Experiment 09

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EXPERIMENT NO -09

STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVE:
To plot a graph between the difference of temperature (oC) of two junctions and the thermo e.
m. f. (µV) for a copper constantan thermocouple using a potentiometer.

EQUIPMENT LIST:
A copper constantan thermocouple, clamp stand, water bath, heating arrangement, copper
and glass beaker, thermometer (range 20oC- 100oC), potentiometer, galvanometer, Resistance
Box (R.B.), one way key, jokey, Battery (3 volt), connecting wire etc.

THEORY:
In 1821, the German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when different metals
are joined at the ends and there is a temperature difference between the joints, a magnetic
field is observed. This effect was called Seebeck effect. At that time Seebeck referred to this
as thermo-magnetism. The magnetic field he observed was later shown to be due to thermo-
electric current. He demonstrated that a loop composed of two dissimilar metals could be
made to carry a continuous current simply by maintaining the two junctions at different
temperatures. The magnitude of the current depends on the resistance the metals.
The Seebeck effect is exploited in the design of thermocouples. A thermocouple is an
electrical device consisting of two dissimilar conductors forming electrical junctions at
differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result
of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
Thermocouples are a widely used in different types of temperature sensors.
When the two different metals are placed in contact then a contact potential equal to the
difference in the work function of the two metals is established at the junction. The work
function is defined as the energy difference between the escape (vacuum) level and the Fermi
energy level. The Fermi energy level is subjected to a small temperature change and this is of
the order of eV/ K. This causes a difference in the contact potentials at the two junctions due
to the different temperatures at the two ends and the result is an e. m. f. which is free to drive
the current. The magnitude of e. m. f. is of the order of a few microvolts per degree
temperature difference between the two junctions. The magnitude of the thermo e. m. f.
(voltage) depends on the types of wire used. Generally, the voltage is in the microvolt range.
The thermo-electric e. m. f. can be balanced against the emf of a cell with the help of a
potentiometer and the actual value of the thermo e. m. f. can be determined. To achieve this,
the potential drop per cm. of potentiometer wire is calculated.
Let E (V) is the e. m. f. of the battery, r () is the resistance of potentiometer wire and R ()
is the resistance in series with the potentiometer.
𝐸
Current through the potentiometer wire = (1)
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸𝑟
The potential drop along potentiometer wire = 𝑅+𝑟 (2)

If L is the length of potentiometer wire;


𝐸𝑟 1
Then potential drop per unit length (per cm.) of the potentiometer wire = × (3)
𝑅+𝑟 𝐿

If ℓ is the balancing length of the potentiometer, then


𝐸𝑟 ℓ
The e. m. f. of the thermocouple = 𝑅+𝑟 × 𝐿
(4)

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the resistance of the given potentiometer wire (r ~15).
2. Determine the actual e. m .f. of the battery with the help of a voltmeter (E1).
3. Make the connection as shown in Figure 1. Connect the ve terminal of the battery to
the “zero end” of the potentiometer (point A in the Figure) and ve terminal through
key and resistance box to the other end (point B in the Figure). The balancing length (ℓ)
of the potentiometer should be determined from “zero end i.e. point A”.

Figure 1: Thermocouple circuit diagram


Clamp the thermocouple in stand. Dip one junction in hot water and the other one in
cold water. Connect the free end of the hot junction to the “zero end” of the
potentiometer and other free with the galvanometer. The other terminal of the
galvanometer is connected to a jockey. The thermo- couple is connected to the thermo
electric in the potentiometer wire is the same as that due to battery.
4. Heat the water till it boils at 100 oC temperature. Take out about 2000 ohms resistance
from the Resistance Box. Put the plug in the key K and find the balance point, it
should be either on the 3rd wire or 4th wire , if not , adjust the value of R (by taking
out small valued keys of R) to get the same .
5. Remove the heating arrangement and let the temperature fall. Keep on finding the
balance point corresponding to temperatures 900, 850 and so on. Observe the e. m. f.
(E2) of the battery again at the end of the experiment.
6. Plot the graph between the temperature difference of hot junction and cold junction
and thermo electric e. m. f. in micro-volts

OBSERVATIONS:
Resistance of potentiometer wire (r) = ohms
E. m. f. of battery in the beginning E1 = Volts
E. m. f. of battery in the end E2 = Volts
Mean e. m. f. (𝐸 = (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 )/2) = Volts
Resistance taken out from R.B (R) = ohms
Length of potentiometer wire (L) = cms.
𝐸𝑟 1
Potential drop per cm of the wire (e) = 𝑅+𝑟
× 𝐿
Volts
𝐸𝑟 1
= 𝑅+𝑟
× 𝐿
× 106 microvolt

measured e. m. f.± ∆(𝐞. 𝐦. 𝐟. )


Sr. No. Temperature (oC) Balance Point ℓ (cm)
[= eℓ in µV]
1. (90 ± 1) oC
2. (85 ± 1) oC
3. (80 ± 1) oC
4. (75 ± 1) oC
5. (70 ± 1) oC
6. (65 ± 1) oC
7. (60 ± 1) oC
8. (55 ± 1) oC
9. (50 ± 1) oC
10. (45 ± 1) oC

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS:
The typical graph between the difference of temperature (oC) of two junctions and the thermo
e. m. f. (µV) for a copper constantan thermocouple looks like as shown below;
4.0

3.5

Thermo e.m.f.(V)
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

20 40 60 80 100

Temperature Difference (oC)


(a) ERROR ANALYSIS:
∆𝑒 ∆ℓ
∆(e. m. f. ) = measured e. m. f.× ( 𝑒 + ℓ ) (5)
∆𝑒 ∆𝐸 ∆(𝑟+𝑅) ∆𝐿 ∆𝑟
𝑒
= 𝐸
+ 𝑟+𝑅
+ 𝐿
+ 𝑟
(6)

∆𝐸 = least count of voltmeter measuring the e. m. f. of the battery


∆𝑟 = ∆(𝑟 + 𝑅) = least count of Resistance Box (in a worst case ∆𝑟 could be taken ~ 1.).
∆𝐿 = least count of the scale used for measuring the balancing length on the wire.
∆ℓ = error associated in deciding the range of null points.
The quantity ∆𝑒/𝑒 is constant and is known "Instrumental error" as it depends on the
precision and accuracy of the instruments used in the measurement. Sometimes it may
also depend on the environment in which the measurement is being done.
The quantity ∆ℓ/ℓ varies from measurement to measurement and is known "Judgment
error". These errors arise in the cases where the experimenter has to make a judgment
about when some condition is fulfilled at a location or in time. Once the location or time
is fixed it can be measured to a certain accuracy or error.
It can be observed that there is no unique null point on the potentiometer wire, but a
certain range of null points on the scale. So the quantity ∆ℓ/ℓ should be calculated at each
temperature. The quantity obtained from equation (6) majorly depends on both ∆𝑟/𝑟 and
∆𝐿/𝐿. It can further be checked that for a precise voltmeter (∆𝐸~ 0.01V) measuring the e.
m. f. of a battery, for ∆𝑟 = ∆(𝑟 + 𝑅) ~ 1 and for a long wire of L ~ 400 cm, first three
quantities of equation (6) is negligibly small. So error in estimation of e. m. f. (equation
5) depends on ∆ℓ/ℓ and ∆𝑟/𝑟. It can also be concluded that both ∆ℓ/ℓ and ∆𝑟/𝑟 are
interrelated to each other and the material used in making the potentiometer wire plays
significant role in defining these two quantity. So, the error in measurement of e. m. f. is,
∆𝑟 ∆ℓ
∆(e. m. f. ) ~ measured e. m. f.× ( 𝑟 + ℓ ) (7)
(b) ADDITIONAL EXERCISE:
You can use “Microsoft Excel” or “Origin 8.0” software to draw a graph between the
difference of temperature (oC) of two junctions and the thermo e. m. f. (µV). For further
analysis, you can fit the graph using the command “linear fitting”. The reciprocal of the
slope (oC/ µV) thus obtained, can provide you any unknown temperature of any object,
without the use of thermometer. This process is known as ‘calibration” of thermocouple.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connection should be tight.
2. Thermo – couple junctions should be checked before use.
3. The battery should be freshly charged so that its e. m. f. remains constant during the
experiment.
4. The free end of the hot junction and +ve of the battery should be connected at one end
of the potentiometer.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1) How does a thermocouple work?
2) How does a thermocouple measure the temperature?
3) Why do you use accumulator in potentiometer circuit?
Hints: Accumulator-Capacitor
Output of the potentiometer is linear (Without Accumulator)
To make the output of potentiometer to non-linear (or to remove ripples in output) we need to
add Accumulator.
4) How to measure e. m. f. of a thermocouple using potentiometer?
Hints:
a) Constant resistance potentiometer. The constant resistance potentiometer is a variation of
the basic design of potentiometer in which a variable current is fed through a fixed
resistor. These are used primarily for measurements in the millivolt and microvolt
ranges.
b) Microvolt potentiometer. This is another form of the constant resistance potentiometer
described above however it is designed to minimize the effects of contact resistance and
thermal e. m. f. This equipment is satisfactorily used to measure the e. m. f. well below 0.1
µV.
c) Thermocouple potentiometer. Another development of the standard types is the
'thermocouple potentiometer' specially used for temperature measurement with
thermocouples.
5) Give the names of four alloys along with their composition, which can be used for making
heater and thermocouple elements?
Hint: Constantan or Eureka {(55-60%) Cu, (45-40%)Ni} German Silver (an alloy of CU, Zn,
Ni) Manganin (86% Cu, 2% Ni, 12% Mn) Nichrome (61% Ni, 15% Cr, 24% Fe)
ADDITIONAL VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a thermocouple? Explain the working principle of thermocouple? Figure out
equivalent “Wheatstone bridge” diagram of the whole setup.
2. List some temperature measurement techniques for temperature greater than 10000C?
3. List and explain about three laws of thermocouples?
4. What are the common materials used in making thermocouples?
5. How can you measure the temperature in boilers?
6. What are the sources of errors in temperature measurement?
7. How thermocouple can be used to measure the differences between two temperatures?
8. What is peltier effect?
9. What is Thompson effect?
10. Explain the cold junction compensation procedure in thermocouple? Why cold junction
compensation is required in thermocouple?
11. What are the advantages of thermocouple?
12. What are the different types of thermocouple?
13. What are the materials used for K-type thermocouple?
14. What are the disadvantages of thermocouple?
15. How thermocouple can be used for an average temperature measurement?
16. What are the desirable characteristics of thermocouple materials?

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