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The Apollo Flight Journal

The Apollo On-board Computers
By Phill Parker

[This article first appeared in Spaceflight magazine, a publication of the British Interplanetary
Society, in Vol. 16, No.10, October 1974 (pp. 378-382). It was prepared in response to a number
of requests from members for data and information on the Apollo on-board computers and
especially the Lunar Module programs, routines and descent-type logic. The subject is difficult
to compress - a complete technical description of the computer subsystems would be rather large
- and readers requiring more detailed information are invited to contact the author at
spaceuk@netcomuk.co.uk.]

[For those who wish to read more about the application of computers to spaceflight, the NASA
History site has Computers in Spaceflight: The NASA Experience by James E. Tomayko.]

[We would like to thank Phill for contributing this essay to the Apollo Flight Journal.]

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The Display & Keyboard (DSKY) mounted in the Main Display Console of the Apollo 13 spacecraft,
Odyssey.

Odyssey's DSKY mounted in the Lower Equipment Bay next to the control panel for the spacecraft's optics.

Introduction

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One of the most important systems of the Apollo spacecraft is the Guidance and Navigation System (G&N),
which played a leading role in landing the first men-on-the-moon at precise locations and helped in the three
very successful ferry flights to the Skylab space station. The system will also be used in the July 1975 joint
international mission of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) between the United States and the Soviet
Union.

The G&N system is semi-automatic, directed and operated by the three-man crew. It performs the basic
functions of inertial guidance, attitude reference and optical navigation and is inter-related mechanically or
electrically with the stabilisation and control, electrical power, environmental control, telecommunications
and instrumentation systems. There are three main subsystems: inertial guidance, computer and optical. The
inertial guidance subsystem senses acceleration changes and attitude changes instantaneously and provides
attitude control and thrust control signals to the stabilisation and control system. Optical navigation
subsystem sightings of celestial bodies and landmarks on the Moon and Earth are used by the computer
subsystem to determine the spacecraft's position and velocity and to establish proper alignment of the stable
platform.

Hardware

The guidance computer is a general-purpose digital machine with a basic word length, in parallel operations,
of 15 bits with an added bit for parity checks. The instruction code includes subroutines for double and triple
operations. Memory cycle time is 11.7 microseconds with a single addition time of 23.4 microseconds. The
'core rope', used for the fixed memory, has a capacity of about 36,864 words with an erasable memory (of
ferrite core planes) of 2,048 words. The processor is formed from integrated circuits (ICs). The total
computer weight is 29.5 kg. The fixed memory contains programmes, routines, constants, star and landmark
co-ordinates and other pertinent data. The erasable memory acts as an intermediate store for results of
computations, auxiliary programme information, and variable data supplied by the G&N and other systems of
the spacecraft.

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The astronaut and computer communicate in a number language via the Display and Keyboard unit
(pronounced 'disky' and abbreviated to DSKY), which has a 21-digit display and a 19-button keyboard.
Two-digit numbers represent programmes, verbs and nouns. Five-digit numbers represent data such as
position, velocity, etc. In the Apollo Command Module there is one computer and two DSKY's. The
computer and one DSKY are located in the lower equipment bay and one DSKY on the main console. In the
Apollo Lunar Module there is one main DSKY panel, the Primary G&N Panel, with a secondary Abort
Guidance Panel at the LMP position. The Apollo Command Module G&N system and the Apollo Lunar
Module G&N system are almost identical except that in the Lunar Module system the optical telescope is
different and there is no sextant.

The computer is functionally divided into seven blocks: timer, sequence generator, central processor,
memory, priority control, input-output and power. The timer generates the synchronisation pulses to assure a
logical data flow from one area to another within the computer. Additionally, it generates timing waveforms
used in alarm circuitry and other spacecraft areas for control and synchronisation. The sequence generator
directs the execution of machine instructions by generating control pulses which sequence data throughout
the computer. By combining the order code of an instruction word with synchronisation pulses from the
timer, control pulses are formed. The sequence generator contains the order code processor, command
generator and control pulse generator. The sequence generator executes the instructions stored in memory by
producing control pulses, which regulate the data flow among various areas of the computer and elements of
the central processor causing data to be processed according to the specification of each machine instruction.

The central processor performs all arithmetic operations required of the computer, buffers all data coming
from and going to the memory, checks for correct parity of all words coming from memory and generates a
parity bit for all words written into memory. It consists of flip-flop registers, the write, clear and control
logic, write amplifiers, memory buffer register, memory address register and decoder and the parity logic.
Primarily, the central processor performs operations indicated by the basic instructions of the programme
stored in memory. Communication within the central processor is achieved through the write amplifiers. Data
flows from memory to the flip-flop registers (or vice-versa), between individual flip-flop registers, or into the
central processor from external sources. In all cases, data is placed on the 'write' lines and routed to a specific
register or to another functional area under the control of the write, clear and read logic. The logic section
accepts control pulses from the sequence generator and generates signals to read the content of a register onto
the write lines and write this content into another register of the central processor or to another functional
area of the computer. The particular memory location is specified by the content of the memory address
register. The address is fed from the 'write' lines into this register, the output of which is decoded by the
address decoder logic. Data is subsequently transferred from memory to the memory buffer register.

The memory buffer register buffers all information read out or written into memory. The flip-flop registers
are used to accomplish the data manipulation and arithmetic operations. Each register is 16 bits (one
computer word) in length. Control pulses, associated with each register, dictate data flows into and out of
each register. These control pulses are generated by the write, clear and read control logic. External inputs
through the 'write' amplifiers include the content of both the fixed and erasable memory bank registers, all
interrupt addresses from priority control, control pulses associated with specific arithmetic operations and the
start address for an initial start condition. Data from the input and output channels is placed on the 'write'
lines and routed to specific destinations either within or external to the central processor.

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Memory provides the storage for the computer and is divided into fixed memory and erasable memory. The
fixed memory is high density core rope; tiny nickel-iron cores woven together with thousands of copper
wires and encapsulated in plastic. Each core functions as a transformer and storage does not depend on
magnetisation giving it the advantages of indestructibility, permanence of data and storage of vast data
amounts in a small volume. The technique requires, however, that programmes for classes of various Apollo
missions be developed and verified before the rope is woven, because the programme determines the
weaving or wiring sequence. The erasable memory uses planes or ferrite (iron) cores as storage devices. A
core is a magnetic storage device having two directions by passing a sufficient current through a wire
piercing the core. The direction of the current determines the direction of magnetisation. The core retains this
magnetisation until an opposite current switches the core in the opposite way. Wires carrying current through
the same core are algebraically additive. Sense wires which pierce a switched core will carry an induced
pulse.

Priority control establishes a processing priority of operations, resulting from conditions which occur both
internally and externally, that must be performed by the computer. Priority control consists of counter
priority control and interrupt priority control. Counter priority control initiates actions which update counters
in the erasable memory. Interrupt priority control transfers control of the computer to one of many interrupt
subroutines stored in the fixed memory. The Input-Output section routes and conditions signals between the
computer and other areas of the spacecraft. The computer has a number of inputs besides counter and
programme interrupt inputs. These are inputs from the spacecraft hardware or actions by the astronaut and
enable the computer to be aware of conditions that exist in its 'environment', such as velocity change or angle
changes. The outputs of the computer are data, control or condition indications. Some of these are
controllable through the computer programme while others are present as a function of computer circuitry.

The Power section provides voltage levels necessary for the operation of the computer and is provided by
two switching-regulator power supplies, a +4-volt and a +14-volt power supply, energised by the fuel cell
power-plants in the electrical power subsystem.

Software

A major part of the Apollo effort was aimed at the development of the flight guidance computer programmes
for each mission. The fixed core rope memory units in the computer consists of tiny nickel-iron cores woven
together by copper wires and encapsulated in plastic. The programmes for each mission determine the core
rope wiring sequence and, hence, programmes for individual missions must be written and verified error-free
before flight units can be fabricated. Apollo programmes, such as COLOSSUS or LUMINARY 1-D, were
fabricated into six modules of fixed memory. In general, all six modules were required to be 'plugged-in' or
the computer would not function correctly. In the earlier test flights, Apollo 4 for example, not all six
modules were required but dummy modules had to be included to make up the set of six. Developing and
verifying an Apollo programme for a specific mission requires about one year. NASA Manned Spacecraft
Center staff issue a description of the functions required of the G&N system to the Massachussetts Institute
of Technology (MIT) Instrumentation Laboratory. Working with MSC staff the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratories first develop a Guidance System Operations Plan (GSOP), normally a document about 7 to
10-cm thick! This sets out how the G&N system will perform its functions in careful detail and under all
possible conditions. The GSOP is then used to develop the mission programme, the sequence of coded
instructions plus the library of needed basic information such as star charts and mathematical constants. The
prime tools used in the generation of the mission programme are powerful, scientific general-purpose
computers. Just as important as the generation of the programmes is the verification of them, to ensure that
they will perform the missions as prescribed. This verification is carried out on two Honeywell 1800s, two
IBM 360/75s and two SDS 9300s general purpose computers. More recent programmes are further verified
using analog-digital hybrid computer techniques, command module simulators, lunar module simulators and
actual flight computers. When a flight programme has been generated and verified, the general purpose

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computers are used to produce magnetic tapes, of "master weaving commands", which are forwarded to the
Raytheon Company for use in operating the machines that weave the core rope memories.

Table 1

LGC Programmes (Apollo 14), Luminary 1D.

Number Title
Service
P00 LGC Idling
P06 PGNCS Power
P07 Systems Test (Non-flight)
Ascent
P12 Powered Ascent Guidance
Coast
P20 Rendezvous Navigation
P21 Ground Track Determination
P22 RR Lunar Surface Navigation
P25 Preferred Tracking Attitude
P27 LGC Update
Pre-thrusting
P30 External delta-V
P32 Co-elliptic Sequence Initiation (CSI)
P33 Constant Delta Altitude (CDH)
P34 Transfer Phase Initiation (TPI)
P35 Transfer Phase Midcourse (TPM)
Thrust
P40 DPS Thrusting
P41 RCS Thrusting
P42 APS Thrusting
P47 Thrust Monitor
Alignments
P51 IMU Orientation Determination
P52 IMU Realign
P57 Lunar Surface Alignment
Descent & Landing
P63 Landing Maneuvre Braking Phase
P64 Landing Maneuvre Approach Phase
P66 Rate of Descent Landing (ROD)

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P68 Landing Confirmation

Aborts & Backups
P70 DPS Abort
P71 APS Abort
P72 CSM Co-elliptic Sequence Initiation (CSI) Targeting
P73 CSM Constant Delta Altitude (CDH) Targeting
P74 CSM Transfer Phase Initiation (TPI) Targeting
P75 CSM Transfer Phase Midcourse (TPM) Targeting
P76 Target delta V.

A generic LGC or CGC programme, such as LUMINARY I-D or COLOSSUS, is a functional grouping of
major programmes (e.g. P30), routines (e.g. R30) and Service programmes (e.g. Interpreter). Table 1 lists the
LGC programmes and major routines of the Apollo 14 mission as an example. The basic language of
communication between the operator (astronaut) and the computer is a pair of words known as Verb and
Noun. Each of these is represented by a two-digit decimal number. The verb code indicates what action is to
be taken (operation) and the noun code what action is to be applied (operand). Typical verbs are those for
displaying and loading while nouns usually refer to a group of erasable registers within the computer
memory. Registers 1, 2 and 3 displays show the content of registers or memory locations and are read as
decimal numbers, if a plus or minus sign is present, or as an octal number if no sign is used. Programme, verb
and noun information is fed to the computer through the DSKY. The DSKY has ten numerical pushbutton
keys (0 to 9), two sign keys (+ and -) and seven instruction keys (Verb, Noun, Clear, Proceed, Key Release,
Enter and Reset). When a key is depressed, 14 volts are applied to a diode encoder to generate a unique 5-bit
code for that key. There is, however, no 5-bit code for the Proceed key. Standard procedure for the execution
of keyboard operations consists of a sequence of several key depressions. Normally, this is Verb, V1, V2,
Noun, N1, N2, Enter. If the selected Verb-Noun combination requires data from the operator, the Verb and
Noun lights flash on and off about once per second after the Enter key has been depressed. Table 2 lists, as an
example, the Verb and Nouns available for the Apollo 14 Lunar Guidance Computer (LGC).

Table 2

Selected Major Verb & Noun Codes (Apollo 14)

Verb codes
05 Display Octal Components 1, 2, 3 in R1, R2, R3.
06 Display Decimal (Rl or R1, R2 or R1, R2, R3)
25 Load Component 1, 2, 3 into R1, R2, R3.
27 Display Fixed Memory
37 Change Programme (Major Mode)
47 Initialise AGS (R47)
48 Request DAP Data Load Routine (RO3)
49 Request Crew Defined Maneuvre Routine (R62)
50 Please Perform
54 Mark X or Y reticle

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55 Increment LGC Time (Decimal)

57 Permit Landing Radar Updates
59 Command LR to Position 2
60 Display Vehicle Attitude Rates (FDAI)
63 Sample Radar Once per Second (R04)
69 Cause Restart
71 Universal Update, Block Address (P27)
75 Enable U, V Jets Firing During DPS Burns
76 Minimum Impulse Command Mode (DAP)
77 Rate Command and Attitude Hold Mode (DAP)
82 Request Orbit Parameter Display (R30)
83 Request Rendezvous Parameter Display (R31)
97 Perform Engine Fail Procedure (R40)
99 Please Enable Engine Ignition
Noun Codes
11 TIG of CSI
13 TIG of CDH
16 Time of Event
18 Auto Maneuvre to FDAI Ball Angles
24 Delta Time for LGC Clock
32 Time from Perigee
33 Time of Ignition
34 Time of Event
35 Time from Event
36 Time of LGC Clock
37 Time of Ignition of TPI
(a) Time from Ignition/Cutoff

40 (b) VG

(c) Delta V (Accumulated)

41 Target Azimuth and Target Elevation
(a) Apogee Altitude

42 (b) Perigee Altitude

(c) Delta V (Required)

(a) Latitude (+North)
43
(b) Longitude (+East)

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(c) Altitude
(a) Apogee Altitude

44 (b) Perigee Altitude

(c) TFF
(a) Marks

45 (b) TFI of Next/Last Burn

(c) MGA
(a) Range

54 (b) Range Rate

(c) Theta
(a) TGO in Braking Phase

61 (b) TFI

(c) Cross Range Distance

65 Sampled LGC Time
66 LR Slant Range and LR Position
(a) Slant Range to Landing Site

68 (b) TGO in Braking Phase

(c) LR Altitude-computed altitude

69 Landing Site Correction, Z, Y and X
(a) Desired Horizontal Velocity

76 (b) Desired Radial Velocity

(c) Cross-Range Distance

(a) Landmark Latitude (+N)

89 (b)Longitude/2 (+E)

(c)Altitude
(a) Desired Thrust Percentage of DPS

92 (b) Altitude Rate

(c) Computed Altitude

Typical Apollo LM Computer Utilisation

During the Apollo Programme manned lunar landing mission powered descents, the guidance computer

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provided several sequential programmes (P63 to P67) for guidance and control operations. The basic LM
descent guidance logic was defined by an acceleration command which is a quadratic function of time and is,
therefore termed quadratic guidance. Fig. 2 shows a simplified flow chart.

The current LM position and velocity vectors were

determined from the navigation routine. The target
position vector, velocity vector, acceleration vector
and down-range component of Jerk (time derivative
of acceleration) were obtained from the stored
memory. The down-range components of these
state vectors (current and desired) are used in the
Jerk equation to determine the time-to-go (TGO)
from the current to the desired conditions. If the
TGO, current state vector and desired state vector
are known, then the commanded acceleration vector
can be determined from the quadratic guidance law.
By using spacecraft mass, calculating the vector
difference between commanded acceleration and
the acceleration of lunar gravity, applying Newton's
Law, then a commanded thrust vector can be found,
the magnitude of which was used to provide
throttling of the LM Descent Propulsion System
(DPS). The vector direction was used by the LM
Digital Autopilot (DAP) to orientate the DPS thrust
by either trim gimbal attitude commands or RCS
commands to re-orient the entire spacecraft.

The first programme used during the Apollo LM

descent to the lunar surface was P63, which
contained an ignition algorithm and the basic
guidance logic. Based upon a stored, preselected
target site surface range, the ignition logic
determined the time for the crew to ignite the DPS
for PDI (Powered Descent Initiate). After DPS
ignition, the basic guidance logic was used to steer
the LM to the conditions for the beginning of the
Approach Phase (See Fig. 3).

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When the Braking Phase Guidance programme, P63, reaches the preselected values, the guidance programme
switches automatically to programme P64 (Approach Phase Guidance). This is basically the same as P63 but
with a new set of targets but, in addition, provided window-pointing logic for the Landing Point Designator
(LPD) operation. The LPD was a scale etched onto the LM forward triangular window, on the Commanders
side, which the Commander could sight along to view the landing area to which the Apollo LM was being
guided. The computer calculated the look-angle (relative to the forward LM body axis, ZB) and displayed it
on the DSKY to assist the Commander in his LPD operation. The guidance programme switched
automatically from programme P64 to programme P65 (Velocity Nulling Guidance) when the TGO reached a
preselected value (See Fig. 4).

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The P65 programme was used for an automatic vertical descent to the surface of the Moon by nulling all
components of velocity to preselected values, if this was required. There was no position control during this
programme. At any time during the operation of automatic guidance modes (P63, P64 or P65) the crew could
call-up optional programmes P66 (Rate of Descent) or P67 (Manual Guidance) through the DSKY. During
the P66 operation, the crew could control spacecraft attitude with the computer commanding the DPS throttle
to maintain the desired altitude rate. This would normally have occurred near the end of the P64 programme,
near low gate, prior to switching to P65 programme for manual control of the final touchdown position.
Programme P67 maintained navigation and display operations for complete manual control of the throttle and
altitude. This was not a 'normal' mode unless the programme, P66, was inoperative.

Table 3

CGC Programmes (Skylab SL-11, CM-116)

Pre-launch & Service

P00 CMC Idling
P01 Pre-launch or service initialisation
P02 Pre-launch or service - gyro compassing
P03 Pre-launch or service - optical verification of gyro compassing
P06 GNCS Power down
PO7 Systems Test
Boost/Coast
P11 Earth orbit insertion monitor (EOI)

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P20 Universal tracking

P21 Ground track determination
P25 Contingency VHF Range-Rate
P27 CMC Update
P29 Time-to-longitude
Pre-thrust Targeting
P30 External delta-V
P31 First phasing maneuvre (NC1)
P32 Second phasing maneuvre (NC2)
P33 Corrective combination maneuvre (NCC)
P34 Co-elliptic maneuvre(NSR)
P35 Transfer Phase Initiation (TPI)
P36 Transfer Phase Midcourse (TPM)
P37 Rendezvous Final Phase
P38 Plane Change (PC)
Thrusting
P40 SPS
P41 RCS
P47 Thrust Monitor
P48 Rendezvous thrust monitor
Alignment
P50 ATM Orientation determination
P51 IMU Orientation determination
P52 IMU Realign
P53 Back-up IMU orientation determination
P54 Back-up IMU realign
P55 ATM star tracker gimbal angles
Entry
P61 Entry preparation
P62 Entry CM/SM separation and pre-entry maneuvre
P63 Entry initialisation
P64 Entry-Post 0.05g
P65 Entry-Up control
P66 Entry-ballistics
P67 Entry-Final phase
Post Thrusting
P77 CSM Velocity vector updating

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Acknowledgements

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance rendered by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), the Massachussetts Institute of Technology, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory,
Rockwell International Space Division, Raytheon Company and General Motors Delco Division. Especially,
I would like to thank Robert Weatherbee (MIT) for kindly supplying information on the MIT G&N system
for Apollo and to J. Kernan for taking time-out (from a crowded schedule in 1971) to answer questions on
DSKY Verb and Noun entries. I would like, additionally, to thank John Macleaish, NASA PAO, for
supplying Alan Shepard's and Ed Mitchell's Apollo 14 LUMINARY 1-D training LGC Data Cards, as well as
several Apollo mission flight plans. Mention must also be made to Floyd Bennett's (NASA MSC) excellent
technical report on mission planning for the LM Descent and Ascent. The author can supply complete Apollo
14 Verb and Noun Codes, together with other pertinent data too extensive for publication.

This article is copyright ©1974. Phillip J. Parker.

DSKY photographs are from Odyssey and are copyright ©2000 Bruce M. Yarbro and the Smithsonian Institution

Last updated 2004-12-21

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