FGTRD

,
is a numerical technique, which divides complex
structures to small elements and approximate solutions
to boundary value problems for partial differential
equations. The strain and stress distribution of each
element can be calculated instead of each complex
structure, a procedure which simplifies the solutions of
the boundary
1.4.3 FEA—brief history
FEA theories and methods were originated from the
need to solve complex elasticity and structural analysis
problems in engineering. Its origin can be traced back to
the work (Hrennikoff, 1941; Courant,
1943). Hrennikoff (1941) discretized a continuous
domain by using a lattice analogy. Courant
(1943) calculated the torsional deflection of a hollow
shaft by dividing a cross-section into triangles and
used piecewise shape functions for the interpolation. It
is worthy to note that earlier results by some
Applications—Solid Mechanics Problems
Zhuming Bi, in Finite Element Analysis Applications, 2018
8.5 Summary
FEA was developed originally for numerical solutions of complex problems in solid
mechanics. FEA is by far the most widely used and versatile technique for simulating
deformable solids. This chapter gives an overview of the physical and mathematic
background required to understand the FEA implementation for solid mechanics' problems.
The physical behaviors of mechanical structures or systems are analyzed, and the minimum
potential energy principle is used to develop element models. The procedures for FEA
modeling are discussed for a few of classic solid mechanics' problems such as truss structure,
plane stress, plane strain, modal analysis, as well as fatigue analysis.
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Computer-aided engineering findings on the physics of

tire/road noise
Laith Egab, in Automotive Tire Noise and Vibrations, 2020
10.2.2.2 Energy finite element analysis
EFEA is a finite element-based computational method for high frequency vibration and
acoustic analysis [16]. The EFEA applies finite element discretization to solve the governing
differential energy equations. The primary variable in EFEA is defined as the time averaged
energy density over a period and space averaged energy density over a wavelength.
The EFEA is compatible with low frequency FEM models since it can use an FEM database.
This permits modeling flexibility and cost-saving as one FE model can be applied to both low
and high frequency analysis. The prediction of a spatially varying energy level within a
structural subsystem is available with the EFEA computation. The postprocessing of EFEA
results also provides straight-forward visualization of the energy flow in a system, which is
convenient for diagnoses and control of noise propagation.
EFEA can be applied to model highly damped or nonuniformly damped materials, and to
model distributed masses as well as multipoint power input. Due to the utilization of the finite
element technique, EFEA also has the other advantages that traditional FEM does not have. It
can be easily applied to irregular domains and geometries that are composed of different
materials or mixed boundary conditions.
Although SEA models result in a few of equations which are easy to solve, they cannot be
developed from CAD data, local damping cannot be accounted for, and the model
development requires specialized knowledge. In contrast, EFEA offers an improved
alternative formulation to the SEA for simulating the structural-acoustic behavior of built-up
structures. It is based on deriving governing differential equations in terms of energy density
variables and employing a finite element approach for solving them numerically. There are
several advantages offered by EFEA. These advantages include the generation of the
numerical model based on geometry; spatial variation of the damping properties can be
considered within a particular structural member; the excitation can be applied at discrete
locations on the model, and EFEA can be applied to the high frequency range, which benefits
the large community of FEA users. These unique capabilities make the EFEA method a
powerful simulation tool for design and analysis.
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Finite element modelling of foam deformation

NJ Mills, in Polymer Foams Handbook, 2007
6.1.1 FEA packages
Finite element analysis (FEA) is used to find the stress distribution for complex geometries.
This chapter explores the background to foam material models in FEA; other aspects of FEA
are covered in texts such as Shames and Dym (1985). Experiments to validate the models will
be critically examined. Further examples of use of FEA occur in the case studies (Chapters
9, 13, 14, 16, and 21) and the analysis of foam indentation (Chapter 15).
The choice of FEA package may be determined by cost. ABAQUS, widely available in
universities, provides detailed explanations of the foam models. Updates, usually on an
annual basis, have changed the foam models; consequently the pre-2002 modelling of
crushable foams is largely ignored here. Other FEA packages, such as LS-DYNA or
RADIOSS, offer a wide range of foam material models, but give little information on their
origin or internal working. The automotive industry uses FEA for the design of car bodies,
and the modelling of occupant protection with rigid foam padded components. It is an
advantage if the same FEA programme can model the deformation of the steel structure, the
rigid foam padding, and the occupant kinematics and injury criteria. Hence they not tend to
use ABAQUS.
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System Analysis and Modeling

Zhuming Bi, in Finite Element Analysis Applications, 2018
5.2.5 What-if models and design studies
FEA-based simulations are used to serve different design purposes. Two basic design
activities are design analysis and design synthesis. In design analysis, all the design variables
and system parameters are given; an FEA model is to find the system state or response to
external loads. It is a type of task for design analysis, which is commonly referred as what–if
simulation. In design synthesis, some design variables are to be determined based on the
specified design criteria. In other words, design variables are given as changeable ranges
rather than values, FEA models are applied to evaluate the responses of a system; although
design variables can vary in a design space. FEA results for different scenarios are compared
to optimize the solution based on the specified design criteria. Design study is a simulation-
based design synthesis. The same FEA model is executed repeatedly under different settings
of design variables to find the best system outcomes against design goals.
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Structure and Mechanical Behavior of Atherosclerotic Plaque

Lambros S. Athanasiou, ... Lampros K. Michalis, in Atherosclerotic Plaque Characterization
Methods Based on Coronary Imaging, 2017
10.2.2 FEA
Atherosclerotic plaques are geometrically complex and composed of different materials.
Therefore, FEA is performed in order to study the biomechanical behavior of plaque, i.e., to
investigate the distribution of wall shear stress (WSS) and plaque shear stress (PSS) on the
plaque under loading. WSS is the parallel force which is applied by the blood flow on the
endoluminal surface. The magnitude of the WSS is influenced by the anatomical location
within the arterial wall, i.e., curvature of the artery, and the velocity of blood flow (Chiu and
Chien, 2011). PSS is the stress which is located inside the arterial wall and is the result
of arterial pressure stress. The magnitude of PSS is highly related to the material properties of
the tissue inside the wall (Yuan et al., 2015).
FEA method (Zienkiewicz et al., 2013) is a numerical technique, which divides complex
structures to small elements and approximate solutions to boundary value problems for partial
differential equations. The strain and stress distribution of each element can be calculated
instead of each complex structure, a procedure which simplifies the solutions of the boundary
value problems. For each plaque tissue and wall area, an automatic mesh can be created using
commercially available software packages (i.e., ANSYS and Abaqus FEA). Each element of
the mesh is set to have certain mechanical properties in correspondence to its tissue type. The
process that is followed in order to define the FEA model is as follows:
(1)

Preprocessing: setup of the FEA model along with its environmental factors,
(2)

solver: the system of algebraic/ordinary differential equations is solved, and

(3)

postprocessing: examination of the variables of interest and validation of the extracted

results.
10.2.2.1 Preprocessing
To be able to perform FEA, solid models should be created. The layer structures of the wall
tissue are created by processing the 3D geometrical reconstructions derived from medical
imaging data, i.e., IVUSOCT, etc. The layer structures are created using 3D CAD software
and are imported to the FEA software. Then, realistic appropriate boundary conditions are
determined which should replicate for instance how the artery is loaded and how it is
constrained from moving. The next step is the construction of mesh. The mesh should be fine
enough in order to acquire accuracy of the results and coarse enough to reduce computational
time. After the FEA mesh is created, the material properties for the each tissue type are
defined.
10.2.2.2 Solver
Using the FEA-meshed model of the preprocessing step, the system of algebraic equations of
the FEA model is ready to be solved. The suitable mathematical model should be chosen to
solve either the linear or the nonlinear equations system. When the equations are nonlinear, a
certain methodology should be followed to linearize the problem. The FEA model is solved
using specific algorithms and numerical methods.
10.2.2.3 Postprocessing
After the solver ends, the results of the FEA model are analyzed. The validity of the results is
assessed and the desired quantities are studied. FEA software can give various displays, i.e.,
the stress, strain, deformation distribution, depending on the nature of the problem and the
variables the user is interested in examining. Such results are depicted in Fig. 10.4, where the
stress distribution of a FEA arterial model is presented in which the stress distribution for the
arterial and plaque component under stent deployment is presented.

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Figure 10.4 . Arterial and plaque stresses under stent deployment where each layer represents different

tissue type.
 The figure requires permission from David Chua, S.N., MacDonald, B.J., Hashmi, M.S.J., 2004. Finite element

simulation of slotted tube (stent) with the presence of plaque and artery by balloon expansion. J. Mater.

Process. Technol., 155–156, 1772–1779. (David Chua et al. 2004).

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Avoiding the GIGO Syndrome – Combining the Real and

Virtual Worlds in Analysis of Polymer Product Failures
John Moalli, ... Ming Wu, in Plastics Failure Analysis and Prevention, 2001
SUMMARY
FEA is a useful tool for product design and failure analysis; it is widely available and can
provide useful insight into complex problems. However, results of an FEA are only as good
as the input material properties boundary conditions. Because the mechanical properties of
polymers are highly dependant on processing conditions, we recommend the use of actual,
measured mechanical behavior as the best input for constitutive modeling of polymers. Great
care should also be taken to ensure proper application of input thermal and mechanical loads.
Finally, FEA models should be validated by comparison of measured and predicted results
from known load cases.
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Overview of Finite Element Analysis

Zhuming Bi, in Finite Element Analysis Applications, 2018
1.4.3 FEA—brief history
FEA theories and methods were originated from the need to solve complex elasticity and
structural analysis problems in engineering. Its origin can be traced back to the work
(Hrennikoff, 1941; Courant, 1943). Hrennikoff (1941) discretized a continuous domain by
using a lattice analogy. Courant (1943) calculated the torsional deflection of a hollow shaft
by dividing a cross-section into triangles and used piecewise shape functions for the
interpolation. It is worthy to note that earlier results by some mathematicians including
Rayleigh, Ritz, and Galerkin for solving PDEs contributed significantly to the theory of finite
element methods. Even though the published approaches at that period of time were not
systematic and vary different from one to another, these works shared an essential attribute of
FEA, i.e., a continuous domain was discretized into a mesh, and the system model was from
an assembly of element submodels. Clough (1960) coined the concept of FEA; he was
motivated to use FEA to analyze the distribution of plane stress over the wings on
aircraft. Zienkiewicz and Cheung (1967) published the first book in the field of FEA.
The first patent related to FEA was filed for a number of sorting systems by the Applied Data
Research, and the first prototype of software was developed in 1965. It was the origin of the
commercial software NASA Structural Analysis (NASTRAN) (Multiphysics, 2014).
Commercial FEA codes (e.g., Abaqus and Ansys) at their first generations were developed in
the 1970s. However, FEA on a desktop computer was infeasible with the first (8086)
Personal Computers (PCs), owing to excessive processing time and the constraints of limited
memory and disk capacity. FEA was only made possible by the advance of the electronic,
digital, computer, which at the time was making its entry into the field of large arithmetic
processing (Zienkiewicz, 1995).
Until recent decades, the development of computer hardware and software brought desktop
FEA within the range of reach even at the smallest companies (Woods, 2003). Nowadays,
FEA has been widely used to find approximate solutions of a broad scope of applications
such as stress distributions, fluid flow, heat transfer, and fluid structural interfaces.
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Evaluation (validation and verification)

Peter Ogrodnik, in Medical Device Design (Second Edition), 2020
10.4.3 Finite element analysis (FEA)
FEA is, now, a fully accepted analysis system. The predictions it makes for stresses, strains,
etc. are wholly acceptable as predictions of ‘real life’. However as with most systems the
answers produced are only as good as the model developed. I taught FEA at Masters level for
a number of years (and this applies to 10.4.4 too), and you would be surprised how many
people think FEA is now a tool, just like a spanner. I have to point out that I know of many
60 year olds who say out loud “righty-tighty” and “lefty-loosy” when using a spanner, and do
not even know this does not work for a left hand thread! FEA is not a simple tool, in the
wrong hands it is dangerous weapon. Hence, if you are going to use FEA