IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM (CHAPTER 2)

A research problem is a declaration of an area of interest, a situation to be changed, a

challenge to be removed, or a disturbing question that occurs in academic literature, in theory, or in
practice that points to the need for critical understanding and intentional research. The research issue
is usually addressed in the form of a question in certain fields of social science. A problem of research
does not state how to do something, give a vague or broad proposition, or raise a question of
importance.

The goal of a statement of a problem is to:

a) Introduce the reader to the significance of the subject being discussed. The reader is based on
the importance of the analysis and the questions or theories to be followed by the research.
b) PLaces The issue that determines the boundaries of what is to be explored in a specific
context.
c) Provides the results reporting process which shows what is possibly required to perform the
analysis and describes how this detail will be provided by the results

The research issue in social sciences sets out the means by which you have to answer the "So
What?" question. The question "So What?" relates to a research issue surviving the relevance test
[the consistency of a repeatability and accuracy measurement procedure]. Notice that it takes a
commitment on your part to address the "So What" question not only to demonstrate that you
have studied the material, but that you have thought about its meaning.

To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes:

a) Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and
irresponsible statements],
b) Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and
terms,
c) Identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables,
d) Identification of key concepts and terms,
e) Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters,
f) Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
g) Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [regardless of the type of
research, it is important to address the “so what” question by demonstrating that the research
is not trivial],
h) Does not have unnecessary jargon; and,
i) Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of
the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

TYPES AND CONTENT

A research issue in the social sciences has four general conceptualizations:

a) Casuist Study Problem: through examining moral dilemmas by the application of general
principles and the thorough differentiation of particular situations, this type of problem relates
to the determination of right and wrong in questions of behavior or conscience.
 b) Difference Research Problem : usually asks, "Is there a difference between two or more
treatments or groups? " When the analyst compares or contrasts two or more cases, this type
of problem statement is used.
c) Descriptive research problem: the question "what is...?" is usually posed with the underlying
intention of explaining a particular phenomenon's condition, state, or reality.
d) Issue of Relational Research: implies a correlation of some kind between two or more
variables to be examined. The underlying goal is to explore qualities/characteristics that are in
some way related.

In social sciences, a problem statement should contain:

a) A lead-in that helps ensure that the reader retains an interest in the research
b) A statement of originality [e.g. citing a vacuum of information, which will be endorsed by the
literature review]
c) An indication of the study's central emphasis, and
d) An description of the purpose of the analysis or the advantages to be gained from the issue
being studied.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS FOR INVESTIGATION

It can be difficult to find a problem to study, not because there is a shortage of problems that could be
addressed, but because of pursuing an objective of formulating a socially significant and researchable
problem statement that is special and does not simply replicate the work of others. Consider these
three broad sources of inspiration to encourage how you could select a problem from which to create a
research study:

a) Deductions from Theory

b) Interdisciplinary Perspectives
c) Interviewing Practitioners
d) Personal Experience
e) Relevant Literature

REVIEWING THE LITERATURE (CHAPTER 3)

A study of academic sources on a particular subject is a literature review. It offers an overview of

existing knowledge, enabling you to recognise hypotheses, approaches, and gaps in current research
that are important.

Writing a review of literature requires identifying applicable publications (such as books and journal
articles), examining them objectively, and describing what you have found. Five main steps exist:

1) Search for relevant literature

2) Evaluate sources
3) Identify themes, debates and gaps
 4) Outline the structure
5) Write your literature review

Not only does a good literature review summarize sources, it analyzes, synthesizes and critically
assesses to provide a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject. A literature review shows
the readers that the author have an in-depth understanding of the subject; and that author know where
he/she own study fits into an established body of accepted information and adds to it. As a stand-alone
assignment, you would also have to write a literature review. In this scenario, the goal is to assess the
current state of research and show your understanding of academic debates around a topic.

The Structure of Literature Review

As every other essay, a literature review should be structured: an introduction, a core or principal, and
a conclusion.

1) Introduction ; the introduction should

a) define your topic and provide an appropriate context for reviewing the literature;
b) establish your reasons: i.e. point of view
c) for reviewing the literature;
d) explain the organisation: i.e. sequence, of the review;
e) State the review's reach, i.e. what is included and what is not included. For instance, if
you were reviewing the literature on obesity in children, you might say something like: In
the general population, there are a large number of studies of obesity trends. However, as
the focus of this study is on childhood obesity, they will not be discussed in depth and
will only be referred to as needed.
2) Main Body ; The middle or main body should:
a) Organize literature according to themes that are common;
b) Provide insight into the relationship between your selected topic and the larger subject
area, e.g. between childhood obesity and overall obesity;
c) Moving to the basic focus of your study from a general, broader view of the literature
being studied.
3) Conclusion ; the conclusion should
a) Summarize the significant aspects of the new body of literature;
b) Consider the current state of examined literature;
c) Identify major vulnerabilities or weaknesses in current knowledge;
d) For future research, outline areas;
e) Link your studies to current information.

How to do a literature search

Set the terms and conditions. First of all, you have to describe the subject or project of research or
make sure you understand it if you have a specific question. Tell what are the most important
principles. Compile and synonymize a list of keywords and help you develop a research strategy.

Creating quest. If you do, all relevant sources of knowledge must be listed. There may be libraries,
electronic database and indexes as well as the Internet.

Take advantage of the library. Do you know what is important to your subject in your institution's
library? – The beginning is clear, so don't forget it! Please note that all books and papers published in
the UK are stored at the British Library, and interlibrary loans are available. Request support from the
library staff.
Journals. Recall that journals are the best place to find the new studies. And note, many newspapers
are just publications online today.

Newspapers and magazines are a good source for current topical problems, but for detailed research
they are not always useful. For example, in the Economist, Fortune and Harvard Business Review you
can find useful articles on business related topics.

Don't confine yourself to specific sources. Books and journals are available in libraries, but
unpublished MA and PhD thesis can also contain research related to your subject.

Research Purpose, Hypotheses, and Questions (Chapter 4)

The purpose statement provides readers with the overall emphasis and direction of a review. Both
quantitative and qualitative analysis use intent statements. They also present questions that the
analysis can address through the method of collecting data.

Research Question
In a quantitative or qualitative analysis, the research question(s) narrows the aim down to a particular
question(s) for the investigator to find answers. Examples from both quantitative and qualitative
perspectives are below. We are continuing the research themes on the purpose statement from the
previous segment.

Quantitative ; Does organizational commitment affect college completion of students?

Quantitative ; Does organizational commitment affect college completion of students?

You may have noted that the research questions sound a lot like the aim statement on closer
inspection. Research questions also separate a portion of a long, complex statement of intent into
many questions. This is why, as opposed to the intent argument, questions sound so repetitive. This
thought process allows researchers to coordinate their thinking and continue in a way that is far more
successful, despite this obvious problem.

The next two components are only related to quantitative analysis and the hypotheses and purpose of
research are (s). For this reason, at this stage, our representation of qualitative concepts will end.

Hypothesis

Hypotheses are observations made by a researcher regarding a study's possible outcome(s) based on
literature review. An example of the same theme as before is below. Again, the wording of the
research questions, theories and statements of intent are identical. The distinction is just marginally
different and is due to context. In completing a study, seeing these parallels quickly will help you
move forward. As they sound terribly similar, the distinction between these components is a matter of
context rather than a strong difference.

The primary research question should be motivated by the hypothesis rather than the data. In other
words, prior to the start of the analysis, the research question and hypothesis should be established.
This sounds intuitive; but if we take an information database, for example, it is possible to conduct
several statistical group comparisons within the database in order to find a statistically relevant
correlation. This might then lead one to work backwards from the data and formulate the "question."
This is counterintuitive to the approach since the question is clearly posed to find the answer, thereby
obtaining knowledge along the way (i.e., in a prospective manner). Multiple statistical testing of
correlations from previously collected data could theoretically lead by chance alone to spuriously
positive correlation findings.

How to develop Hypothesis

Another critical feature of a theory is that analysis should be focused on it. Note that seeking the
answer to a question is the intent of a hypothesis. If you want to answer a query, the first thing you
should do is to find as much details as you can on the subject. Spend some time conducting analysis
before you come up with a particular theory. Start thinking about the issues that you still have, then.
You should have an informed guess about how things work after extensively researching your
question. Where your theory comes from is this guess about the answer to your question.

Let's say you want to know why in your front yard the leaves on the tree change color in the fall.
Next, you are going to explore this phenomenon. You look at what you see happening and read about
the subject. You find that when the temperature cools, the color shift occurs. What question would
you ask about this information?

You come up with the following question:' Does the temperature cause the leaves in my front yard to
change the color of the tree? 'Next, you ask yourself if it is possible to test this. You'll write a
hypothesis if it can be checked, which states what you intend to find. If lower temperatures cause
leaves to change color and the temperature around a tree is reduced, then the leaves will change color.

Research Objectives

The primary target should be combined with the study hypothesis. The objectives of the study identify
the basic goals of the study which should be clearly specified in the implementation of the research
protocol.7 The primary objective can be stated as follows from our previous example and using the
investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in functional results between computer-assisted
acetabular component placement and free-hand placement: this study will compare. Notice that the
purpose of the analysis is an active declaration about how the study can address the particular research
question. Objectives should (and sometimes do) state in their statements precisely which result
measures are going to be used. They are important because they not only help direct the creation of
the research procedure and design, but also play a role in measuring the sample size and deciding the
power of the study. In other articles in this series, these principles will be discussed. From the point of
view of the surgeon, it is necessary for the aims of the research to concentrate on findings that are
valuable to patients and clinically appropriate. For example, if the primary objective was to assess the
effect of treatment A on intraoperative fluoroscopy time as opposed to treatment B, the most
methodologically sound randomized controlled trial comparing 2 techniques of distal radial fixation
would have little or no clinical impact. However, if the aim was to assess the effect of treatment A on
the patient's functional outcome at 1 year relative to treatment B, this would have a much more
important impact on clinical decision-making. Second, it could result in more substantive surgeon-
patient discussions, integrating patient values and desires with the findings of this research. It is the
exact purpose and what the investigator is attempting to assess in the realistic context that is of
clinical significance.

COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA (Chapter 5)

Quantitative Data : Definition

Quantitative data, in the form of counts or numbers, is defined as the value of data where and data set
has a specific numerical value associated with it. This data is any quantifiable knowledge that can be
used for mathematical calculations and statistical analysis, so that, based on these mathematical
derivations, real-life decisions can be made. Quantitative information is used to address questions like
"How many?" , "How often? How often?" , "How much? How much?" ”. This knowledge can be
checked and, using statistical methods, can also be easily analyzed.
For instance, there are quantities corresponding to different parameters, such as, "How much did that
laptop cost?" "is a question that collects quantitative data. Most measurement parameters are
correlated with values such as pounds or kilograms for weight, dollars for cost, etc.
Due to the ease of the mathematical derivations they come with, quantitative data makes calculating
different parameters controllable. For statistical research, quantitative data is commonly obtained
using surveys, polls or questionnaires sent to a particular segment of a population. The findings
obtained can be defined through a population.

Types of quantitative Data with examples

The most common types of quantitative data are as below:
a) Counter: Entities-equated count. The number of individuals who download a specific
application from the App Store, for example.
b) Physical object measurement: the estimation of the measurement of some physical entity. The
HR executive, for instance, carefully calculates the size of each cubicle allocated to the newly
joined workers.
c) Sensory calculation: Mechanism for the calculated parameters to "sense" naturally to create a
constant source of information. A digital camera, for example, transforms electromagnetic
information to a numerical data string.
d) Data projection: Using algorithms and other mathematical analysis methods, future projection
of data can be achieved. For example, after introducing a new product with careful
consideration, a marketer will expect an increase in sales.
e) Qualitative entity quantification: Defining numbers for qualitative details. Asking online
survey respondents, for instance, to share the probability of suggestions on a scale of 0-10.

Quantitative Data : Collection Methods

Mathematical and mathematical analysis of these numbers will lead to some definitive conclusions,
since quantitative data is in the form of numbers.

Two key methods for the collection of quantitative data exist:

Surveys: Surveys have historically been done using paper-based approaches and have increasingly
developed into online media. As they are more successful in gathering quantitative data, closed-ended
questions form a large part of these surveys. The survey provides choices for responses that they think
are most suitable for a specific query. Surveys are critical in obtaining information from an audience
that is larger than the normal size. A key factor in surveys is that, without major differences, the
responses received should be such that they can be applied to the entire population.

One-on-one interviews: This method of quantitative data collection has also historically been carried
out face-to-face, but has switched to mobile and online channels. Interviews provide the ability for a
marketer to obtain detailed data from the participants. Quantitative interviews are highly coordinated
and play a vital role in knowledge collection. Of these online interviews, there are three main
sections:
 a) Face to face interview
b) Online/Telephone Interviews
c) Computer Assisted Personal Interview

Advantages of Quantitative Data

 Conduct in-depth research: Since quantitative data can be statistically analyzed, it is highly

likely that the research will be detailed.
 Minimum bias: There are instances in research, where personal bias is involved which leads
to incorrect results. Due to the numerical nature of quantitative data, the personal bias is reduced to
a great extent.
 Accurate results: As the results obtained are objective in nature, they are extremely accurate.

Disadvantages of Quantitative Data

 Restricted information: Because quantitative data is not descriptive, it becomes difficult for

researchers to make decisions based solely on the collected information.
 Depends on question types: Bias in results is dependent on the question types included to
collect quantitative data. The researcher’s knowledge of questions and the objective of research are
exceedingly important while collecting quantitative data

Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data (Chapter 6)

The process of assigning meaning to the information obtained and assessing the assumptions,
importance, and consequences of the results is data analysis and interpretation. The steps involved in
data analysis are a function of the type of information obtained, but returning to the purpose of the
evaluation would provide a framework for the data organization and a focus for the analysis of the
evaluation questions.

Interpretation of data refers to the application of procedures by which information is checked in order
to arrive at an educated conclusion. Data analysis assigns a meaning to the analyzed knowledge and
defines its meaning and consequences.

The meaning of the analysis of data is apparent and this is why it needs to be done properly. Data is
very likely to come from different sources and has a propensity to enter with haphazard ordering the
analysis process. Analysis of data appears to be highly subjective. That is to say, the nature and aim of
interpretation will vary from company to company, potentially correlating to the type of information
being examined. While several different types of processes are applied on the basis of the individual
nature of data, "quantitative analysis" and "qualitative analysis" are the two broadest and most
common categories.

The measurement scale must be determined for the data before any serious data analysis can begin, as
this will have a long-term effect on ROI for data interpretation. The scales that vary include:
a). Nominal Scale: non-numeric categories that cannot be ranked or compared quantitatively.
Variables are exclusive and exhaustive.

b). Ordinal Scale: exclusive categories that are exclusive and exhaustive but with a logical order.
Quality ratings and agreement ratings are examples of ordinal scales (i.e., good, very good, fair, etc.,
OR agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).

c). Interval: a measurement scale where data is grouped into categories with orderly and equal
distances between the categories. There is always an arbitrary zero point.

d). Ratio: contains features of all three.

How to Interprete Quantitative Data

An analyst must try to distinguish the differences between correlation, cause and coincidence as well
as many other prejudices when analyzing results, but he must also take into account all the variables
involved that could have contributed to a result. There are different methods of data analysis one may
use. Data analysis is designed to help individuals make sense of recorded, interpreted and presented
numerical data. Having a base method (or methods) for data analysis will provide a framework and
clear basis for your analyst teams. Nonetheless, if many departments have different methods to
interpret the same data, while sharing the same objectives, some mismatched goals can result.
Disparate strategies can lead to duplicate attempts, contradictory solutions, wasted resources, time and
money eventually. We will look at the methods of interpretation of quantitative analysis of data in this
part.

Quantitative Data Interpretation

"That word would be "numerical" if quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in one word
(and it really can't)." When it comes to data analysis, there are few certainties, but you can be sure that
if the study you are engaged in has no numbers involved, it is not quantitative research. Quantitative
analysis refers to a collection of methods that are used to interpret numerical data. It requires the use
of statistical modeling, such as standard deviation, mean and median, more often than not. Let's
review the most popular statistical words quickly:

1). Mean: For a series of answers, a mean represents a numerical average. A mean represents the
central value of a particular set of numbers when dealing with a data set (or several data sets). It is the
sum of the values separated within the data set by the number of values. Arithmetic mean, mean and
mathematical expectation are other concepts that can be used to define the definition.

2). Standard deviation: This is another widely occurring statistical concept in quantitative analysis.
The distribution of the responses around the mean is revealed by standard deviation. This determines
the degree of consistency within the responses; it offers insight into data sets along with the mean.

3). Frequency distribution: This is a calculation that measures the rate of occurrence of a response
within a data set. For example, frequency distribution is able to calculate the number of times a
particular ordinal scale response occurs by using a survey (i.e., agree, strongly agree, disagree, etc.).
In determining the degree of agreement among data points, frequency distribution is extremely keen.

Why Data Interpretation Matters

 The aim of compilation and analysis is to obtain knowledge that is useful and accessible and to make
the most informed choices possible. Data collection and analysis offers unlimited benefits for a wide
variety of institutions and individuals, from corporations to newlyweds researching their first home.

Methods of Data Analysis Overview List & Tips

In order to draw sound conclusions and make better informed decisions, data analysis and
interpretation are important. As we have seen in this report, the analysis of data is focused on art and
science. Here is a description of how data can be viewed and some tips:

a) Collect your data and make it as clean as possible.

b) Choose the type of analysis to perform: qualitative or quantitative, and apply the methods
respectively to each.
c) Qualitative analysis: observe, document and interview notice, collect and think about things.
d) Quantitative analysis: you lead a research with a lot of numerical data to be analyzed through
various statistical methods – mean, standard deviation or frequency distribution for instance.
e) Reflect on your own thinking and reasoning: and be aware of the many pitfalls data analysis
and interpretation carries. Correlation versus causation, subjective bias, false information and
inaccurate data, etc.

COLLECTING QUALITATIVE DATA (Chapter 7)

Definition
A category of data that explains information is qualitative data. It is investigative and often frequently
open-ended, enabling participants to express themselves entirely. Qualitative data is information which,
using numbers, can not be counted, calculated or easily expressed. Via data visualization software, such
as word clouds, idea charts, graph databases, timelines and infographics, it is collected from text, audio
and photos and shared. Qualitative analysis of data seeks to address questions about what actions
individuals take and what motivates them to take those actions. Collecting and dealing with this form
of data will take time, since the analyst wants to focus on it.

Types of Qualitative Data

Nominal data: Nominal data (also referred to as nominal scale) in statistics is a grouping of categorical
variables which do not have any quantitative meaning. It is often referred to as data that is labeled or
named. Coined from the Latin nomenclature 'Nomen' (meaning name), without having any quantitative
value, it is used to mark or name variables. This is not valid in such situations where a quantitative
value is taken from nominal data. This quantitative value, however, lacks numeric features.

Ordinal data: Ordinal data is a type of qualitative data where it is not known that the variables have
normal, ordered categories and the distances between the categories. For eg, when a customer inputs
his/her satisfaction on the variable scale, "satisfied, indifferent, dissatisfies" ordinary data is said to
have been obtained. Ordinal data is categorized as a form of quantitative data in certain situations, or is
said to be between qualitative and quantitative. This is because both quantitative and qualitative
properties are demonstrated by ordinary data.

Qualitative Data Collection Research

The collection of qualitative data is exploratory; it requires in-depth analysis and study. Qualitative
methods of gathering data are focused primarily on obtaining perspectives, reasoning, and motivations;
they go deeper in terms of analysis. Researchers prefer approaches or data collection techniques that
are standardized to a small degree, as qualitative data can not be calculated. Here are the qualitative
methods of collecting data:
a) One-to-One Interviews: It is one of the most widely used qualitative analysis data collection
methods, primarily because of its personal approach. In a one-to-one basis, the interviewer or
 the researcher gathers data directly from the interviewee. The interview can be informal,
conversational and unstructured. The open-ended questions are often randomly posed, with the
interviewer allowing the interview flow to decide the questions to be asked.
b) Focus groups: In a community discussion setting, this is achieved. The group is restricted to 6-
10 individuals and a moderator is appointed to moderate the ongoing debate.

c) The members of a community can have something in common, depending on the data which is
sorted. A researcher conducting a study on track runners, for instance, would pick athletes who
are track runners or who have adequate knowledge of the subject matter.
d) Record keeping: This technique makes use of current accurate records and related information
sources as the data base. This knowledge can be used in new studies. Going to a library is
close. There, to gather relevant data that can be used in the analysis, one can go over books and
other reference content.
e) Observation process: The researcher immerses himself/herself in the area where his
respondents are in this qualitative data collection approach and holds a close eye on the
participants and takes down notes. This is known as the observing method. Other reporting
tools may be used in addition to taking notes, such as video and audio recording, photography,
and similar methods.
f) Longitudinal Studies: This type of data collection is conducted periodically over an extended
duration on the same data source. It is a form of observational study that goes on for a few
years and can go on for many decades in some cases. Through an observational study of
subjects with similar characteristics, this data collection approach aims to find associations.
g) Case studies: Data is obtained in this approach by an in-depth study of case studies. The
simplicity of this approach is shown in how both basic and complex subjects can be studied
using this method. The power of this approach is how carefully it utilizes a combination of one
or more qualitative methods of gathering data to draw inferences.

 It is usually difficult to generalize based on the result of qualitative data analysis. This
is because making general assumptions on a large population-based on a small
sample may lead to wrong conclusions.
 It is difficult to make comparisons because respondents give varying responses which
may be completely unrelated to each other.
 Researchers may have to deal with a lot of irrelevant data.

ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING QUALITATIVE (Chapter 8)

Analyzing and interpreting qualitative data is a complex and exciting process of bringing meaning to
the piles of data you gather. A single piece of data by itself carries no real meaning. You assign
meaning to the pieces as you label, code, and categorize; build analytic descriptions; compare and
contrast; find patterns; construct themes; and consider alternatives. The process is both iterative and
sequential, and it requires several activities: (1) fully knowing the data (immersion), (2) organizing
these data into chunks (analysis), and (3) bringing meaning to those chunks (interpretation).
Following Wolcott (1994) and the conventions in the field, we refer to these three distinct activities as
analysis but also note that formal analysis (often conflated with coding data).

Qualitative data analysis is concerned with transforming raw data by searching, evaluating,

recognising, coding, mapping, exploring and describing patterns, trends, themes and categories in the
raw data, in order to interpret them and provide their underlying meanings.

Qualitative data management

Qualitative data are gathered and constructed from relatively few sources, but the amount of data
generated tends to be extensive. A structured mechanism for managing research data contributes
to the credibility of the research outcome. The way in which qualitative data and resources are
managed contributes to procedural precision and the preservation of the quality of the research.

However, there is no widely accepted system of recording qualitative data but it is clear that
some system is necessary. The major factor that should determine the researcher’s choice is the logic
and security that the system provides. Electronic files are useful in storing transcribed interviews,
observation data and memos. Asking the following three questions suggested by Miles and Huberman
will assist a novice researcher in managing research data using computers:

The files must be backed up, irrespective of what system is utilised. Printed copies may be necessary
when analysing data, as it is easier to immerse oneself in one’s data using hard copies than electronic
copies.

Sources of qualitative data

research questions informing a study, qualitative empirical materials may be obtained through
the utilisation of qualitative designs or approaches, such as the case study (situated knowledge),
historical research (knowledge of history), grounded theory (knowledge of process and outcome),
ethnography (knowledge of culture), content analysis (knowledge of content), phenomenology
(knowledge of lived experience), action research (knowledge of process, outcome and change),
hermeneutics (knowledge and interpretation of the scriptures or text) and discourse analysis
(knowledge of discourse). This is not an exhaustive list, as other approaches can be found in major
texts on qualitative methods. Each of these designs has different purposes and prospective outcomes.

Structured data analysis

Structured data analysis procedures are related to qualitative methods such as critical
ethnography and hermeneutics. For instance, structured data analysis methods are employed in
content analysis, vignettes, Q-methodology and protocol analysis. The data analysis method mainly
transforms qualitative data into numbers based on a coding scheme.

Content analysis

Content analysis is a systematic coding and categorising approach you can use to explore large
amounts of existing textual information in order to explore large amounts of existing textual
information in order to ascertain the trends and patterns of words used, their frequency, their
relationships and structures, contexts and discourses of communication.

Content analysis may either be characterised as enumerative content analysis or ethnographic

content analysis. Ethnographic content analysis is concerned with analysing documents for
significance and meaning, whereas in enumerative content analysis, the major concern is the
frequency of words and categories, including concordance and co-occurrence. Qualitative data
analysis (QDA) programs such as MAXQDA, NVivo and WordStat 6.1 may be used to conduct
content analysis.

Discursive data analysis methods

Discursive data analysis procedures are related to qualitative methods such as critical
ethnography, historical research and hermeneutics. Discursive methods are used to analyse texts, for
instance in discourse analysis and semiotic analysis. Discourse analysis is based on social
constructivism assumptions. The fundamental question is framed around how social reality can be
understood and explained by investigating discourses about certain situations and processes.

Reportig and evaluating research (Chapter 8)

The process of evaluation research consisting of data analysis and reporting is a rigorous, systematic

process that involves collecting data about organizations, processes, projects, services, and/or
resources. Evaluation research enhances knowledge and decision-making, and leads to practical
applications. Evaluation research is closely related to but slightly different from more
conventional social research. It uses many of the same methods used in traditional social research, but
because it takes place within an organizational context, it requires team skills, interpersonal skills,
management skills, political smartness, and other skills that social research does not need much.
Evaluation research also requires one to keep in mind the interests of the stakeholders.

Evaluation research is a type of applied research, and so it is intended to have some real-world effect.

Many methods like surveys and experiments can be used to do evaluation research. The process of
evaluation research consisting of data analysis and reporting is a rigorous, systematic process that
involves collecting data about organizations, processes, projects, services, and/or resources.
Evaluation research enhances knowledge and decision-making, and leads to practical applications.

Why do evaluation research?

The common goal of most evaluations is to extract meaningful information from the audience and
provide valuable insights to evaluators such as sponsors, donors, client-groups, administrators, staff,
and other relevant constituencies. Most often, feedback is perceived as useful if it helps in decision-
making. However, evaluation research does not always create an impact that can be applied anywhere
else, sometimes they fail to influence short-term decisions. It is also equally true that initially, it might
seem to not have any influence, but can have a delayed impact when the situation is more favorable.
In spite of this, there is a general agreement that the major goal of evaluation research should be to
improve decision-making through the systematic utilization of measurable feedback.

The benefits of evaluation research

a) Gain insights about a project or program and its operations: Evaluation Research lets you
understand what works and what doesn’t, where we were, where we are and where we are
headed towards. You can find out the areas of improvement and identify strengths. So, it will
help you to figure out what do you need to focus more on and if there are any threats to your
business. You can also find out if there are currently hidden sectors in the market that are yet
untapped.

b) Improve practice : It is essential to gauge your past performance and understand what went
wrong in order to deliver better services to your customers. Unless it is a two-way
communication, there is no way to improve on what you have to offer. Evaluation research
gives an opportunity to your employees and customers to express how they feel and if there’s
 anything they would like to change. It also lets you modify or adopt a practice such that it
increases the chances of success.

c) Assess the effects : After evaluating the efforts, you can see how well you are meeting
objectives and targets. Evaluations let you measure if the intended benefits are really reaching
the targeted audience and if yes, then how effectively.

d) Build capacity : Evaluations help you to analyze the demand pattern and predict if you will
need more funds, upgrade skills and improve the efficiency of operations. It lets you find the
gaps in the production to delivery chain and possible ways to fill them.

Methods of evaluation research

All market research methods involve collecting and analyzing the data, making decisions about the
validity of the information and deriving relevant inferences from it. Evaluation research comprises of
planning, conducting and analyzing the results which include the use of data collection techniques and
applying statistical methods. Some of the evaluation methods which are quite popular are input
measurement, output or performance measurement, impact or outcomes assessment, quality
assessment, process evaluation, benchmarking, standards, cost analysis, organizational effectiveness,
program evaluation methods, and LIS-centered methods. There are also a few types of evaluations
that do not always result in a meaningful assessment such as descriptive studies, formative
evaluations, and implementation analysis. Evaluation research is more about information-processing
and feedback functions of evaluation.