The Relational Model

Chapter 3

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 1

 Why Study the Relational Model?

 Most widely used model.

 Vendors: IBM, Informix, Microsoft, Oracle, Sybase,
etc.
 “Legacy systems” in older models
 E.G., IBM’s IMS
 Recent competitor: object-oriented model
 ObjectStore, Versant, Ontos
 A synthesis emerging: object-relational model
• Informix Universal Server, UniSQL, O2, Oracle, DB2

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 2

 Relational Database: Definitions

 Relational database: a set of relations

 Relation: made up of 2 parts:
 Instance : a table, with rows and columns.
#Rows = cardinality, #fields = degree / arity.
 Schema : specifies name of relation, plus name and type
of each column.
• E.G. Students(sid: string, name: string, login: string,
age: integer, gpa: real).
 Can think of a relation as a set of rows or tuples
(i.e., all rows are distinct).

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 3

 Example Instance of Students Relation

sid nam e login age gp a

53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53688 Sm ith sm ith@eecs 18 3.2
53650 Sm ith sm ith@m ath 19 3.8

 Cardinality = 3, degree = 5, all rows distinct

 Do all columns in a relation instance have to
be distinct?

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 4

 Relational Query Languages

 A major strength of the relational model: supports

simple, powerful querying of data.
 Queries can be written intuitively, and the DBMS
is responsible for efficient evaluation.
 The key: precise semantics for relational queries.
 Allows the optimizer to extensively re-order operations,
and still ensure that the answer does not change.

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 5

 The SQL Query Language

 Developed by IBM (system R) in the 1970s

 Need for a standard since it is used by many
vendors
 Standards:
 SQL-86
 SQL-89 (minor revision)
 SQL-92 (major revision)
 SQL-99 (major extensions, current standard)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 6

 The SQL Query Language

 To find all 18 year old students, we can write:

SELECT * sid nam e login age gp a

FROM Students S 53666 Jon es jon es@cs 18 3.4
WHERE S.age=18 53688 Sm ith sm ith@ee 18 3.2

•To find just names and logins, replace the first line:
SELECT S.name, S.login

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 7

 Querying Multiple Relations
 What does the followingSELECT S.name, E.cid
query compute? FROM Students S, Enrolled E
WHERE S.sid=E.sid AND E.grade=“A”

Given the following instances of sid cid grade

Enrolled and Students: 53831 Carnatic101 C
53831 Reggae203 B
53650 Topology112 A
sid name login age gpa 53666 History105 B
53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2 we get:
53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8 S.name E.cid
Smith Topology112

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 8

 Creating Relations in SQL
 Creates the Students relation.
CREATE TABLE Students
Observe that the type (domain) (sid: CHAR(20),
of each field is specified, and name: CHAR(20),
enforced by the DBMS whenever login: CHAR(10),
age: INTEGER,
tuples are added or modified. gpa: REAL)
 As another example, the Enrolled
table holds information about
CREATE TABLE Enrolled
courses that students take. (sid: CHAR(20),
cid: CHAR(20),
grade: CHAR(2))

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 9

 Destroying and Altering Relations

DROP TABLE Students

 Destroys the relation Students. The schema

information and the tuples are deleted.

ALTER TABLE Students

ADD COLUMN firstYear: integer

 The schema of Students is altered by adding a new

field; every tuple in the current instance is
extended with a null value in the new field.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 10
 Adding and Deleting Tuples
 Can insert a single tuple using:
INSERT INTO Students (sid, name, login, age, gpa)
VALUES (53688, ‘Smith’, ‘smith@ee’, 18, 3.2)

 Can delete all tuples satisfying some condition

(e.g., name = Smith):
DELETE
FROM Students S
WHERE S.name = ‘Smith’

Powerful variants of these commands are available; more later!

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 11
 Integrity Constraints (ICs)
 IC: condition that must be true for any instance of
the database; e.g., domain constraints.
 ICs are specified when schema is defined.
 ICs are checked when relations are modified.
 A legal instance of a relation is one that satisfies all
specified ICs.
 DBMS should not allow illegal instances.
 If the DBMS checks ICs, stored data is more
faithful to real-world meaning.
 Avoids data entry errors, too!
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 Primary Key Constraints

 A set of fields is a key for a relation if :

1. No two distinct tuples can have same values in all key
fields, and
2. This is not true for any subset of the key.
 Part 2 false? A superkey.
 If there’s >1 key for a relation, one of the keys is
chosen (by DBA) to be the primary key.
 E.g., sid is a key for Students. (What about
name?) The set {sid, gpa} is a superkey.

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 Primary and Candidate Keys in SQL
 Possibly many candidate keys (specified using UNIQUE),
one of which is chosen as the primary key.
 “For a given student and course, there CREATE TABLE Enrolled
is a single grade.” vs. “Students can (sid CHAR(20)
take only one course, and receive a cid CHAR(20),
single grade for that course; further, grade CHAR(2),
no two students in a course receive PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid) )
the same grade.” CREATE TABLE Enrolled
 Used carelessly, an IC can prevent (sid CHAR(20)
the storage of database instances that cid CHAR(20),
arise in practice! grade CHAR(2),
PRIMARY KEY (sid),
UNIQUE (cid, grade) )
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 14
 Foreign Keys, Referential Integrity
 Foreign key : Set of fields in one relation that is used to
`refer’ to a tuple in another relation. (Must correspond
to primary key of the second relation.) Like a `logical
pointer’.
 E.g. sid is a foreign key referring to Students:
 Enrolled(sid: string, cid: string, grade: string)
 If all foreign key constraints are enforced, referential
integrity is achieved, i.e., no dangling references.
 Can you name a data model w/o referential integrity?
• Links in HTML!

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 Foreign Keys in SQL
 Only students listed in the Students relation should be
allowed to enroll for courses.
CREATE TABLE Enrolled
(sid CHAR(20), cid CHAR(20), grade CHAR(2),
PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid),
FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES Students )
Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid nam e login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Sm ith sm ith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Sm ith sm ith@m ath 19 3.8

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 16

 Enforcing Referential Integrity
 Consider Students and Enrolled; sid in Enrolled is a
foreign key that references Students.
 What should be done if an Enrolled tuple with a non-
existent student id is inserted? (Reject it!)
 What should be done if a Students tuple is deleted?
 Also delete all Enrolled tuples that refer to it.
 Disallow deletion of a Students tuple that is referred to.
 Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a default sid.
 (In SQL, also: Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a
special value null, denoting `unknown’ or `inapplicable’.)
 Similar if primary key of Students tuple is updated.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 17
 Referential Integrity in SQL
 SQL/92 and SQL:1999 CREATE TABLE Enrolled
support all 4 options on (sid CHAR(20),
deletes and updates. cid CHAR(20),
 Default is NO ACTION grade CHAR(2),
(delete/update is rejected) PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid),
 CASCADE (also delete all FOREIGN KEY (sid)
tuples that refer to deleted REFERENCES Students
tuple) ON DELETE CASCADE
 SET NULL / SET DEFAULT
ON UPDATE SET DEFAULT )

(sets foreign key value of

referencing tuple)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 18

 Where do ICs Come From?
 ICs are based upon the semantics of the real-world
enterprise that is being described in the database
relations.
 We can check a database instance to see if an IC is
violated, but we can NEVER infer that an IC is
true by looking at an instance.
 An IC is a statement about all possible instances!
 From example, we know name is not a key, but the
assertion that sid is a key is given to us.
 Key and foreign key ICs are the most common;
more general ICs supported too.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 19
 Logical DB Design: ER to Relational

 Entity sets to tables:

CREATE TABLE Employees

name (ssn CHAR(11),
ssn lot name CHAR(20),
lot INTEGER,
Employees PRIMARY KEY (ssn))

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 20

 Relationship Sets to Tables
 In translating a relationship set CREATE TABLE Works_In(
to a relation, attributes of the ssn CHAR(11),
relation must include: did INTEGER,
 Keys for each participating
since DATE,
entity set (as foreign keys). PRIMARY KEY (ssn, did),
• This set of attributes FOREIGN KEY (ssn)
forms a superkey for the REFERENCES Employees,
relation. FOREIGN KEY (did)
 All descriptive attributes. REFERENCES Departments)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 21

 Review: Key Constraints
since
 name dname
Each dept has at most
one manager, ssn lot did budget

according to the key

constraint on Employees Manages Departments
Manages.

Translation to
relational model?

1-to-1 1-to Many Many-to-1 Many-to-Many

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 22

 Translating ER Diagrams with Key Constraints
CREATE TABLE Manages(
 Map relationship to a ssn CHAR(11),
table: did INTEGER,
 Note that did is the since DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (did),
key now! FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees,
 Separate tables for FOREIGN KEY (did) REFERENCES Departments)
Employees and
Departments. CREATE TABLE Dept_Mgr(
 Since each department did INTEGER,
has a unique manager, dname CHAR(20),
we could instead budget REAL,
ssn CHAR(11),
combine Manages and since DATE,
Departments. PRIMARY KEY (did),
FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 23

 Review: Participation Constraints
 Does every department have a manager?
 If so, this is a participation constraint: the participation of
Departments in Manages is said to be total (vs. partial).
• Every did value in Departments table must appear in a row of
the Manages table (with a non-null ssn value!)
since
name dname
ssn lot did budget

Employees Manages Departments

Works_In

since
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 24
 Participation Constraints in SQL
 We can capture participation constraints involving one
entity set in a binary relationship, but little else (without
resorting to CHECK constraints).
CREATE TABLE Dept_Mgr(
did INTEGER,
dname CHAR(20),
budget REAL,
ssn CHAR(11) NOT NULL,
since DATE,
PRIMARY KEY (did),
FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees,
ON DELETE NO ACTION)
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 25
 Review: Weak Entities
 A weak entity can be identified uniquely only by
considering the primary key of another (owner) entity.
 Owner entity set and weak entity set must participate in a one-to-
many relationship set (1 owner, many weak entities).
 Weak entity set must have total participation in this identifying
relationship set.

name
cost pname age
ssn lot

Employees Policy Dependents

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 26

 Translating Weak Entity Sets
 Weak entity set and identifying relationship set are
translated into a single table.
 When the owner entity is deleted, all owned weak
entities must also be deleted.
CREATE TABLE Dep_Policy (
pname CHAR(20),
age INTEGER,
cost REAL,
ssn CHAR(11) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (pname, ssn),
FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees,
ON DELETE CASCADE)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 27

 Review: ISA Hierarchies ssn
name
lot

Employees
 As in C++, or other PLs, attributes
hourly_wages hours_worked
are inherited. ISA
 If we declare A ISA B, every A contractid

entity is also considered to be a B

Hourly_Emps Contract_Emps
entity.
 Overlap constraints: Can Joe be an Hourly_Emps as well as a
Contract_Emps entity? (Allowed/disallowed)
 Covering constraints: Does every Employees entity also have to
be an Hourly_Emps or a Contract_Emps entity? (Yes/no)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 28

 Translating ISA Hierarchies to Relations
 General approach:
 3 relations: Employees, Hourly_Emps and Contract_Emps.
• Hourly_Emps: Every employee is recorded in Employees.
For hourly emps, extra info recorded in Hourly_Emps
(hourly_wages, hours_worked, ssn); must delete
Hourly_Emps tuple if referenced Employees tuple is deleted).
• Queries involving all employees easy, those involving just
Hourly_Emps require a join to get some attributes.
 Alternative: Just Hourly_Emps and Contract_Emps.
 Hourly_Emps: ssn, name, lot, hourly_wages, hours_worked.
 Each employee must be in one of these two subclasses.

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 29

 Review: Binary vs. Ternary
Relationships ssn
name
lot pname age

Employees Covers Dependents

 What are the Bad design Policies

additional
policyid cost
constraints in
name pname age
the 2nd ssn lot
diagram? Employees
Dependents

Purchaser
Beneficiary

Better design Policies

policyid cost
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 30
 Binary vs. Ternary Relationships (Contd.)
CREATE TABLE Policies (
 The key constraints
policyid INTEGER,
allow us to combine cost REAL,
Purchaser with
ssn CHAR(11) NOT NULL,
Policies and
PRIMARY KEY (policyid).
Beneficiary with
Dependents. FOREIGN KEY (ssn) REFERENCES Employees,
 ON DELETE CASCADE)
Participation
constraints lead to CREATE TABLE Dependents (
NOT NULL pname CHAR(20),
constraints. age INTEGER,
 What if Policies is a policyid INTEGER,
weak entity set? PRIMARY KEY (pname, policyid).
FOREIGN KEY (policyid) REFERENCES Policies,
ON DELETE CASCADE)
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 Views
 A view is just a relation, but we store a definition,
rather than a set of tuples.
CREATE VIEW YoungActiveStudents (name, grade)
AS SELECT S.name, E.grade
FROM Students S, Enrolled E
WHERE S.sid = E.sid and S.age<21

 Views can be dropped using the DROP VIEW command.

 How to handle DROP TABLE if there’s a view on the table?
• DROP TABLE command has options to let the user specify this.

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 Views and Security
 Views can be used to present necessary
information (or a summary), while hiding details
in underlying relation(s).
 Given YoungStudents, but not Students or Enrolled, we
can find students s who have are enrolled, but not the
cid’s of the courses they are enrolled in.

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 Relational Model: Summary

 A tabular representation of data.

 Simple and intuitive, currently the most widely used.
 Integrity constraints can be specified by the DBA, based
on application semantics. DBMS checks for violations.
 Two important ICs: primary and foreign keys
 In addition, we always have domain constraints.
 Powerful and natural query languages exist.
 Rules to translate ER to relational model

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