MM 212

Materials Evaluation Techniques

Fall Semester 2020, FMCE, GIKI

Lecture 5-6

Instructor:
Muzammil Irshad
Lecturer

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Mechanical Testing of Materials (Material Selection)
A particular material is selected on the basis of following considerations:

1. Properties of material
Mechanical properties - strength, ductility, toughness, hardness, strength to weight ratio etc.
Physical properties - density, specific heat, thermal expansion, conductivity , melting point etc.
Chemical properties - oxidation , corrosion, flammability, toxicity etc.
Manufacturing properties - formed, casting, machined, welding etc.

2. Cost of material

3. Availability of material (desired shape and size and quantity) & reliability of supply.

4. Service in life of material

5. Appearance of material: Colour, Surface texture etc.

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Mechanical Properties of Materials
The term property is a qualitative or
quantitative measure of response of materials
to externally imposed conditions like forces
and temperatures.

Stress Strain Curve:

❑ The variation of strain with stress that
is obtained from a tensile test produces a
stress-strain curve.

❑ This usually shows a linear variation

of strain with stress at low stress levels
but becomes nonlinear at higher stress
levels.

❑ The onset of the nonlinearity occurs as

the deformation of the material changes
from elastic strain (reversible) to plastic
strain (irreversible).
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Mechanical Properties of Materials (Tensile Testing)

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Mechanical Properties of Materials (Tensile Testing)
The following mechanical properties of materials can be
obtained from the stress–strain curve:

✓ Young’s (elastic) modulus

✓ Yield strength

✓ Tensile strength

✓ Ductility

✓ Toughness

✓ Resilience

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Mechanical Properties of Materials (Tensile Testing)

Tensile stress occurs when two sets of forces are

directed away from each other in the same straight
line.

Compressive stress occurs when two sets of forces are

directed towards each other in the same straight line.

Shear Stress produced by a twisting or tensional action

on a material.

Flexural stress is the force per unit area of a material

that is subjected to flexural loading (bending)

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Mechanical Properties of Materials (Tensile Testing)
Important terms:
Elasticity:
The property of material by virtue of which deformation caused by applied loads disappears upon removal of load.

Plasticity:
The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture or failure.

Ductility:
It is the ability of a material to undergo plastic deformation without fracture.

Toughness:
Toughness is the ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic deformation up to fracture.

Strength of Material:
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist loads without failure.

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Mechanical Properties of Materials (Tensile Testing) Important terms:
Stiffness:
It is the ability of material to resist deformation or deflection under load.
Within the elastic limit, stiffness is measured by the modulus of elasticity.

Malleability:
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture under compressive load. Due to this
property metals are hammered and rolled into thin sheets.

Brittleness:
It is the property of sudden fracture without any visible permanent deformation.

Resilience:
It is a property of material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of
energy absorbed per unit volume within the elastic limit (longer elastic area has higher resilience).

Strain Hardening:
The strengthening effect produced in metals by plastic deformation( cold working ) is called strain hardening or
work hardening. Strain hardening reduces ductility and corrosion resistance but, raises the hardness and electrical
resistance.
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Mechanical Properties of Materials (Tensile Testing)
Important terms:

Young's Modulus:
It is the stiffness of a material that is calculated as the ratio of the elastic stress to elastic strain.

Yield strength:
Stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the proportionality of the stress
to strain. OR Maximum stress that a material can withstand without plastic strain.

Ultimate strength:
Maximum stress developed by the material based on the original cross sectional area.

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What is Yield Strength ?

❑ This is the stress needed to cause plastic deformation (yielding) of

the material under a unidirectional load. (It is often difficult to establish
exactly where yielding actually starts) Alternative definition is:

❑ Yield strength is the stress needed to induce a plastic deformation

of 0.2%.

❑ The yield strength at 0.2% offset is determined by finding the

intersection of the stress-strain curve with a line parallel to the initial
slope of the curve and which intercepts the abscissa at 0.2%.

✓ Take the linear section of the graph.

✓ Draw a line parallel to it that passes through the strain axis at (e.g.)
0.2 % strain.
✓ Continue the line up until it reaches the stress – strain line.
✓ The stress at which the two lines cross is the 0.2 % offset yield
point.

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 Mechanical Testing of Materials

From the given figure (Figure 2.4), which shows the stress–strain
behaviour of a material, determine:
1. The elastic modulus
2. The yield strength (at 0.002 strain)
3. The maximum load sustainable by a specimen with 12.8-mm diameter
4. The change in length of a 250-mm rod at 345 Mpa

Solution
1. From the slope of the graph, E = dσ/de: 150/0.0016 = 93.8 GPa.
2. Using the 0.2% value to determine the yield strength, 0.002 strain
occurs at 250 MPa.
3. Maximum load depends on the highest value of stress on the stress–
strain curve. The reduction in area is sometimes taken into account,
sometimes not. Without taking this into account, Fmax = 57,900 N.
4. The change in length dl equals the product of strain e and original
length lo; dl = e⋅lo = 0.06 . 250 = 15 mm.
(Figure 2.4) from Text Book

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Stress-Strain Relationships and Elastic properties

❑ A variety of elastic moduli are defined in terms of the ratios of different stresses to
strains.

Generally elastic modulus is:

❑ The reciprocal of this quantity is known as the elastic compliance

❑ In isotropic materials, the elastic properties can be completely specified by knowing two
of the following quantities: Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, bulk modulus, or shear
modulus.

❑ In three dimensions, we can define stresses and strains along different directions.

❑ In anisotropic and textured materials, because the elastic moduli are then different along
different directions.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials (Important Points)
Elastic Modulus:
An elastic modulus is a quantity that measures an object or substance's resistance to being
deformed elastically when a stress is applied to it.

Bulk Modulus:
The bulk modulus of a substance is a measure of how resistant to compression that substance
is. It is defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative
decrease of the volume

Shear Modulus:
The ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.

Poisons Ratio:
Ratio of lateral and axial strains.

Hooks Law:
A law stating that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied stress within the
elastic limit of that solid.
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 Summery of previous lecture

Bulk Modulus:
It is a measure of how resistant to
compression a substance is.

Shear Modulus:
The ratio of shear stress to the shear
strain.

Poisons Ratio:
Ratio of lateral and axial strains

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Mechanical Testing of Materials (Important Points)

❑ Anisotropic refers to the properties of a material that is dependent on the

direction.

❑ Isotropic materials or minerals have the uniform properties in all directions;

isotropic materials are said to be independent in direction or manner.

❑Longitudinal stress: along the longitudinal axis of the pipe.

❑Transverse Stress: perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

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 Mechanical Testing of Materials
Longitudinal stress and strain: young’s modulus
❑ In three dimensions, the stresses and
strains can be described in terms of
components along the principal axes, x, y,
and z.

❑ Conventionally, the stresses along the

principal axes are denoted as σx, σy, and
σz.
❑ The corresponding longitudinal strains
are exx, eyy, and ezz.
❑ In addition, there are transverse strains
exy, eyx, eyz, ezy, ezx, and exz.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Transverse strain: poisson’s ratio

❑ It arises as a result of a longitudinal stress in another direction perpendicular to

the strain.

❑ The magnitude of the transverse strain is determined by Poisson’s

ratio.

❑ When a material is strained in one direction by a uniaxial stress, it usually

suffers strain in the orthogonal directions.

❑ Poisson’s ratio gives the amount of transverse (lateral) strain relative to the
parallel (axial) strain.

❑ In steels, for example, ν ~ 0.3.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Transverse strain: Poisson’s ratio

❑ These strains can be expressed in terms of relevant

stresses and elastic moduli.

❑ The transverse strains can also be expressed in terms of

relevant stresses and elastic moduli.

❑ The total strains are therefore obtained by summing the

various contributions along each axis.

❑Transverse strains by Poisson’s effect:

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

❑ Giving a generalized three-dimensional version of

Hooke’s law for linear deformations.

Hooks Law:
A law stating that the strain in a solid is proportional to
the applied stress within the elastic limit of that solid.)

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Shear stress and strain: shear modulus

The rigidity modulus or shear modulus is the ratio of shear strain θ to shear
stress σ.

Shear strain is measured as an angular deformation θ.

In the simplest possible case, if we consider a shear force (or couple) F acting on
the sides of a square sample, the shear stress is given by σ = F/a2, where a2 is the
cross-sectional area over which the shear force operates.

If we consider the strain along the diagonal, it is given by:

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

❑ Therefore, the resolved stress along the diagonal is F/a2 .

The strain due to this resolved stress is:

❑ Shear modulus is related to the Young’s modulus Y and the

Poisson’s ratio ν by the equation

❑ From the shear-strain expression of Hooke’s law

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 Mechanical Testing of Materials

Volumetric strain under uniaxial stress:

The simplest case is that of uniaxial tensile stress applied to a uniform

homogeneous material.

If the initial unstrained volume is: Vi = xyz

Then the final strained volume is: Vf = (x + dx)(y − dy)(z − dz)

Which is approximately equal to: Vf = xyz + yzdx – xzdy – xydz

if Vf = Vi it follows that dx/x = dy/y + dz/z

because dy/y = dx/x, and dz/z = dx/x, it follows that for

conservation of volume, ν = 0.5

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Problem:

A cylindrical steel rod, original diameter 12.8 mm, is tested to failure and has an
engineering ultimate tensile strength of σUTS = 460 MPa. If its cross-sectional
diameter at failure is 10.7 mm, find (1) the ductility, and (2) the true ultimate tensile
strength.

Solution
Ductility is the percentage reduction in area. In this case, ΔA/A . 100% = {(5.35)2 −
(6.4)2}/(6.4)2 = −30%.
True stress is load/true area. In this case, the true ultimate tensile strength is σUTS =
F/A = 460 MPa . (12.8/10.7)2 = 658 MPa.

True stress: Force divided by the instantaneous cross-sectional area over which deformation is occuring
Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a material.
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Mechanical Testing of Materials
What is Hardness:

❑ Hardness is related to elastic and plastic properties.

(i.e. not a fundamental property).

❑ Hardness is the resistance of material to permanent

plastic deformation under a load.

❑ Ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion,

cutting, indentation, or penetration.

❑ Hardness is inversely proportional to the depth of

indentation.

❑ Hardness is ratio of load to impressed area.

❑ It is used for inspection and control (e.g. after heat

treatment and working)

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
What is Hardness:

❑ There are several types of hardness tests, which

can be categorized into three groups: Rebound
tests, Scratch tests, and Indentation tests.

✓ Elastic hardness (e.g. scleroscope test: height of

rebound)
✓ Resistance to scratch, cutting and abrasion (e.g.
Moh’s test)
✓ Resistance to indentation

❑ Methods used for determining hardness:

Brinell, Rockwell,Vickers and Knoop.

❑ The values of the various type of hardness can

be calculated from the measured indentation under
controlled conditions.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Types of Indenters: Brinell Hardness (Ball) Vickers Hardness (Pyramid)

Rockwell hardness (Conical) Knoop Hardness (Pyramid)

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Brinell Hardness:

❑ Brinell hardness, HB, is calculated directly

from the geometry of the indentation.

❑ It uses a ball indenter.

❑ Using a standard 10-mm sphere of steel or

tungsten carbide.

❑ Applied load of 3000 kg.

❑ Diameter of the indentation is a measure of

the hardness of the test material.

❑ The typical range of Brinell hardness values

is from 5 to 10,000.
where F = load in kilograms, D = diameter of ball indenter in millimeters, d = diameter of indentation in
the surface in millimeters, and t = depth of indentation in surface in millimeters.
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 Mechanical Testing of Materials
Vickers Hardness:

❑ This is also known as diamond pyramid hardness.

❑ The range of values of Vickers hardness is 5 to 1500.

❑ Square indentations are easier to measure than the

round impressions from spherical and conical indenters.

where F is the load in kilograms, which typically lies in the range 1 to 120 kg for the Vickers test; d is the
length in mm of the diagonals of the equiaxed diamond shaped indentation; and α is the angle between
opposite faces of the indenter, which is 136 degrees.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Rockwell hardness:
Conical Tip
❑ The Rockwell hardness is determined simply
from the depth of the indentation under specified
conditions of applied load.

❑ Various indenter shapes and loads are used in

the different scales, including ball-, diamond-, and
brale-shaped indenters.

❑ Loads of 15 to 150 kg.

❑ The Rockwell hardness number is calculated

from the equation.

where t is the penetration depth measured in mm. M is the maximum allowed value of the
particular scale in use. M = 100 for diamond indenters used on the Rockwell scales A, C,
and D; whereas M = 130 for ball indenters used on the Rockwell scales B, E, M, and R.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Knoop Hardness:

❑ The Knoop microhardness test is useful in

situations where a small indention is desired or
necessary.

❑ The term microhardness is used for tests that

make indentations with loads of value less than 1
kg.

❑ The Knoop test uses a load of 300 g on a

brales haped indenter., similar to the indenter used
in the Vickers hardness test.

❑ The Knoop hardness is then calculated

from the equation. where F is the load and l is the length of
the long diagonal of the indentation.
❑ The range of values of Knoop hardness is from
100 to 1000.
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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Relation between Hardness and other properties:

❑ There is a relationship between the hardness,

the yield strength, and the ultimate tensile
strength of a material.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Problem:

2.1 The stress–strain curve of AISI 1095 steel is

shown in Figure 2.13. The diameter of the test
specimen before testing was 9.07 mm, and the
minimum diameter after testing in the necked region
was 8.18 mm. Determine
(1) the elastic modulus,
(2) the yield strength for 0.2% plastic strain,
(3) ultimate tensile strength, and
(4) the ductility from (a) elongation and (b)
reduction in area.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Solution 2.1:
1. From the stress–strain curve of 1095 steel, the
elastic modulus Y is given by:

2. Draw a line parallel to the initial elastic region of

the stress–strain curve cutting the x-axis at 0.002
strain. This line cuts the stress–strain curve at:

3. The nominal ultimate tensile strength is the

maximum value of stress along the stress–strain ? ? ?
curve. (Correcting this for the change in cross-
sectional area gives)

4. Ductility: The elongation of the material when it

fails gives a breaking strain of ε = 0.11.

5. The percentage reduction in area =

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Mechanical Testing of Materials

Problem:

2.2 A specimen of steel with Young’s modulus

200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 is subjected to
a compressive stress of 200 MPa along the z-
direction, but is constrained so that it cannot
deform in the y-direction, as shown in Figure
2.14. If the material is isotropic, determine (1) the
stress in the y-direction, and (2) the strain in the
z-direction.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Solution 2.2:
▪ In this case we need to start from the three- ▪ In the situation described, the constraint along the y-
dimensional version of Hooke’s law
direction ensures that : ey = 0
▪ whereas the lack of constraint along the x-direction ensures
that: σx = 0.
▪Because we know that Y = 200 GPa, ν = 0.3, and σz = 200
MPa, we can use the above equation for ey to obtain:

▪Likewise, for the strain in the z-direction, we can use the

above equation for ez

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 Mechanical Testing of Materials
Problem:

2.3 A certain type of steel has an ultimate tensile strength of

1500 MPa. Estimate its hardness on both the Rockwell C
scale and the Brinell scale.

A part made of the same steel is impacted by a 10-mm

diameter tungsten carbide sphere, which is harder than the
steel, with a force of 1000 kg weight (9.8 kN). Calculate the
diameter and depth of the resulting indentation in the surface.

Solution 2.3:

Figure 2.12 can be used to determine hardness from tensile

strength. For steels, a tensile strength of 1500 MPa
corresponds to a Rockwell hardness, HRC, of 45 and a Brinell
hardness of BHN = 425.

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Mechanical Testing of Materials
Solution 2.3:
From the equation for Brinell hardness:

Rearranging gives:

Similarly,

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▪ Assuming that the strains are small and
the angle A C B may be taken as 450
▪ Therefore strain on the diagonal OA
= Change in length / original length
▪ Since angle between OA and OB is very
small hence OA approximately = OB
therefore BC, is the change in the length
of the diagonal OA

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