CHAPTER 5

STRENGTH DESIGN AND ANALYSIS METHOD according to ACI Code

5.1 INTODUCTION
In the strength design method (formerly called ultimate strength method), the service
loads are increased by factors to obtain the load at which failure is considered to be
"imminent". This load is called the factored load or factored service load. The structure or
structural element is then proportioned such that the strength is reached when the factored
load is acting. The computation of this strength takes into account the nonlinear stress-
strain behavior of concrete.
The strength design method may be expressed by the following:
Strength provided ≥ [strength required to carry factored loads]
Where the "strength provided" (such as moment strength) is computed in accordance with
the provisions of a building code, and the "strength required" is that obtained by performing
a structural analysis using factored loads.

5.2 SAFETY PROVISIONS

Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load
above what is expected under normal use. Such reserve capacity is provided to account for
a variety of factors, which may be grouped in two general categories:
 Factors relating to overload.
 Factors relating to understrength (that is, less strength than computed by acceptable
calculating procedures).
Overloads may arise from changing the use for which the structure was designed, from
underestimation of the effects of loads by oversimplification in calculation procedures, and
from effects of construction sequence and methods. Understrength may result from adverse
variations in material strength, workmanship, dimensions, control, and degree of
supervision, even though individually these items are within required tolerances.
In the strength design method, the member is designed to resist factored loads, which are
obtained by multiplying the service loads by load factors. Different factors are used for
different loadings. Because dead loads can be estimated quite accurately, their load factors
are smaller than those of live loads, which have a high degree of uncertainty. Several load
combinations must be considered in the design to compute the maximum and minimum

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design forces. Reduction factors are used for some combinations of loads to reflect the low
probability of their simultaneous occurrences. The ACI Code presents specific values of
load factors to be used in the design of concrete structures.
In addition to load factors, the ACI Code specifies another factor to allow an additional
reserve in the capacity of the structural member. The nominal strength is generally
calculated using accepted analytical procedure based on statistics and equilibrium;
however, in order to account for the degree of accuracy within which the nominal strength
can be calculated, and for adverse variations in materials and dimensions, a strength
reduction factor, , should be used in the strength design method.

To summarize the above discussion, the ACI Code has separated the safety provision into
an overload or load factor and to an under capacity (or strength reduction) factor, Ø. A safe
design is achieved when the structure's strength, obtained by multiplying the nominal
strength by the reduction factor, Ø, exceeds or equals the strength needed to withstand the
factored loadings (service loads times their load factors).
The requirement for strength design may be expressed:

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 ≥ 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡)

Ø𝑃𝑛 ≥ 𝑃𝑢

Ø𝑀𝑛 ≥ 𝑀𝑢

Ø𝑉𝑛 ≥ 𝑉𝑢

Where 𝑃𝑛 , 𝑀𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑛 are "nominal" strengths in axial compression, bending moment, and
shear, respectively, using the subscript n.

𝑃𝑢 , 𝑀𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑢 are the factored load effects in axial compression, bending moment, and
shear, respectively, using the subscript u.
Given a load factor of 1.2 for dead load and a load factor of 1.6 for live load, the overall
safety factor for a structure loaded be a dead load, 𝐷, and a live load, 𝐿, is:
1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿 1
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = ( )
𝐷+𝐿 ∅

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5.3 LOAD FACTORS AND STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS

Overload Factors 𝑼
The factors 𝑼 for overload as given by ACI-9.2 are:

𝑈 = 1.4(𝐷 + 𝐹)

𝑈 = 1.2(𝐷 + 𝐹 + 𝑇) + 1.6(𝐿 + 𝐻) + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)

𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6( 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅) + (1.0𝐿 𝑜𝑟 0.8𝑊 )

𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝑊 + 1.0𝐿 + 0.5(𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅)

𝑈 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.0𝐿 + 0.2𝑆

𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.6𝑊 + 1.6𝐻

𝑈 = 0.9𝐷 + 1.0𝐸 + 1.6𝐻

Where:

𝐷 = dead load; L = live load ; 𝐿𝑟 = roof live load; S = snow load;

F = load due to weights and pressures of fluids;

R = rain load; W = wind load;

E = earthquake load; −defined densities and controllable maximum heights;

H = load due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soil or other materials;
T = the cumulative effect of temperature, creep, shrinkage and differential settlement.

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Strength Reduction Factors ∅
The factors ∅ for understrength are called strength reduction factors according to ACI-9.3
and are as follows:

Strength Condition ∅ 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔

1-Flexure (with or without axial force)
 Tension-controlled sections …………………………….. 0.9
 Compression-controlled sections
o Spirally reinforced …………….………………….. 0.75
o Others ………………………………..……………. 0.65
2-Shear and torsion ……………………………….……..……..... 0.75
3-Bearing on concrete ……………………………….….………... 0.65
4-Post-tensioned anchorage zones …………………………….. 0.85
5-Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas in strut-and-tie models….0.75

Example:
A simple beam is loaded with a dead load of 40𝑘𝑁/𝑚 and a live load of30𝑘𝑁/𝑚. Check
the strength requirement according to ACI code if the nominal bending moment 𝑀𝑛 =
275𝑘𝑁. 𝑚.

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5.4 FLEXURE IN BEAMS
Reinforced concrete beams are nonhomogeneous in that they are made of two
entirely different materials. The methods used in the analysis of reinforced concrete beams
are therefore different from those used in the design or investigation of beams composed
entirely of steel, wood, or any other structural material.
Two different types of problems arise in the study of reinforced concrete:
1. Analysis. Given a cross section, concrete strength, reinforcement size and location,
and yield strength, compute the resistance or strength. In analysis there should be
one unique answer.
2. Design. Given a factored design moment, normally designated as 𝑀𝑢 select a
suitable cross section, including dimensions, concrete strength, reinforcement, and
so on. In design there are many possible solutions.

The Strength Design Method requires the conditions of static equilibrium and strain
compatibility across the depth of the section to be satisfied.
The following are the assumptions for Strength Design Method:
1. Strains in reinforcement and concrete are directly proportional to the distance from
neutral axis. This implies that the variation of strains across the section is linear, and
unknown values can be computed from the known values of strain through a linear
relationship.
2. Concrete sections are considered to have reached their flexural capacities when
they develop 0.003 strain in the extreme compression fiber.
3. Stress in reinforcement varies linearly with strain up to the specified yield strength.
The stress remains constant beyond this point as strains continue increasing. This
implies that the strain hardening of steel is ignored.
4. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
5. Compressive stress distribution of concrete can be represented by the
corresponding stress-strain relationship of concrete. This stress distribution may be
simplified by a rectangular stress distribution as described later.

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5.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM BEHAVIOR
Consider a simply supported and reinforced concrete beam with uniformly distributed load
on top. Under such loading and support conditions, flexure-induced stresses will cause
compression at the top and tension at the bottom of the beam. Concrete, which is strong in
compression, but weak in tension, resists the force in the compression zone, while steel
reinforcing bars are placed in the bottom of the beam to resist the tension force. As the
applied load is gradually increased from zero to failure of the beam (ultimate condition), the

beam may be expected to behave in the following manner:

Stage I: when the applied load is low, the stress

distribution is essentially linear over the depth of
the section. The tensile stresses in the concrete
are low enough so that the entire cross-section
remains uncracked and the stress distribution is
as shown in below. In the compression zone, the
concrete stresses are low enough (less than
about 0.5𝑓𝑐, ) so that their distribution is
approximately linear.

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Stage II: On increasing the applied load, the
tensile stresses at the bottom of the beam
become high enough to exceed the tensile
strength at which the concrete cracks. After
cracking, the tensile force is resisted mainly by
the steel reinforcement. Immediately below
the neutral axis, a small portion of the beam
remains uncracked. These tensile stresses in
the concrete offer, however, only a small contribution to the flexural strength. The concrete
stress distribution in the compression zone becomes nonlinear.

Stage III: at nominal (so,-called ultimate)

strength, the neutral axis has moved farther
up-ward as flexural cracks penetrate more
and more toward the compression face. The
steel reinforcement has yielded and the
concrete stress distribution in the
compression zone becomes more nonlinear.
Below the neutral axis, the concrete is
cracked except for a very small zone.

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At the ultimate stage, two types of failure can be noticed. If the beam is reinforced with a
small amount of steel, ductile failure will occur. In this type of failure, the steel yields and the
concrete crushes after experiencing large deflections and lots of cracks. On the other hand,
if the beam is reinforced with a large amount of steel, brittle failure will occur. The failure in
this case is sudden and occurs due to the crushing of concrete in the compression zone
without yielding of the steel and under relatively small deflections and cracks. This is not a
preferred mode of failure because it does not give enough warning before final collapse.

5.6 THE EQUIVALENT RECTANGULAR COMPRESSIVE STRESS DISTRIBUTION

(COMPRESSIVE STRESS BLOCK).

The actual distribution of the compressive stress in a section has the form of rising
parabola. It is time consuming to evaluate the volume of compressive stress block. An
equivalent rectangular stress block can be used without loss of accuracy.

8
The flexural strength 𝑀𝑢 , using the equivalent rectangular, is
obtained as follows:
𝐶 = 0.85𝑓𝑐, 𝑎𝑏 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠: 𝐶 = 𝑇

𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = 0.85𝑓𝑐, 𝑎𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 =
0.85𝑓𝑐, 𝑏
𝑎 𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝑇 (𝑑 − ) = 𝐶 (𝑑 − )
2 2
𝑎 𝑎
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 (𝑑 − ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑛 = 0.85𝑓𝑐, 𝑎𝑏 (𝑑 − )
2 2

Notation:
a= depth of rectangular compressive stress block,
b= width of the beam at the compression side,
c= depth of the neutral axis measured from the extreme compression fibers,
d= effective depth of the beam, measured from the extreme compression fibers to the
centroid of the steel area,
h= total depth of the beam,
𝜀𝑐 = strain in extreme compression fibers,
𝜀𝑠 = strain at tension steel,
𝑓𝑐, = compressive strength of concrete,
𝑓𝑦 =yield stress of steel,
𝐴𝑠 = area of the tension steel,
C= resultant compression force in concrete,
T= resultant tension force in steel,
𝑀𝑛 = nominal moment strength of the section.

9
Example:
Determine the nominal moment strength of the beam section.
,
Take 𝑓𝑐 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 = 400 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

5.7 TYPES OF FAILURE AND STRAIN LIMITS

Types of failure
Three types of flexural failure of a structural member can be expected depending on the
percentage of steel used in the section.
1. Steel may reach its yield strength before the concrete reaches its maximum strength,
In this case, the failure is due to the yielding of steel reaching a high strain equal to
or greater than 0.005 . The section contains a relatively small amount of steel and is
called a tension-controlled section.

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 2. Steel may reach its yield
strength at the same time as
concrete reaches its ultimate
strength. The section is called
a balanced section.

3. Concrete may fail before the

yield of steel, due to the
presence of a high percentage
of steel in the section. In this
case, the concrete strength and
its maximum strain of 0.003 are
reached, but the steel stress is
less than the yield strength,
that is𝑓𝑠 , is less than𝑓𝑦 . The
strain in the steel is equal to or less than 0.002. This section is called a
compression-controlled section.
The ACI Code assumes that concrete fails in compression when the concrete strain reaches
0.003.
In beams designed as tension-controlled sections, steel yields before the crushing of
concrete. Cracks widen extensively, giving warning before the concrete crushes and the
structure collapses. The ACI Code adopts this type of design. In beams designed as
balanced or compression-controlled sections, the concrete fails suddenly, and the beam
collapses immediately without warning. The ACI Code does not allow this type of design.

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5.8 Strain Limits for Tension and Tension-Controlled Sections
The ACI Code, Section 10.3 defines the concept of tension or compression-controlled
sections in terms of net tensile strain (net tensile strain in the reinforcement closest to the
tension face). Moreover, two other conditions may develop: (1) the balanced strain condition
and (2) the transition region condition.
These four conditions are defined as follows:
1. Compression-controlled sections are those sections in which at nominal strength is
equal to or less than the compression-controlled strain limit (the compression-
controlled strain limit may be taken as a net strain of 𝜀𝑦 = 0.002 for 𝑓𝑦 =
400𝑀𝑃𝑎) at the time when concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain
limit of 0.003, (𝜀𝑐 = 0.003 ). This case occurs mainly in columns subjected to axial
forces and moments.
2. Tension-controlled sections are those sections in which the 𝜀𝑡 is equal to or greater
than 0.005 just as the concrete in the compression reaches its assumed strain limit
of 0.003.
3. Sections in which the 𝜀𝑡 lies between the compression-controlled strain limit of 0.002
(for𝑓𝑦 = 400𝑀𝑃𝑎 ) and the tension-controlled strain limit of 0.005 constitute the
transition region.
4. The balanced strain condition develops in the section when the tension steel, with
𝑓𝑦
the first yield, reaches a strain corresponding to its yield strength, 𝑓𝑦 or 𝜀𝑠 = , just
𝐸𝑠
as the maximum strain in concrete at the extreme compression fibers reaches 0.003.
In addition to the above four conditions, Section 10.3.5 of the ACI Code indicates that the
net tensile strain, 𝜀𝑡 , at nominal strength, within the transition region, shall not be less than
0.004 for reinforced concrete flexural members without or with an axial load less than
0.01𝑓𝑐, 𝐴𝑔 , where 𝐴𝑔 =gross area of the concrete section.

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Note that in cases where strain is less than 0.005 namely, the section is in the transition
zone, a value of the reduction ∅ lower than 0.9 for flexural has to be used for final design
moment, with a strain not less than 0.004 as a limit.

For transition region ∅ may be determined by

linear interpolation:
∅ = 0.75 + (𝜀𝑡 − 0.002)50 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

250
∅ = 0.65 + (𝜀𝑡 − 0.002) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
3

5.9THE BALANCED CONDITION

Let us consider the case of balanced section, which implies that at ultimate load the strain in
𝑓𝑦
concrete equals 0.003 and that of steel equals 𝜀𝑡 = (at distance 𝑑𝑡 ).
𝐸𝑠

𝑐𝑏 𝑑
= 𝑜𝑟
0.003 𝑓𝑦
0.003 + 𝐸
𝑠

𝑑
𝑐𝑏 = 0.003
𝑓𝑦
0.003 + 𝐸
𝑠

Substituting 𝐸𝑠 = 200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎

600
𝑐𝑏 = 600+𝑓 𝑑 And From equation of equilibrium ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝑦

𝑇=𝐶 → 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 = 0.85𝑓𝑐, 𝑎𝑏

𝑎 = 𝛽1 𝑐 = the depth of compressive block

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For balanced condition, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝛽1 𝑐𝑏

Where 𝛽1 as defined in ACI 10.2.7.3 equal:

𝛽1 = 0.85 − 0.007(𝑓𝑐, − 28) 0.65 ≤ 𝛽1 ≤ 0.85

𝐴𝑠
The reinforcement ratio for tension steel 𝜌 = and balanced reinforcement ratio:
𝑏𝑑
𝐴𝑠 )𝑏
𝜌𝑏 =
𝑏𝑑

𝐴𝑠 )𝑏 𝑓𝑦 = 0.85𝑓,𝑐 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 → 𝜌𝑏 𝑏𝑑𝑓𝑦 = 0.85𝑓,𝑐 𝛽1 𝑐𝑏 𝑏

600
𝜌𝑏 𝑏𝑑𝑓𝑦 = 0.85𝑓𝑐, 𝛽1 𝑑𝑏
600+𝑓𝑦

𝑓𝑐, 600
𝜌𝑏 = 0.85𝛽1
𝑓𝑦 600+𝑓𝑦

5.10 UPPER AND LOWER (MINIMUM) STEEL PERCENTAGES.

The maximum reinforcement ratio 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 that ensures a minimum net tensile steel strain of
0.005.
𝑑−𝑐
𝜀𝑡 = 0.003
𝑐
0.003
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑑
0.003 + 0.005
3
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑑
8
3 𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦 𝜌𝐴𝑠 𝑑
𝑎 = 𝛽1 𝑐 = 𝑑𝛽1 = , =
8 0.85𝑓𝑐 𝑏 0.85𝑓𝑐,

𝜌𝐴𝑠 3 3 0.85𝛽1 𝑓𝑐,

= 𝛽 → 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [ ] 𝑜𝑟
0.85𝑓𝑐, 8 1 8 𝑓𝑦

𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.75𝜌𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝜌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.724𝜌𝑏

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If the factored moment applied on a beam is very small and the dimensions of the section
are specified (as is sometimes required architecturally) and are larger than needed to resist
the factored moment, the calculation may show that very small or no steel reinforcement is
required. The ACI Code, 10.5, specifies a minimum steel area,𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛.
,
√𝑓𝑐 1.4
𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 𝑏𝑤 𝑑 ≥ 𝑏 𝑑 ; 𝑏𝑤 = width of section, width of web for T − section
4𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑤

The above requirements of𝐴𝑠,𝑚𝑖𝑛. need not be applied if, at every section 𝐴𝑠 provided is at
least one-third greater than that required by analysis ( 𝐴𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 ≥
1.33 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 ).This exception provides sufficient additional reinforcement in large
members where the amount required by the above equations would be excessive.

5.11 SPACING LIMITS AND CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT.

The minimum limits were originally

established to permit concrete to flow readily
into spaces between bars and between bars
and forms without honeycomb, and to ensure
against concentration of bars on a line that
may cause shear or shrinkage cracking.
According to ACI 7.6. The minimum clear
spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall
be 𝑑𝑏 , but not less than25mm. Where parallel
reinforcement is placed in two or more layers,
bars in the upper layers shall be placed directly
above bars in the bottom layer with clear
distance between layers not less than25mm.
Concrete cover as protection of reinforcement against weather and other effects is
measured from the concrete surface to the outermost surface of the steel to which the cover
requirement applies. Where concrete cover is prescribed for a class of structural members,
it is measured to the outer edge of stirrups, ties, or spirals if transverse reinforcement
encloses main bars. According to ACI, 7.7, minimum clear cover in cast-in-place concrete
beams and columns should not be less than 40mm.

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