PHYSICS LABWORK

For Optics and Quantum Physics

PH1036

Edited by Dr.-Ing. Trinh Quang Thong

School of Engineering Physics

Hanoi University of Science and Technology
 Experiment 1
Michelson Interferometer
Equipment
- A Pasco Interferometer includes beam expander lens with component holder, beam splitter,
movable mirror, and adjustable fixed mirror.
- HeNe Laser.
Purpose
To study the capabilities and uses of the Michelson interferometer to measure wavelength of the
visible light that may be applied to determinee the refractive index of air and investigate its
dependence on pressure.
I. Background
A beam of light can be modeled as a wave of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. When two
beams of light meet in space, these fields add according to the principle of superposition. At each
point in space, the electric and magnetic fields are determined as the vector sum of the fields of the
separate beams. If two such light beams meet, at any instant in time there will be points in space
where the fields add to produce maximal field strength. However, the oscillations of visible light are
much faster than the human eye can apprehend. Since there is no fixed relationship between the
oscillations, a point at which there is a maximum at one instant may have a minimum at the next
instant. The human eye averages these results and perceives a uniform intensity of light. However, if
the two beams of light originate from the same source, there is generally some degree of correlation
between the frequency and phase of the oscillations of the two beams. At one point in space the light
from the beams may be continually in phase. In this case, the combined field will always be a
maximum and a bright spot will be seen. At another point the light from the two beams may be
continually out of phase and minima, or dark spot, will be seen. Thomas Young was one of the first
to design a method for producing such an interference pattern. He allowed a single, narrow beam of
light to fall on two narrow, closely spaced slits. Opposite the slits he placed a viewing screen. Where
the light from the two slits struck the screen, a regular pattern of dark and bright bands became
visible. When first performed, Young’s experiment offered important evidence for the wave nature
of light. For Young’s interferometer, if the spacing between the slits is known, the spacing of the
maxima and minima can be used to determine the wavelength of the light. Conversely, if the
wavelength of the light is known, the spacing of the slits could be determined from the interference
pattern.

THE MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

In 1881, some 78 years after Young introduced his two-slit experiment, Michelson designed and
built an interferometer using a similar principle. Originally Michelson designed his interferometer as
a method to test for the existence of the ether, a hypothesized medium in which light could
propagate. Due in part to his efforts, the ether is no longer considered a viable hypothesis.
Michelson interferometer has become a widely used instrument for measuring the wavelength of
light, and for using the wavelength of a known light source to measure extremely small distances.
 Figure 1a shows a diagram of a Michelson interferometer. A beam of light from the laser source strikes
the beam splitter. The beam-splitter is designed to reflect 50% of the incident light and transmit the
other 50%. The incident beam therefore splits into two beams; one beam is reflected toward mirror
M1, the other is transmitted toward mirror M2, which reflect the beams back toward the beam-splitter.

(b)
(a)
Figure 1: a) Diagram of a Michelson interferometer and b) Interference pattern

Half the light from M1 is transmitted through the beam-splitter to the viewing screen and half
the light from M2 is reflected by the beam-splitter to the viewing screen. In this way the original beam
of light splits, and portions of the resulting beams are brought back together. The beams are from
the same source and their phases highly correlate. The HeNe laser beam we use makes a small
spot, so the interference is hard to see. To make it bigger we insert a lens between the laser and
the beam splitter. When a lens is placed between the laser source and the beam-splitter, the light
ray spreads out. An interference pattern of dark and bright rings, or fringes, is seen on the viewing
screen, as shown in Figure 1b. This spreads out the beam and makes it easier to see the
interference. However, this spreading also means that only the central ray of the laser beam is still
traveling on a straight line through the interferometer. All the surrounding rays are traveling at
some angle, depending on how close to the centre of the beam they are. Thus rays at different
radii from the center of the laser beam travel a different total distance through the interferometer.
This causes the interference pattern we see to look like a bulls eye or target shape, with rings of
bright and dark fringes instead of just one spot. During the experiment we will be counting bright-
dark-bright fringe cycle. To do this you should pay attention to the centre spot of the bulls eye pattern, not to
the outer part.
Since the two interfering beams of light were split from the same initial beam, they were
initially in phase. Their relative phase when they meet at any point on the viewing screen,
therefore, depends on the difference in the length of their optical paths in reaching that
point. By moving mirror M2, the path length of one of the beams can be varied. Since the beam
traverses the path between M2 and the beam-splitter twice, moving M2 one-quarter wavelength nearer
the beam-splitter will reduce the optical path of that beam by one-half wavelength. The interference
pattern will change; the radii of the maxima will be reduced so they now occupy the position of the
former minima. If M2 is moved an additional one-quarter wavelength closer to the beam-splitter, the
radii of the maxima will again be reduced so maxima and minima trade positions. However, this new
arrangement will be indistinguishable from the original pattern.
By slowly moving M2 a measured distance dm, and counting m, the number of times the fringe
pattern is restored to its original state, the wavelength of the light (λ) can be calculated as:
2d
λ= (*)
m
If the wavelength of the light is known, the same procedure can be used to measure dm.

II. Experiment Procedure

1. The Interferometer
The Michelson Interferometer is
shown in Figure 2. The alignment of the
beamsplitter and the movable mirror, M2,
is easily adjusted by loosening the
thumbscrews that attach them to the
interferometer. The fixed mirror, M1, is
mounted on an alignment bracket. The
bracket has two alignment screws to adjust
the angle of the mirror. The movement of
M2 toward and away from the beam-splitter
is controlled and measured using the
micrometer knob. Each division of the
knob corresponds to 1 micrometer (10−6
meter) of mirror movement. Figure 2: Interferometer

Experiment is setup as shown in Fig.3.

2. How to perform the measurement

- Step 1: Align the laser and interferometer so that an interference pattern of circular fringes
is clearly visible on your viewing screen.
- Step 2:. Adjust the micrometer knob so the lever arm is approximately parallel with the
edge of the interferometer base. In this position the relationship between knob rotation and
mirror movement is most nearly linear.
- Step 3: Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counter-clockwise. Continue turning counter-
clockwise until the zero on the knob is aligned with the index mark.
- Step 4: Tape a blank piece of paper on your viewing screen, make a reference mark on the
paper between two of the fringes. You will find it easier to count the fringes if the
reference mark is one or two fringes out from the centre of the pattern.
- Step 5: Rotate the micrometer knob slowly counter-clockwise. Count the fringes as they pass your
reference mark. Continue until a predetermined number of fringes has passed your reference
mark (count at least 20 fringes). As you finish your count, the fringes should be in the same
position with respect to your reference mark as they were when you started to count.
- Step 6: Record dm, the distance that the movable mirror moved toward the beam-splitter as
you turned the micrometer knob. Record m, the number of fringes that crossed your
reference mark during the mirror.
- Step 7: Repeat the measurement steps ten times for determining the uncertainty.

Figure 3: Experimental setup

III. LAB REPORT

Your lab report should include the following

1. A data sheet of measurements (should be 10 trials).
2. Calculate the average measured value λ of the laser light using eq, (*) and its uncertainty based on
theory of uncertainty.
3. Calculate the relative error between the obtained results and the accepted value of the HeNe laser
wavelength of 632.8 nm. Make some comments and conclusions if your average and the accepted
value agree within the expected error (should be less than 5%).
 Experiment 2

DIFFRACTION AT A SLIT
VERIFICATION OF HEISENBERG’s UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
Equipment
- Laser He-Ne - Optical profile-bench, l 1500 mm
- Diaphragm - Connecting cord
- Diaphragm holder - Power Amplifier
- Photoelement f. opt. base pelt. - Digital multimeter
- Slide mount, lateral. Adjust

Purpose
1. To measure the intensity distribution of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a single slit.
2. To verify the uncertainty of momentum from the diffraction patterns of single slits of differing
widths and to confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

I. Theoretical background
1. Diffraction at a single slit
When a parallel, monochromatic and
coherent light beam of wave-length l passes
through a single slit of width d, a diffraction
pattern with a principal maximum and
several secondary maxima appears on the
screen (Fig. 1).
The intensity, as a function of the angle of
deviation a, in accordance with Kirchhoff’s
diffraction formula, is
2
⎛ sin β ⎞ (1)
I (a ) = I (0)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ β ⎠
a
Where β = π .d sin α and tan α =
λ b
Where n = 1, 2, 3.. Fig. 1: Diffraction (Fraunhofer) at great
distance (Sp = aperture or slit, S = screen).
λ
The intensity minima are at α n = arcsin n. .
d
The angle for the intensity maxima are: α 0' = 0 ; α1' = arcsin1.430. λ ; α 2' = arcsin 2.459. λ
d d
2. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that two canonically conjugate quantities such as
position and momentum cannot be determined accurately at the same time. Let us consider, for
example, a totality of photons whose residence probability is described by the function ƒy and whose
momentum by the function ƒp. The uncertainty of location y and of momentum p is defined by the
standard deviations as follows:
h
Δy.Δp ≥ (2)
4π
Where h = 6.6262 10-34 Js, Planck’s constant (“constant of action”), the equals sign applying to
variables with a Gaussian distribution.
For a photon train passing through a slit of width d, the expression is:
Δy = d (3)
Whereas the photons in front of the slit move only in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
slit (x-direction), after passing through the slit they have also a component in the y direction (Fig.2).
The probability density for the velocity component vy is given by the intensity distribution in the
diffraction pattern. We use the first minimum to define the uncertainty of velocity as follows,
  y Δνy = c.sinα (4)
r Where α is angle of the first minima.
v r
vy The uncertainty of momentum is therefore,
Δpy = m c.sinα (5)
α
where m is the mass of the photon and c is the
x
value of velocity of light.
Fig.2. Projection of velocity vector, consequently The momentum and wavelength of a particle
the momentum vector along y-axis are linked through the de Broglie relationship:
h
= p = mc 6)
λ
Thus,
h
Δp y = sin α (7)
λ
The angle α of the first minimum is thus:
λ
sin α = (8)
d
If we substitute (8) in (7) and (3) we obtain the uncertainty relationship
Δy.Δpy = h (9)
It means that when the slit width (Δy) is smaller, the first minimum of the diffraction pattern would
occur at larger angles α.
In this experiment the angle α1 is obtained from the position of the first minimum (Fig. 1):
a
tan α = (10)
b
If we substitute (10) in (7) we obtain:
h ⎛ a⎞
Δp x = sin ⎜ arctan ⎟ (11)
λ ⎝ b⎠
Substituting (3) and (11) in (9) gives:
d ⎛ a⎞
sin ⎜ arctan ⎟ = 1 (12)
λ ⎝ b⎠
II. Experiment Procedure
1. Equipment Setup
In order to be convenient for students doing measurements the equipment is ready set up as shown
in the Fig.3

Figure 3: Experimental set-up for measuring the distribution of intensity of diffraction pattern

2. How to perform the experiment

The distribution of the intensity in the diffraction pattern is measured with the photo-cell as far
behind the slit as possible. A slit (0.3 mm wide) is fitted in front of the photocell. The voltage, which
is approximately proportional to the intensity of the incident light, is measured by multimeter.
- Step 1: Investigation of the intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern by recording the output
voltage read on the multimeter along the principal maximum of diffraction pattern from the minima
position to the symmetric one for every 0.10 mm.
- Step 2: Measurement of the width of principal maximum (three times).
- Step 3: Repeat the step 2 with two other slits with different width.

III. LAB REPORT

Your lab report should include the following content:

1. Two data sheets of measurements of which one is for investigation of distribution of diffraction
pattern and the second for the measurement of distance between two peaks of the first order
minimum for different slits (three times)..
2. Make a graph showing the relationship of diffraction intensity on measured positions
3. Calculate the uncertainty of momentum from the diffraction patterns of single slits with different
widths using the eq. (11).
4. Verify the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to see if the equality (12) were satisfied for different
slits.
 Experiment 3
DIFFRACTION PATTERN THROUGH A TRANSMISSION GRATING
DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF A LASER

Equipment
• Laser He-Ne
• Gratings and grating holder C,
• Photocell P.
• Slide mount, lateral and micrometer
• Voltmeter
• Optical bench , l = 1500 mm
• Connecting cord

Purpose
To measure the intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern of a
gratings.
Calculate the wavelength of a laser He-Ne.

I. Background
Considering a case that the plane monochromatic wave is incident normally on a grating (Fig. 1).
We assume far-field (Fraunhofer) conditions, that is, the pattern is formed on a screen that is far
enough away that all rays emerging from the grating and going to a particular point on the screen can
be considered to be parallel. A lens is placed right after the grating and the diffraction pattern will be
observed on a screen corresponding to the focal point of the lens (f).

Figure 1: Principle of getting the diffraction pattern

 We found that the principal intensity maximum with multiple slits occur in the same trend as for
the two-slit pattern that is the path difference for adjacent slits is an integer number of wavelengths.
Then, the positions of the maxima are given by
d sin θ = m λ (1)
where m= ± 1, ±2, ±3,… and d is the separation between two adjacent slits.
In this case, the first-order maximum is
corresponding to value of m = ± 1, the second-
order one is corresponding to value of m = ± 2,
and so on. If the grating is illuminated by white
light with a continuous distribution of
wavelengths, each value of m corresponds to a
continuous spectrum in the pattern. The angle
for each wavelength is determined by eq.(1) for
a given value of m, long wavelengths (the red
end of the spectrum) lie at larger angle (it is
deviated more from the straight-ahead direction)
than do the shorter wavelengths at the violet end
of the spectrum.
From eq. (1) for the first order maximum, we
have λ = d . sin θ (2) Figure 2. Intensity of diffraction pattern
In this case the angle θ is very small then we take the approximation that sinθ ≈ tanθ leading to
a.d
λ = (3)
2f
Therefore one can see that the wavelength of light can be determined if the distance between two
peaks of first order maxima (a).was measured.

II. Experiment Procedure

1. Investigation of the diffraction pattern
The measurement principle is based on the fact that the emf from photocell depends on the light
intensity (Figure 2). In the experiment, the photocell is attached on the main rule of micrometer
which will move along the diffraction pattern resulting in the varying voltage indicated by a
voltmeter connecting to photocell. That’s why we can determine both the position and the relative
intensity of the diffraction. The experiment is set up as shown in Figure 3.
- Step 1: Turn the micrometer to move the photocell forward or backward that you can recognize the
relative positions of central maximum (corresponding to m = 0) and the first order ones (m = ± 1).
- Step 2: Let the position of photocell is at right second minima corresponding to the smaller value
you can read on micrometer. Record this position and the corresponding voltage, then, turn the
micrometer anticlockwise every 0.05 mm and record the corresponding voltage at each position in
Table 1 until you can get the full distribution of diffraction pattern around the two peaks of the first
order maximum.
 Figure 3: Experimental setup for investigation of the distribution of diffraction pattern

2. Measurement the distance between two peaks of first order maxima

- Step 1: Turn the micrometer clockwise to move the photocell to the position of the first order
maximum corresponding to the smaller value you can read on micrometer, simultaneously observe
the indicator of voltmeter so that you can see it gets the highest position. Now record this exact
position of the peak of the first order maximum in Table 2.
- Step 2: Turn the micrometer anticlockwise to move the photocell to the symmetric position of the
first order maximum corresponding to the larger value you can read on micrometer, simultaneously
observe the indicator of voltmeter so that you can see it gets the highest position. Now record the
second exact position of the peak of the first order maximum in Table 2.
- Step 2: Repeat the step 1 and 2 for more two times to complete the table 2.

III. LAB REPORT

Your lab report should include the following content

1. Two data sheets of measurements of which the first is for investigation of distribution of
diffraction pattern and the second for the measurement of distance between two peaks of the first
order maximum (three times)..
2. Make a graph showing the relationship of diffraction intensity on measured positions
3. Calculate the uncertainty of momentum from the diffraction patterns of single slits with different
widths using the eq. (11).
4. Confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle using the eq. (12).
 Experiment 4
INVESTIGATION OF POLARIZED AND
VERIFICATION OF MALUS’s LAW

Equipment
• Laser source (3,8V- 5mW);
• Polarizing filter;
• Photodiode silicon on stem;
• Optical base;
• Milivoltmeter and Amplifier;
• angle measurement 0-3600.
Purpose
- Determine the intensity of the light transmitted by the polarization filter as a function of the angular
position of the filter.
- Verify Malus’ law.
I. Theoretical background of polarization
Polarization is a characteristic of all transverse waves. To introduce some basic polarization
concepts, we study the transverse waves on a string. For a string that in equilibrium lies along the x-
axis, the displacements may he along the y-direction, as in Fig.1a. In this case the string always lies
in the xy-plane. But the displacements might instead he along the z-axis, as in Fig. 1b; then the string
always lies in the xz-plane. When a wave has only y-disp1acements, we say that it is linearly
polarized in the y-direction; a wave with only z-displacements is linearly polarized in the z-direction.
For mechanical waves we can build a polarizing filter, or polarizer, that permits only waves with a
certain polarization direction to pass. In Fig. 1c the string can slide vertically in the slot without
friction. But no horizontal motion is possible.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. (a) Polarization of light, z is the direction of propagation; (b) Transmission through a linear polarizer.

This filter passes waves that are polarized in the y-direction but blocks those that are polarized in
the z-direction. This same language can be applied to electromagnetic waves, which also have
polarization. As we learned, an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave; the fluctuating electric
and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. We always
define the direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave to be the direction of the electric-field
vector 1;, not the magnetic field, because many common electromagnetic-wave detectors respond to
the electric forces on electrons in materials, not the magnetic forces. Thus the electromagnetic wave
described by

is said to be polarized in the y-direction because the electric

field has only a y-component.
Let AA' be the Polarization planes of the analyzer in Fig.
2. If linearly polarized light, the vibrating plane of which
forms an angle w with the polarization plane of the filter,
impinges on the analyzer, only the part
EA = E0.cosϕ
will be transmitted.
As the intensity I of the light wave is proportional to the
square of electric field intensity vector E, the following
relation (Malus' law) is obtained
IA = I0.cos2ϕ
Fig. 2: Geometry for the determination
of transmitted light intensity.
II. Experiment Procedure
Equipment Setup
The experiment is set up according to Fig. 3. It must be made sure that the photocell is totally
illuminated when the polarization filter is set up.

mV
K1
T 0
P R
1 10 100
DL
K
G C
+ -
Fig.3

If the experiment is carried out in a non darkened room, the disturbing background voltage must be
determined with the laser switched off and this must be eliminated by tuning “0” volume before
evaluation.
The polarization filter is then rotated in a full circle 0-360° in steps of 5° and the corresponding
photocell current (most sensitive direct voltage range of the digital multimeter) is determined. Write
down the values of angles and photo-voltage in data Table.
III. LAB REPORT
Your lab report should include the following content
1. A data sheet of measurements
2. A graph showing the dependence of output voltage on cosine of turned angles between two optic
axes of the corresponding polarizer.
3. The explanations of relationship of two quantities shown in graph and the terms in the formula
given by the Malus law.
 Experiment 5
INVESTIGATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Equipment
- PASCO Mercury light source with light - PASCO h/e apparatus with support base
aperture assembly lens/grating assembly assembly 2x9-V batteries or power supplies
- Light block coupling bar assembly yellow and - Digital multimeter
green filters - Short banana cables (2)

I. Background
According to the quantum model of light, the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the
frequency of the light. Thus, the higher the frequency (or the shorter the wavelength), the more
energy it has. With careful experimentation, the constant of proportionality, Planck’s constant, can be
determined.
In this lab you will select photons of specific wavelengths from mercury atoms and investigate how
the energy of the photoelectrons they produce depends on the wavelength of the light.
A photon transfers its energy hν to an electron in the
cathode of a vacuum tube (photodiode). The electron
uses a portion W0 of that energy (provided hν > W0) to
escape from the cathode. It then travels toward the
anode. The movement of electrons from the cathode to
the anode constitutes the photo-current.
The electron emerges from the cathode with kinetic
energy KE = hν – W0. In this experiment you will
select the wavelength, λ, not the frequency, ν. Since
ν = λ/c, the electron’s kinetic energy can be expressed
Fig.1. Photoelectron is emitted when metal
as KE = hc/λ – W0 (1) surface is illuminated causing photoelectric
Relating kinetic energy to stopping potential gives the circuit
equation:
KEmax = Ve
Therefore, using Einstein's equation,
hν = Ve + W0
When solved for V, the equation becomes:
V = (h/e) ν - (W0/e)
If we plot V vs ν for different frequencies of light, the
graph will look like Figure 2. The V intercept is equal
to W0/e and the slope is h/e.
Coupling our experimental determination of the ratio
h/e with the accepted value for e, 1.602 x 10-19 Fig.2. Relationship between stopping and
coulombs, we can determine Planck's constant, h. frequency of incident light
II. Experiment Procedure
1. Apparatus set up

Fig.3. Experimental setup

The photodiode tube and its associated electronics are contained within the h/e apparatus.
The anode and cathode form a small capacitor which becomes charged by the photocurrent. The
electric field that is produced then acts to slow down subsequent electrons. Eventually the potential
of this capacitor becomes so high that the electrons are stopped before they can reach the anode, the
current decreases to zero, and the anode-to-cathode voltage stabilizes. This final voltage, which you
will measure in this experiment, between the anode and cathode is called the stopping potential VS of
the photoelectrons. It follows that KE = eVS. Substituting this into Eq. (1) and rearranging we come to
VS = (hc/e)(1/λ) – W0/e                                                             (2)
Refer to the diagram above. Direct the light from the mercury vapor light source onto the slot in the
white reflective mask on the h/e Apparatus. Tilt the light shield of the apparatus out of the way to
reveal the white photodiode mask inside the apparatus. Slide the lens/grating assembly forward and
backward on its support rods until you achieve the sharpest image of the aperture centered on the
hole in the photodiode mask. Secure the lens/grating by tightening the thumbscrew.
Align the system by rotating the h/e apparatus on its support base so that the same color light that
falls into the opening of the reflective mask falls on the window in the photodiode mask with no
overlap of color from other spectral lines. Return the light shield to its closed position, and leave it
there until you are ready to make measurements.
Check the polarity of the leads from your digital voltmeter (DVM), and connect them to the
OUTPUT terminals of the same polarity on the h/e apparatus.

2. Measurement
1. You can see five colors in two orders of the mercury light spectrum. Adjust the  h/e apparatus
carefully so that only one color from the first order (the brightest order) falls on the opening of the
mask of the photodiode.
2. For each color in the first order, measure the stopping potential with the DVM and record that
measurement in the table 1 in the report sheet. Attach the yellow and green colored filters to the
reflective mask of the h/e apparatus when you measure the yellow and green spectral lines,
respectively.
3. Move to the second order and repeat the process.

III. LAB REPORT

Your lab report should include the following content

1. Plot a graph of the stopping potential vs.1/λ.
2. Determine the slope and intercept by a least-squares analysis.
3. Plot the best-fitting straight line on the same graph with your data points.
4. Interpret the results in terms of the h/e ratio and the W/e ratio. Calculate h and W. Compare your
experimental value for h with the actual value.
5. Based on your experimental data, calculate the longest wavelength for which the photo-electric effect
occurs for this cathode material.
6. Explain, using the quantum theory of light, why it takes longer for the stopping voltage to stabilize
with the second-order light than with the first-order light.
7. What is the physical significance of W?
 Experiment 6
STUDY ON TYPICAL CHARACTERIZATIONS
OF DIODES AND TRANSITORS
Equipment
+ Computer and Science Worksho interface; + AC/DC Electronics Lab Board;
+ Power amplifier; + Diode IN4007 and bipolar transistors;
+ 2 voltage sensors having cords with DIN plug + Resistors 1 kΩ and 22 kΩ;
one end and banana plug other end; + Banana plug patch cords and 5” wire leads.
Purpose
To make the investigations of typical characterizations of p-n diodes and bipolar transistors.

I. Theoretical Background
1.1 Diodes
In many semiconductor devices the essential principle is the fact that the conductivity of the
material is controlled by impurity concentrations, which can be varied within wide limits from one
region of a device to another. A p-n junction is the boundary between one region of a semiconductor
with p-type impurities and another with n-type impurities. When a p-n junction is connected to an
external circuit, as presented in Fig.la, and the potential difference Vp - Vn. = ΔV across the junction
is varied, the current I will vary. However, in striking contrast to the symmetrical behavior of
resistors that obey Ohm's law (giving a straight line on an I-V graph), a p-n junction conducts much
more readily in the direction from p to n than the reverse as shown in Fig. 1b.

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. p-n junction diode in a circuit (a) and current-voltage relationship through diode (h)

It can be seen that a p-n junction diode is an electronic device which only allows current to flow in
one direction through it once a certain forward voltage is established across it. If the voltage is too
low, no current flows through the diode. If the voltage is reversed, no current flows through the diode
(except for a very small reverse current). In this case, the current-voltage relationship of this device
obeys the following law
 ( )
I = I 0 e − eV / kT − 1
1.2 Bipolar Transistors
A bipolar junction transistor includes two p-n junctions in a "sandwich" configuration, which may
be either p-n-p or n-p-n. Symbol and packed performance of transistor are shown in Fig. 2a that
consists of the three regions with so-called the emitter, base, and collector When there is no current
in the left loop of the circuit, there is only a very small current through the resistor R because the
voltage across the base-col1ector junction is in the reverse direction. But when a forward bias is
applied between emitter and base, most of the holes traveling from emitter to base and continuing
travel through the base (which is typically both narrow and lightly doped) to the second junction,
where they come under the influence of the collector-to-base potential difference and flow on
through the collector to give an increased current to the resistor (Fig. 2b). In this way the current in
the collector circuit is controlled by the current in the emitter circuit. In this configuration the base is
the common element between the ''input'' and "output" sides of the circuit. Another widely used
arrangement is the common emitter circuit, shown in Fig. 2c. In this circuit the current in the
collector side of the circuit is much larger than that in the base side, and the result is current
amplification, that is, a small change in the base voltage due to an input signal causes a large change
in the collector current and therefore a large voltage drop across the output resistor, R.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. Symbol and packed transistor (a),operational principle of p-n-p transistor (h)
and common emitter circuit for current amplification (c)

II. Experiment Procedure

2.1. Introduction to Science Workshop Interface
The Science Workshop 750 Interface has four digital channels, three analog channels and a pair of
output jacks as shown in Fig.3a. Here, the Analog Channels allow up to three analog sensors to be
plugged into the 750 interface. You can plug in an analog sensor’s DIN plug in only one way. The
Power Amplifier can be connected into any Analog Channel. The interface is connected to the
computer using a SCSI cable that one end to the SCSI connector on the back of the interface box
(Fig. 3b) and the other end to the computer’s SCSI port (Fig. 3c). The software used for Science
Workshop Interface is called Data Studio that you can set up the experiment virtually, get and
analysis the measurement results. When the software is opened you can see the experiment setup
window (Fig. 4) showing the main tool buttons such as “Setup”, “Start”, “Calculate”, “Curve
Fit”, and “Options”
 (b)

(a) (c)
Fig. 3. Science Workshop Interface box (a), SCSI connector on the back of the interface box (h) and
computer’s SCSI port (c)

Fig. 4. The experimental setup window of Data Studio Software

The measurement data (files “Run#”) is appeared in “Data” area with the colour indicators next to
each file. Based on the measurement data you can perform the analysis using the “Calculate” and
“Curve Fit” tools of the software. The measurement results also can be displayed graphically when
clicking the cursor at “Graph” function of “Displays” area as an example shown in Fig. 5. In this
case you can display any measurement data by using the cursor to drag and drop the files in graph
area.
 .
Fig. 5. Graph display window

2.2. Activation of the DataStudio software

- Turn on the Science Workshop interface, and turn on the computer.
- Click the “DataStudio” symbol to open the software.
- Perform the virtual experimental setup using the skill “Drag and Drop” that you should find out the
Voltage Sensor and Power Amplifier in the “Sensors” library then connect one Voltage Sensor to
Analog Channel A, connect the second Voltage Sensor to Analog Channel B and connect the Power
Amplifier to Analog Channel C.
- Click the “Power Amplifier” symbol leading the appearance of the “Signal Generator” window
which controls the setup of experimental conditions, namely the Signal Generator is set to output
6.00 V, up-ramp AC waveform, at 20 Hz., the “Sampling Options…” are: Periodic Samples = Fast
at 500 Hz,
- Click the “Option” tool to set the measurement time (should be smaller than 1 s).

2.3. Investigation of the “rectifier” property of p-n junction diode

2.3.1. Preparation
This lab is performed using the AC/DC Electronics Lab Board based on the circuit diagram shown
in Fig 6 as follows:.
- Connect the 1N-4007 diode (black with gray stripe at
one end) between the component spring next to the top
banana jack and the component spring to the left of the
banana jack. Arrange the diode so the gray strie is at
the left end.
- Connect the 1 kΩ resistor (brown, black, red)
between the component spring next to the bottom
banana jack and the component spring to the left of the
bottom banana jack.
Fig. 6. Circuit diagram for investigation of
- Connect a 5 inch wire lead between the component
diode’s characteristics
spring at the left end of the diode and the component
spring at the left end of the 1 kΩ resistor. Put alligator clips on the banana plugs of both voltage
sensors.
- Connect the alligator clips of the Channel A voltage sensor to the wires at both ends of the diode.
- Connect the alligator clips of the Channel B voltage sensor to the wires at both ends of the 1 kΩ
resistor.
- Connect banana plug patch cords from the output of the Power Amplifier to the banana jacks on the
AC/DC Electronics Lab Board.

2.3.2. Measurement and data acquisition

- Step 1: Click the ‘Start’ button in the main toolbar the Signal Generator will start automatically.
Data recording will end automatically corresponding to the setting time and the measurement files
(SRun#1) correspond to the voltage acquired by the Voltage Chanel A and B will appear in the Data
list in the Experiment Setup window.
- Step 2: Use the manipulation “drag and drop” to bring the files SRun#1 acquired by the Voltage
Chanel A and B to “Graph” function. Two graphs showing the applied voltage and drop voltage
cross the 1 kΩ resistor will simultaneously appear in the same coordinate at the graph window. Click
the “Display” to store the graph. After that delete all two these graphs.
- Step 3: Click the “Calculate” button in main toolbar to open the “Calculator” window. Set the
calculation y1 = x/1000 in function window. Move the cursor to the “Define the variable as” then
click the “T”symbol to choose the “measurement data”. Select Voltage Chanel B and click OK and
click the “Accept” button to finish the procedure. Close the “Calculator” window. The calculation
result (also another file (SRun#1) will appear in the Data list in the Experiment Setup window.
- Step 4: Use the manipulation “drag and drop” to bring the file SRun#1 of calculation result to the
vertical axis as the Current in milliamps and bring the file SRun#1 of Voltage across the diode to the
horizontal axis. The graph appears will have the form similar to the example shown in Fig. 1. . Click
the “Display” to store the graph.

2.4. Investigation of “current amplification”

property of transistor
2.4.1. Preparation
The transistor is already installed and the lab
is performed using the circuit diagram shown in
Fig 7 as follows:.
- Insert the 1 kΩ resistor (brown, black, red)
vertically between the component spring at the
left edge of the component area on the AC/DC
Electronics Lab Board.
- Insert the 22 kΩ resistor (red, red, orange)
vertically between the component springs to the Fig. 7. Circuit diagram for investigation of
right of 1 kΩ resistor. transistor’s characteristics
- Connect a wire lead between the component spring next to the emitter terminal of the transistor, and
the component spring at the top end of the 1 kΩ resistor.
- Connect another wire lead between the component spring next to the base terminal of the transistor,
and the component spring at the top end of the 22 kΩ resistor.
- Connect a wire lead between the component spring next to the collector terminal of the transistor,
and the component spring next to the top banana jack.
- Connect a red banana plug patch cord from the positive (+) terminal of the DC power supply to the
top banana jack and a black banana plug patch cord from the negative (-) terminal of the DC power
supply to the component spring at the bottom end of the 1 kΩ resistor.
- Connect a red banana plug patch cord from the positive (+) terminal of the Power Amplifier to the
component spring at the bottom end of the 22 kΩ resistor and a black banana plug patch cord from
the negative (-) terminal of the Power Amplifier to the negative terminal of the DC power supply.
- Put alligator clips on the banana plugs of both Voltage Sensors. Connect the black alligator clip of
the Voltage Sensor in Analog Channel A to the component spring at the top end of the 22
kΩ resistor, and the red clip to the component spring at the bottom end.
- Connect the red alligator clip of the Voltage Sensor in Analog Channel B to the component spring
at the top end of the 1 kΩ resistor, and the black clip to the component spring at the bottom end.
- Turn on the DC power supply and adjust its voltage output to exactly +5 Volts.
- Turn on the power switch on the back of the power amplifier.

2.4.2. Measurement and data acquisition

- Step 1: Click the ‘Start’ button in the main toolbar the Signal Generator will start automatically.
Data recording will end automatically corresponding to the setting time and the measurement files
(SRun#1) correspond to the voltage acquired by the Voltage Chanel A and B will appear in the Data
list in the Experiment Setup window.
- Step 2: Click the “Calculate” button in main toolbar to open the “Calculator” window. Set the
calculation y1 = x/1000 in function window. Move the cursor to the “Define the variable as” then
click the “T”symbol to choose the “measurement data”. Select Voltage Chanel A and click OK and
click the “Accept” button to finish the procedure. The calculation result (also another file (SRun#1)
will appear in the Data list in the Experiment Setup window.
- Step 3: Click “New” button in the “Calculator” window. Set the calculation y2 = x/22000 in
function window. Move the cursor to the “Define the variable as” then click the “T”symbol to
choose the “measurement data”. Select Voltage Chanel B and click OK and click the “Accept”
button and close the “Calculator” window to finish the procedure. The calculation result (also
another file (SRun#1) will appear in the Data list in the Experiment Setup window.
- Step 4: Use the manipulation “drag and drop” to bring the files SRun#1 of calculation results of y1
to the vertical axis as the Collector’s current in milliamps and bring the file SRun#1 of calculation
results of y1 to the horizontal axis. The obtained graph is the output current or “collector” current (Ic)
versus the input or “base” current (Ib) in the linear form.
- Step 5: In the Graph display area, click-and-draw a rectangle around the linear region of the plot.
Select “Curve Fit/Linear Fit”. The slope of the linear region of the fitting plot gives the current gain
of the transistor. In ths case, the slope can be interpreted as follows:
slope = ΔIc/ΔIb= β where β is called current gain of the transistor.
Finally, store the Ic/Ib and fitting graph of the transistor.

III. LAB REPORT

Your lab report should include the following content

1. Two graphs showing the characteristics of p-n junction diode.
2. Give the explanations of the shape of the obtained I-V characterization of diode.
3. A graph showing the characteristics of bipolar transistor.
4. Give some comments to explain why transistor can be used as a device of current amplification