rhythmic beat
is fairly regular, and gives the impression that all English utterances must have a
regular rhythm. But this is indeed untrue. Many of our utterances in English do not
have this kind of regular rhythm, because the stressed syllables may not always be
separated by the same number of unstressed syllables throughout the utterance. Look
at the following sentences.

1. 'What/'name shall Il'ask for?

2. You can 'alwaysl'find me atl'this ad /'dress
3. There's 'none/'left in thel'cupboard.
4. 'WalW'down the /'path to thel'bottom of thel'hill.

Notice that the number of unstressed syllables between stressed syllables varies from
none to three in each sentence. In sentence 4 for instance, the first and second
stressed syllable have no unstressed syllables between lhem. Between the 2"* and 3'"
stressed syllables there is only one unstressed syllable, between the 3'* and 4thtwo
unstressed syllables and between the 4"' and 5"' three unstressed syllables.

It is now clear to us that utterances do not always have a regular rhythm and have
varying stress patterns. The number of stressed syllables in an utterance depends on
the nature of the words composing the utterance.

e.g.(l) There are 'fifty in the 'box.

(2) 'All 'fifty are 'quite 'heavy.
Comparing the two utterances above we find that both of them have the same number
of syllables (7), but they differ with regard to the number of stressed syllables. The
greater the number of content words in an utterance, the greater the number of
stressed syllables it is likely to have. Therefore the tempo of utterances may also
differ, depending on the number of stressed and unstressed syllables they are
composed of. An utterance with a large number of stressed syllables is likely to .
have a heavier, slower rhythm than one which has very few stressed syllables. An
utterance composed of a large number'of unstressed syllables between stressed
syllables generally has a faster, lighter rhythm.
Given below, are examples of some stress patterns in English. The vertical lines
beside each sentence represent stressed syllables, and the horizontal lines the
unstressed syllables.
I

1. 'brown 'dog. // 'S

2. 'sharp 'pen /I
3. 'Try a'gain 1-1
I
 'very 'hard 1-1 Accent, Stress
'Show me'yours 1-1 & Rhythm
'Here's some 'tea /-I
It's 'broken -1-
I'thought SO -1-
'Give him some 'food 1- - 1
'Where have they 'gone 1- - /
'Follow my ad'vice 1- - - /
'Carry it a'way 1- - - 1
She 'isn't on the 'phone - / - - - 1,
The 'children are in 'bed. - / - - - /
I'gave it to her - / - - -
I've 'written to them - 1 - - -
We 'shan't be in 'time for the 'play - / - -1- -1
I'wonder if he'll 'ask me in ad'vance -1- - -1- - -1
He 'did his 'best to 'save the 'child. -/-/-/-I
He 'whnts you to 'write her a 'letter to'morrow. -/--/--/--/-

You must have noticed that in these sentences content words are stressed and
structure words are not. Content words are important for meaning. So they are
predisposed by virtue of their function in utterances, to receive stress. These are
main verbs, adverbs, nouns, adjectives, demonstratives. Form or structure words are
more likely to be unstressed. These are personal pronouns, relative pronouns, some
prepositions, conjunctions, articles and auxiliary verbs. You must have noticed that
in the sentences we have just looked at, the content words are almost always stressed
and the structure words are unstressed. These sentences are isolated and have no
context. It is therefore easy to apply the guidelines given above and stress content
words.

In connected speech stress is much freer and is largely determined by the meaning
the speaker intends to convey. If the meaning requires it, content words may be
. unstressed and structure words may be stressed. What is it that conditions and
determines meaning?

It is the context that determines the meaning. Let us study the following examples.

5, If your hands and feet are warm, the whole body will be warm.

The adjective warm is stressed in the first part of the utterance but w h e it
~ occurs a
second time in the utterance it is generally unstressed even though it is a content
word. When a word is repeated, it does not add any meaning to the utterance. Let us
look at another sentence.

2. A: How many 'horses did you 'see?

, B: 'Ten horses.

In this sentence again 'horses is repeated in the reply. In fact it is redundant and even
if omitted it will not affect the answer. B could also say just one word 'Ten' in
response to A and be unders'tood.

Another short.exchange between Alice and the March Hare makes this clear.

3. :'Have some &," said the March Hare. "I don't see any wine," remarked
Alice.

Here again the wzrd y& does not receive any stress the second time it is uttered.
Indeed, it could even be omitted without affecting the meaning . As we have seen
above, the repetition of a content word in a context reduces its chances of being
35.
English Phonetics stressed considerably. But sometimes a feeling for rhythmic balance dictates
and Phonology-II repetition and therefore stress on words is repeated. For example,

(a) 'Handsome is that 'handsome 'does.

(b) What's 'sauce for the 'goose is 'sauce for the 'gander.

6.3.4 Weak Forms in English

We have so far been trying to understand the relationship between stress and rhythm
% in English and the influence of one upon the other.

We will now take up another feature which is very closely linked with the
characteristic rhythm of English. To maintain the characteristic rhythm of English,
we need to weaken the syllables that are unstressed. Most of these unstressed words
are form words. Of these form words there are roughly 45 words which have two or
more pronunciations - one strong pronunciation and one or more than one weak
pronunciation or weak form. The weak form of these words are used in unstressed
positions, and play an important role in giving English its characteristic rhythm.

A list of the weak forms of these words is given below, along with notes on the
contexts in which they can be used.

Weak Forms

Articles

1 a

a book /a bukf

an apple /an apl/

3. the lBal (before consonants)

/a11 (before vowels)

Pronouns

4 he hl
He isn't here
is pronounced /hi:z< not
/h~d

5 her (object pronoun) /a (r)/

I gave it to her
6 him /rm/
Send him away.

7. me /md
Tell me your name.

8. she 1/11
She says he's out.

but She's is pronounced /li:d I

36 She's very hardworking.

/i
I
'I
" I
1'
 9. them /Barn/ Accent, Stress
Talce them away. & Rhythm

10. us /as/
I-Ie asked us to go and see them.

11. we /wd
We aren't as stupid as you think.

we're /w~a(r)/
We're late.

12. you IjLII

You promised to write.

You're /jua(r)/

You're i.ight.
-is pronounced /j3:(r)l
Your

Determiners

13. her (determiner [possessive adjective] /ha(r)/

her face

14, liis/~zl(not initially)

She's his wife.

15 some (determiner [adjective] /s(a)m/

I want some books.

Verbs

16 am /am/
/rn/in I'm
So am I
But finally, /zem/
Who's coming?
I am

17. are (written 're) /a(r)/

Why're you late?
But finally, /a:/
Who's coming with me?
We are.

be /b~/
Don't be late.

been /brn/
He's been punished.

can /k(a>n/
When can you come?
You can go.
But finally /kanl
Who can give the answer?
I can.
 i
21 could lkadl
English Phonetics
and Pltonology-II
I could go if I wanted to.
But initially and finally kudl.
Could you tell me the time?
Who could do it?
John could.

22 do (auxiliary) /du/

Nor do I.
Id/ in d'you
What d' you mean?
But finally 1du:l
Who wants to go?
We do.

23 does (auxiliary) Idad

How does it work?

But finally l d ~ z l
Who lives there?
John does.

24 had (auxiliary) /had/

/ad/ (not initially)

/dl written as 'd

L
Had he done it before he left?
When I reached here, the train had left.
He said he'd lost it.
i But finally h z d l
i Who'd told him?
1
i
I had.
25. has (auxiliary) /had

/zl after a voiced sound

IS/ after a voiceless consonant Written as '5
Has he finished? Y.
P
Where's he gone?
What's he done?
But finally h z z l
Who's got it?
John has.

26 have (auxiliary) /hav/

"
/v/ 1 written as 've

Have you done it?

Where've you been?
You've been putting on weight.
But finally / h m /
Who's got it?
I have
38
-.
2T-- is /iz/ I d after a voiced sound Accent, Stress
IS/ after a voiceless consonant written as 's & Rhythm
I hope he's in.
It's true.

28 must/mas/ before consonants

/mast/ before vowels -
You must try harder
We must arrange a meeting
But finally / m ~ s t /
We must go and see them
At least I must.

29. Shall /jal/

/JI/only in the middle of an utterance.
/I/ written 'd
Shall I see him?
I shall try to help you.
I'll do my best
But finally /kei/
Who'll do it for me?
I shall.
30. Sl~ould/Sad/
/Sd/
I-Ie should come in time.
I should like you to come.
But initially and finally /Sud/
Should I ask him?
Who sl~ouldgo there?
You should
31 was /wad
What was he doing?
But finally l w ~ d
Who was singing? .
Iwas. -
32. Were /wa (s)/
Where were you yesterday?
But finally /ws:/
Who was there yesterday?
We were.
well /allwritten '1
111
George'll certainly come.
He'll never agree.
But initially a d finally 1~111
Will they agree?
Who'll go there?
John will.
would /wad/
ladl
/dl
(after a consonant)
(after a vowel)
I-
written as 'd.
English Phonetics Who'd like to go,
and Phonology-II But initially and finglly Iwudl
Would you like to see him?,
Who'd like to go?
I would.

Prepositions

35. atfat/
He's standing at the gate.
But finally I&
What're you looking at?

36. for (fa1

- It's time for tea.

But finally / f d
What're you looking for?

37 from /fr(a)m/ ,
A letter fiom John.
But finally Ifr~irnl
Where d'you come fiom?

A glass of milk
But finally I ~ v l
What's it made o f ?

39. to ltu/ (before vowels and finally)

Ital (before consonants)

I want to ask you.

I think he wants to.
I asked her to take them away.

Conjunctions

40. and land1

- Ian1
Id

in and out
up and down
bread and butter

as soon as possible

or l a try
one or two more
\ 43. than /6ad
It's haider than you think.

40
 44 that (conjunction; also relative pronoun), Accent, Stress
laat/ & Rhythm
I th>inkthat he wants us to.
The book that 1 lent you.
44. Introductory there
There's laaid
Beaid
There're /8ara (r)
/aeara(r)/
. Is there /iz Ba/
Are there /a:aa/
There's a man at the door.
There're ten in the box. aara
Is there any more milk? aar
Are there any more questions? aar

6.3.5 Contracted Forms

In some forms of words, the severely reduced forms of auxiliary verbs, such as is,
are, have, has, had, will and would are often attached to the preceding subject
pronoun or noun. For example,

He -t& he's/hi:id
he^ + & = theyre/deal
we +Hve = we've /wi:v/
John tr& = John's / d 3 ~ n z /
He + gill = lie'll /hi:]/
They + w $ d = they'd (8eldJ

In other forms of words the shortened form of not (n't) is attached to the preceding
.auxiliary verb. For example,
Does not becomes doesn't ldnzntl
Shall not becomes shan't/la:ntl
Have not becomes haven't kaevntl ~

Could not becomes couldn't kudntl

Such forms of words as those above are known as contracted forms. Contracted
forms are also an important feature of spoken English.

6.3.6 Use of Strong Forms of Grammatical Words

As we have already said, there are form words in English which have strong forms as
well as weak forms. The weak forms of these words have been given along with
examples of the contexts in which they are used. We have also indicated some
contexts in which mafly of these grammatical words have strong forms, but are not
stressed. For example, the initial and final position in sentences. ,

(i) How could he do it

'hau kad hr'du'rt
(ii) Could you post this for me?
'kud ju'paust 31s fa'mi
(iii) Whgt are you looking
t 'IU~ITJ aet
' w ~aju
(iv) I am looking at that picture.
aim'lukiy at 8;et 'p~ktla
~ , , ~ l phonefics
bh Besides these we have not so far considered other contexts in which they retain their
nndPhonolw-N Strong forms. In fact in these contexts, only their strong forms are acceptable.

When these weak-form words are stressed they always have their strong forms.
These words are stressed in the following contexts.

i) When a weak - form word is being contrasted with another word, e.g.
The 'gift's 'for him not 'from him
Ba gifts 'f3:hrm nPt ' f r ~ mlum

(ii) When there is a coordinated,use of prepositions, e.g.

I travel and from Delhi a lot

ar 'trzvl 'tu: an ' f r ~ m'dell a ' 1 ~ t

The government of the people and for the people

ba'g~vanmant'PV Ba 'pi: pl an If>: batpi:pl

(iii) When a weak-form word is used for the purpose of emphasis, e.g.

You 'must be 'here before 'ten

Ju 'mAst b~'hra b1f3: 'ten
I'm 'sure you 'can 'do it
aim '.ha ju 'kaen 'du: rt

(iv) When a weak-form word is being 'cited' or 'quoted', e.g.

You always say 'apple not apple.

Ju 'a:lwe~z'ser 'zn aepl nDt 'er zpl.

You should 'never 'end a 'sentence with and

Ju Sad 'neva 'end a 'sentans WIB 'aend

Thus the position of weak-form words and contexts in which they are
stressed necessitates the use of their strong forms.

6.4 LET US SUM UP

Words have as many syllables as there are vowel sounds in them. In English, words
can have one, two, three, four, five, six or even seven syllables.

In words of more than one syllable one of the syllables can be heard by the listener
as more prominent than the others. The prominence of a particular syllable is quite
often owing to the presence of any, or all four of the following factors -Loudness,
pitch change, quality, and quantity (length). When a word of three or more than
three syllables is produced, the speaker uses several degress of articulatoiy energy,
but the speaker perceives only two degress of stress. The highest level of stress is
characterized by pitch movement and is known as nuclear or primary stress. The
syllable that is characerisekl to a large extent by loudness and generally has no pitch
movement is said to receive secondary or non-tonic stress. It is perceived as next
in prominence to the syllable that receives primary or tonic stress.

Word stress is as essential a part of the character of the word, as tlie vowels and
consonants. Every English word of more than one syllable has its own characteristic
stress pattern, which must be learnt. While word stress is fixed in a number of Accent, Stress
languages like French, Czech, etc, it is free in English. In other words, it is not easy & Rhythm
to predict which syllable in a given word would be stressed. Nevertheless there are
some guidelines which have been formulated on the basis of word endings.

In connected speech some words are generally stressed because they are important
for meaning vis content words; while some otlier words are predisposed to being
unstressed because they are not important for meaning, viz fonn or structure words.

The rhythm of English is often described as stress-timed, because the stressed

syllables in English utterances tend to occur at roughly regular intervals of time,
irrespective of the number of unstressed syllables between any two stressed
syllables. Most of the unstressed syllables constitute form words. Some of these
form words have weak forms in unstressed positions, that is, when several of them
occur between stressed syllables. The use of weak forms, in unstressed positions is
essential for maintaining the characteristic, rhythm of English. Sometimes the strong
forms of these grammatical words are also used.

Syllable: A fubdamental but apparently elusive unit in

phonology. A syllable typically consists of one
vowel or diphthong possibly preceded and/or
followed by one or more consonants.

Attempts have been made to define the syllable in

terms of muscular contractions, in terms of neural
programming, and in terms of peaks of sonority; but
no satisfactoly definition has been found.

Prominence: The property of a Ihguistic element which stands out

in comparison with neighbouring elements. For
/ example, a stressed syllable is more prominent than
an unstressed syllable.

Stress: Emphasis on a particular syllable in comparison with

others. Stress is typically produced by combination
of greater loudness, higher pitch and greater length.

Pitch The quality of "highness" or "lowness" of a sound,

as perceived by our ears.

Quality: The most obvious property of a vowel, the

characteristic which distinguishes it from other
vowels, chiefly determined by the position of the
jaw, tongue and lips during its production.

Quantity: Another name for length, i.e. the amount of time

required to pronounce a speech sound, particularly
when this is linguistically important in a particular
language.

Primary Stress: Thp strongest degree of stress in a word.

Secondary Stress: A degree of stress which is less then primarv stress

but still greater then no stress. . 43
English P/tonetics Rhythm: The pattern you perceive in speech or poetry as a
and Phonology-II result of the repetition at regular intervals of
prominent elements, such as stressed syllables.

Stressed-timed rhythm: A type of speech rhythm in which stressed syllables

occur at roughly equal intervals, regardless of the
number of intervening stressed syllables. tnglish
follows a stressed-time rhythm.

Weak forms: The way a gramlnatical word is pronounced when it

is unstressed.

Strong forms: The way a grammatical word is pronounced when it

is stressed, as opposed to the weak form it assumes
when unstressed.

- - --

6.6 EXERCISES

I. Divide the following words syllable-wise using a hyphen to mark syllable

boundaries and mark primary stress. You could consult the dictionary for
marking stress. Example: (a) ab-'surd

(a) absurd (b) adjoin (c) agency (d) allopathy

(e) alternative (0alumini~num(g) arnateu (h) anonylnous
(i) anxiety (j) behaviour (k) caricature (I) determine
(m) excessive (n) helicopter (0) independence (p) catastrophe
(q) component (r) extinguish (s) repetitive (t) ~nelancholy
(u) thermometer

I1 Applying the rules of word accent that we have learnt, mark the primary
stress on the following words. Then practise saying the words aloud.

(a) experimental (b) pioneer (c) genetics (d) collaboration

(e) sentimental (f) elaborate (g) physiology (11) palatography
(i) celebrity (j) mathematician (k) suggestion (])magnanimity
(m) ornithology (n) gregarious (0) ecological (p) participate
(q) commercial (r) optician (s) addressee (t) racketeer

I11 Transcribe the words given above with the help of the hictionary.

IV Mark the stressed syllables in the following sentences. For this apply the
guidelines we have learnt for stressing (syllables of) words in connected
speech. Remember words that receive stress on a particular syllable when
they are said in isolation generally receive it on the same syllable when tliey
occur in connected speech.

Collect them tomorrow.

Colour the picture.
Bring it in this evening.
Six of them surrendered.
We've put them on your desk.
He's forgotten to leave his telephone number.
He invited us to dine wit11 them.
Whey don't you take some for her.
I think that he wants us to go with him.
Where've all the flowers gone?
 I wanted him to listen to my song. . Accent, Stress
Aren't you going to Delhi tomorrow? & Rhythm
She bought a basketful of fruit from the shop.
This is not the way to do it.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
These are certainIy not enough
You mustn't waste even a minute. .
Its time we went on a holiday ,
I ought to have written her a letter.
What have you done with my pen?

V) With the help of dictionary write a phonemic transcription of the sentences

above and remember to make a note of all the weak form words and the
unstressed syllables in these sentences.

VI . Listen to these sentences on tape and repeat them.

VII Listen to some sentences on tape, transcribe each sentence and mark the
stress.

6.7 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

I (a) absurd (b) a(d)' join (c) 'a - gen-cy

(d) al-'lo-pa-thy (e) al-'ter-na-tive ( 9 a-lu-'mi-nium
(g) 'a-ma-teur (h) a'-no-ny-mous (I) an-'xi-e-ty
(j) be-'ha-viour (k) ca-ri-'ca-ture (I) de-'ter-mine
(m) ex-'cess-sive (n) 'he-li-cop-ter (0) in-de-'pen-dence
(p) ca-'tas-tro-phe (q) com-'po-nent (r) ex-'tin-guish
(s) re-'pe-ti-tive (t) 'me-Ian-cho-ly (u) ther-'mo-me-ter

I1 (a) experi'mental
(b) pio'neer
(c) ge'netics
(d) collabo'ration
(e) senti'mental
(9 e'laborate
(g) physi'ology
(h) pala'tography
(i) ce'lebrity
(j) mathema'tician
(k) sug'gestion
(1) magna'nimity
(m) ,
. orni'thology
(n) gre'garious .
(0) eco'logical
(p) par'ticipate
(q) com'mercial
(r) op'tician
(s) addres'see
(t) {racke'teer

a) Col'lect them to'morrow

b) 'Colour the 'picture
c) 'Bring it in this 'evening
d) 'Six of them sur'rendered.
e) We've 'put them on your 'desk 45
f) He's for'gotten to 'leave his 'telephone 'number. '
 He in'vited us to 'dine with them.
English Phonetics
and Phonology-II
'Why don't you 'take some for her.
I 'think thathe 'wants us to 'go with him.
'Where've all the 'flowers 'gone?
I 'wanted him to 'listen to my 'song.
'Aren't you 'going to 'Delhi to'morrow?
She 'bought a 'basketful of 'fruit from the 'shop.
This is 'not the 'way to 'do it.
An 'apple a 'day keeps the 'doctor a'way,
These are 'certainly 'not e'nough.
You 'mustn't 'waste even a 'minute.
Its 'time we 'went on a 'holiday.
Fought to have 'written her a 'letter
'What have you 'done with my 'pen?

'Hold it for me
'Give him some 'food.
'Where have they 'gone.
Is's 'rather 'late.
She 'wrote me a 'letter.
I 'asked her to 'come here on 'Sunday.
I 'wonder if he'll 'make me a'nother one.
They are ex'tremely in'telligent.
There's a 'train to Cal'cutta in the 'evening.
They 'won't be on 'time for the 'flight.
I 'wonder if he'll 'ask me for the 'book.
There 'isn't e'nough for 'all of us.
He 'looked for a 'stick to de'fend himself.
They're 'coming back 'home in a 'bus.
'Why have they 'left you be'hind?