Candi of Indonesia

A candi (pronounced [tʃandi]) is a Hindu or Buddhist

temple in Indonesia, mostly built during the Zaman
Hindu-Buddha or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between
circa the 4th and 15th centuries.[1]

The Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language of the

Language Center defines a candi as an ancient stone
building used for worship, or for storing the ashes of
cremated Hindu or Buddhist kings and priests.[2]
Indonesian archaeologists describe candis as sacred
structures of Hindu and Buddhist heritage, used for
religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia.[3]
However, ancient secular structures such as gates, urban
Buddha in an open stupa and the main stupa of
ruins, pools and bathing places are often called candi too,
Borobudur in the background.
while a shrine that specifically serves as a tomb is called
a cungkup.[1]

In Hindu Balinese architecture, the term candi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-celled shrine with
portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within a pura. It is often modeled after
East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain deity. To the Balinese, a candi is not necessarily
ancient, since candis continue to be (re-)built within these puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas
Purwo, Banyuwangi.[4]

In contemporary Indonesian Buddhist perspective, candi also refers to a shrine, either ancient or new. Several
contemporary viharas in Indonesia for example, contain the actual-size replica or reconstruction of famous
Buddhist temples, such as the replica of Pawon[5] and Plaosan's perwara (small) temples. In Buddhism, the
role of a candi as a shrine is sometimes interchangeable with a stupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics
or the ashes of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors. Borobudur, Muara Takus and Batujaya for
example are actually elaborate stupas.

In modern Indonesian language, the term candi can be translated as "temple" or similar structure, especially of
Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Thus temples of Cambodia (such as the Angkor Wat), Champa (Central and
Southern Vietnam), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and India are also called candi in Indonesian.

Contents
Terminology
Etymology
Architecture
Structure elements
Style
Materials
Motif and decoration
Kala-Makara
 Linga-Yoni
Bas-reliefs
Deities
Kalpataru and Kinnaras
Boddhisattva and Tara
Devata and Apsara
Guardians
Dvarapala
Lion
Stupa and Ratna pinnacles
Location
Java
West Java
Central Java
Dieng Plateau
Gedong Songo
Borobudur and Kedu Plain
Slopes of Merapi
Near Yogyakarta
Prambanan Plain
Ratu Boko and surrounds
Klaten Regency
Mount Lawu
East Java
Malang area
Blitar area
Kediri area
Sidoarjo, Tretes, and Probolinggo areas
Trowulan
Bali
Sumatra
Kalimantan
Gallery
See also
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Terminology
Candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it,
and a portico.[7] The term Candi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains in Indonesia, built as a
representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe. However, the term also applied to many
non-religious structures dated from the same period, such as gapura
(gates), petirtaan (pools) and some of habitation complexes.
Examples of non-temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin
Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi Tikus bathing pool" in
Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as
the remnants of non-religious habitation and urban structures such as
Ratu Boko and some of Trowulan city ruins, are also considered
candi.

In ancient Java, a temple was probably originally called prāsāda

(Sanskrit: ासाद), as evidence in the Manjusrigrha inscription (dated Prambanan temple compound. The
from 792 CE), that mentioned "Prasada Vajrasana Manjusrigrha" to towering candi prasada (temple
towers)[6] are believed to represent
refer to the Sewu temple.[8]:89 This term is in par with Cambodian
the cosmic Mount Meru, the abode
and Thai term prasat which refer to the towering structure of a
of gods.
temple.

Etymology
From Hindu perspective, the term candi itself is believed was "Between circa the 7th and 15th centuries,
derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the hundred of religious structures were
goddess Durga as the goddess of death.[10] This suggests that constructed of brick and stone in Java,
in ancient Indonesia the candi had mortuary functions as well Sumatra and Bali. These are called candi.
as connections with the afterlife. The association of the name The term refers to other pre-Islamic
candi, candika or durga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is structures including gateways and even
unknown in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of bathing places, but its principal
manifestation is the religious shrine."
Indonesia, such as Cambodia, Thailand, or Burma.
— Soekmono, R. "Candi:Symbol of the
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the
term candi might be a localized form of the Pali word cedi Universe".[9]
(Sanskrit: caitya) — which related to Thai word chedi which
refer to a stupa, or it might be related to the Bodhisattva Candī
(also known as Cundī or Candā).[11]

Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store the ashes of cremated deceased
kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept of stupas as structures to store Buddhist relics, including
the ashes and remains of holy Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king, patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god
stored inside the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the temple is often modeled after the deceased king and
considered to be the deified person of the king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of
devaraja. The example is the statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple in Pasuruan portrayed as Vishnu
riding Garuda.

Architecture
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The temple
layout, especially in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical
high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode
of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of
Loka.[12]

Structure elements
 The candi structure and layout recognize the
hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less
holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition
of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the
concept of arranging elements in three parts
or three elements. Subsequently, the design,
plan and layout of the temple follows the rule
of space allocation within three elements;
commonly identified as foot (base), body
(center), and head (roof). The three zones is
arranged according to a sacred hierarchy.
Borobudur ground plan Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their The Shiva temple Candi
taking the form of a Mandala own terms, but the concept's essentials is Prambanan consist of three
identical. Either the compound site plan ascending realms, temple's
(horizontally) or the temple structure base (Bhurloka), body
(Bhurvaloka) and roof
(vertically) consists of three zones:[13]
(Svarloka).
Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common
mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where humans still
bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of
each temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka.
Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and
lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of
each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known as
svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm of
svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) or vajra, or in
eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba cylindrical structure
served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones.

Style

Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups: a central Java
style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style, which date from after 1,000
CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern Java style.[14]
 Central Java style Eastern Java style
Bubrah temple Bajang Ratu gate
Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is an
example of Eastern Javanese style.
 Parts of the
Central Java Style Eastern Java Style
temple
Shape of
Tends to be slender and
the Tends to be bulky
tall
structure
The multiple parts of
Clearly shows stepped
stepped sections formed
Roof roof sections, usually
a combined roof structure
consist of 3 parts
smoothly
Cube (mostly Hindu
Stupa (Buddhist temples), sometimes
Pinnacle temples), Ratna or Vajra Dagoba cylindrical
(Hindu temples) structures (Buddhist
temples)
Kala-Makara style; Kala
head without lower jaw Only Kala head sneering
Portal and opening its mouth with the mouth complete
niches located on top of the with lower jaw located on
adornment portal, connected with top of the portal, Makara
double Makara on each is absent
side of the portal
Projected rather flat from
Projected rather high
the background, the
from the background, the
Relief images was done in
images was done in
stylized style similar to
naturalistic style
Balinese wayang image
Linear, asymmetric,
followed topography of
Concentric mandala,
the site; with main temple
symmetric, formal; with
Layout and located in the back or
main temple located in
location of furthermost from the
the center of the
the main entrance, often located in
complex surrounded by
temple the highest ground of the
smaller perwara temples
complex, perwara
in regular rows
temples is located in front
of the main temple
Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west
Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick

There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While the Penataran, Jawi,
Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone
similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples
use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is
Central Javan in style. The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi
Badut is located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese
style.

The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain only several
temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such as Sewu temple, are
grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex.

The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped pyramids
(punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples in Mount Lawu in eastern
Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-
American stepped pyramids.
Materials
Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. This
is mainly owed to the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical
weathers and torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the
Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as temple and building
materials. The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia
are:

Andesite is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock, of intermediate

composition, with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges
from light to dark grey. Andesite is especially abundant in the
volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or stone quarry Bima temple, one of Dieng
with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma temples. It was one of the
chamber or cooled down lava spill. Each andesite stone is custom earliest temples in Java.
made into blocks with interlocking technique, to construct temple
walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and
carved with iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple
walls and decorations carved as bas-reliefs. The walls of andesite
was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be
observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and
Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the material for
carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha.
Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple
structure is the Batujaya temple compound in Karawang, West
Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had been
used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit
architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.[15]
Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples
had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples Interlocking andesite stone
are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in blocks forming a corbeling
Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal temple, Muaro arch in Borobudur.
Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However,
compared to lava andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable,
especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical elements and
torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures
were crumbling down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts
require recasting and replacing the damaged structure with new
bricks.
Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese
volcanoes or limestone formations. In Indonesian and Javanese
languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone), which
corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this
stone, however, has made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-
reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite, tuff is
considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese
temples, tuff usually are used as stone fillings — forming the inner
structure of the temple — while the outer layer employed andesite
that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can be found Red brick Jabung temple,
in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in dated from Majapahit period.
the temple can be examined in Ratu Boko crematorium temple.
Tuff was used as building material of outer walls of temple
compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari temple.
 Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone, water,
and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is observable in the
Batujaya temple compound in West Java.

Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat

the temple walls. The white-yellowish plaster is made from the
mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth (kaolin), with plant
substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white
plaster was applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted
with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist
teaching.[16] The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be
observed in Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls.
Traces of worn off vajralepa
Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at
plaster on Sari's relief.
least as parts of temple building material. Sari and Plaosan
temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone
indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor,
as well as traces of wooden stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak
column base, which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden
roof structure made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and
wooden doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of
course, wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces
after centuries.

Motif and decoration

Kala-Makara

The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as
both decorative and symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the
giant symbolizing time, by making kala's head as temple portals element, it
symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a protective figure,
with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical
sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as
half mammal and half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of
half fish or seal with the head of an elephant. It is also shown with head and
jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and ears of a wild boar, the
darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and the
swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the
protective figures of the temple's entrance.
Kala-makara on the portal of
Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras
Borobudur gates, Kala's
projected on either sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the head on top of the portal and
top corner as antefixes. The kala-makara theme also can be found on stair makaras flanking either
railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head sides.
projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras
flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's
railings. Other than makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-
decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes as handling
gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as
lions or parrots.
Linga-Yoni

In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu
temples, more precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in
Buddhist temples. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god
Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a
square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of
Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the
Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape.

Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni,
symbolic of the womb and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni
usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated with nāga, to help channeled
Central Javanese linga-yoni and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual. As a
with spout decorated and religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and
supported by nāga serpent, ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from
Yogyakarta 9th century. earlier period circa 7th century. Originally each temples might have a
complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the times, the linga is
missing.

In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself or his dynasty,
and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Shiva. The example is
the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from
the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE).[17] Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include
Sambisari and Ijo temples. Eastern Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple,
although the linga is missing.

Bas-reliefs

The walls of candi often displayed bas-reliefs, either serves as

decorative elements as well as to convey religious symbolic meanings;
through describing narrative bas-reliefs. The most exquisite of the
temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan
temples. The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for
bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most
elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[18] The Buddhist
scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as
Rama killing evil giant, bas-relief of
Karmavibhangga (the law of karma), Lalitavistara (the birth of
Ramayana on Prambanan temple,
Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While in Prambanan the
Central Java style.
Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; the Ramayana
and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known as Krishnayana).

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly
palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace,
various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king,
queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted
mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and
apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain
subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of
8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double
outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.
 There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the
Central Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after
1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and
Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style. The reliefs is
projected rather high from the background, the images was done in
naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the
bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the
background, the images was done in stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to
currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently
preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also
wayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting.

Hanuman battling enemy, Deities

bas-relief of Ramayana on
Penataran temple, East
Java style. Kalpataru and Kinnaras

The images of coupled Kinnara and

Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu, Sari, and
Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human
heads, or humans with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and
Kinnari usually is depicted guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the
tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure. There are bas-
relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari,
Manohara. Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female),
Apsara, and Devata guarding
The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row
Kalpataru, the divine tree of life. 8th
of small niche containing image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels century Pawon temple, Java,
depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling Indonesia.
sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either
side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep,
monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan
temple compound, thus it is called as "Prambanan panel".

Boddhisattva and Tara

In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite

images of male figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with
Gandarvas heavenly musicians, and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs.
These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs, which resides in the
Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology. The notable images of boddhisattvas
could be found adorning outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Pawon and of
A Bodhisattva flanked by
course Borobudur temple.
two Taras in Sewu temple.

Devata and Apsara

In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found adorns the panels
of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-Tara celestial beings. On the other
side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along the gallery were adorned with the statues and
reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be
found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in
Vishnu temple the figures of a male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras.
The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and goddesses — devatas and
apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka. This is
corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of
Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology.

Guardians

A Devata flanked by two

Dvarapala apsaras in Prambanan
temple.
Most of larger temple compound in ancient
Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala
statues, as gate guardians. The twin giants
usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal
points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil
and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central
Javanese art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant,
with fierce face of glaring round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs
and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually depicted as
holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon.

In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually
One of dvarapala statues depicted rather slender, with the exception of gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari
guarding Sewu temple. near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The most notable
dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal
points of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala
statues in perfect condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in
later Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another fine
example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan.

Lion

The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese:

Singa) flanking the portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance.
Lions were never native to Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result,
the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java
and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or
Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and
imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble
and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture
especially through Buddhist symbolism.

Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate
guardians. In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, Lion guardian of Borobudur.
andesite stone statues of lions guard four main entrances of Borobudur. The
thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist
temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara. The statue of winged lion also found in
Penataran temple East Java.

Stupa and Ratna pinnacles

 The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily
distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped
stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the
pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples.

The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best

described as those of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The
stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace of Arupadhatu consist of
round lotus pedestal, gently sloped bell-shaped dome, rectangular
Bell-shaped perforated stupas of
shape on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal pinnacle.
Borobudur.
Each stupa is pierced by
numerous decorative
openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of the
Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first
thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A
stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were
built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other
hand, is used as a house of worship.

Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or

An opened stupa reveals an image of
sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or
Buddha on Arupadatu rounded
pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese:pelipit). It
terrace of Borobudur.
can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of
temple with ratna pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple. In Prambanan,
the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In later periods, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be
found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts.

Location
The high concentration of candi can be found especially
dense in Sleman Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang
and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the
historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley,
Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) and Kewu Plain
(Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of
Javanese civilization. Other important sites with notable
temple compounds includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan
areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small
number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang.
Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in
Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they Map showing the location of the main sites of the
are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are so-called "Indonesian classical period" or Hindu-
notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites
Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal and red dots Buddhist sites.
complex in North Sumatra.

The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example, are built on
even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on hill terraces on higher
grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position,
orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs,
were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that
built and support them.[19]

Java

West Java
Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red brick and
mortar located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably
dated back to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD.[20]
Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red
brick and mortar also located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West
Java.[21] Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th
century AD.
Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, Bandung
Regency.
Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the few surviving West Java's
Hindu temple estimated dated from the 8th century, located at
Leles, Garut, West Java. Located on an island in the middle of a
lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple
characteristics by grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more
modest with only one structure still standing.[22] Shiva statue
faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain.
Cangkuang, Garut West
Java
Central Java

Dieng Plateau

The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near

Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight small Hindu temples from the
7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by
craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot
water sources and underground channels. The temples are:

Arjuna temple
Semar temple
Srikandi temple
Puntadewa temple
Arjuna group of Dieng temples
Sembadra temple
Dwarawati temple
Gatotkaca temple
Bima temple

Gedong Songo
South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples
constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The site highlights how, in
Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the
structures themselves. The site has panoramas of three
volcanoes and Dieng Plateau.

Borobudur and Kedu Plain

The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west
of Gunung Merapi and south west of Magelang, in Central
Java.
Gedong Songo III

Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument,

reportedly the world's largest. Seven terraces to the
top represent the steps from the earthly realm to
Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth, enlightenment and death
of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated
with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century Buddhist
temple located east from Mendut temple. The name
linked to Venuvana, "the temple of bamboo forest".
Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from
Pawon temple. The few remains make it impossible Borobudur
to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from
this temple is now located at the National Museum in
Jakarta.
Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang
Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain.
Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here. Only the
bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples.

Slopes of Merapi
Sengi complex. Three temples, Candi Asu, Candi Pendem and Candi Lumbung, Sengi, on the
side of Mount Merapi. 8th and 9th century. The base of the temple has a climbing plant motif.
Gebang
Morangan
Pustakasala
Lawang

Near Yogyakarta
Candi Sambisari. 10th century underground Hindu temple buried by eruptions from Mount
Merapi for a century. Discovered in 1966 by a farmer plowing his field.
Candi Kadisoka, uncompleted 8th-century temple buried by eruptions from Merapi. Thought to
have been Hindu temple, discovered in 2000.
Prambanan Plain
Roro Jonggrang, the main Prambanan complex. 9th
century Hindu temple called the "Slender Maiden".
Main temple dedicated to Shiva flanked by temples to
Visnu and Brahma. Reliefs depict Ramayana stories.
Sewu. Buddhist temple complex, older than Roro
Jonggrang. A main sanctuary surrounded by many
smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues,
replicas of which stand in the central courtyard at the
Jogja Kraton. Sambisari
Candi Lumbung. Buddhist temple ruin located south
from Sewu temple, consisting of one main temple
surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
Bubrah. Buddhist temple located between Candi
Lumbung and Candi Sewu.
Candi Gana. Buddhist temple ruin rich in statues,
bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent
representations of children or dwarfs with raised
hands. Located east from Sewu complex in the
middle of housing complex. Under restoration since The Prambanan temple complex
1997.
Plaosan. Buddhist temple compound located few
kilometers east from Sewu temple, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu
king for his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of a man and a woman. Slender
stupa.
Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different
poses and expressions.
Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase
are decorated with animal fables.
Candi Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two
rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
Candi Kalasan. 8th-century Buddhist temple built in commemoration of the marriage of a king
and his princess bride, ornamented with finely carved reliefs.
Candi Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.

Ratu Boko and surrounds

Ratu Boko Built between 8th and 9th centuries. Mixed
Buddhist and Hindu style. Partially restored palace
auditorium. Ruins of the royal garden with a bathing pool
inside.
Arca Gopolo. A group of seven statues in a circle, as if in
assembly. Flower decoration on the clothes of the largest
are still visible.
Banyunibo. A small 9th-century Buddhist complex. A main
temple surrounded by six smaller ones forming a stupa.
Restoration completed in 1978. The gate of Ratu Boko Palace
Barong. Two almost identical temples on terraces. compound.
Believed to be 9th-century Hindu and part of a sacred
complex, of which they were the crown.
 Dawangsari. Perhaps the site of a destroyed Buddhist
stupa, now reduced to an array of andesite stones.
Candi Ijo. A complex of three-tiered temples, but only one
has been renovated. A main sanctuary and three
secondary shrines with statues. Still under reconstruction.
Watugudig. A group of pole sittings in the shape of a
Javanese gong. About 40 have been discovered, but
others may remain buried. Locals believe this to be the
resting place of King Boko.
Candi Abang. Actually a well that looks like a pyramid with Candi Barong.
very tall walls. In some aspects looks like Borobudur.
Unique atmosphere.
Candi Gampingan. Ruins 1.5m underground of a temple and stairs. Reliefs of animals at the
foot of the temple are believed to be a fable.
Sentono. At the base of Abang temple. Perhaps younger than other regional temples. Complex
of caves with two mouths. Statue and bas-relief in left chamber.
Situs Payak. The best preserved bathing place in Central Java. 5m below ground. Thought to
be Hindu.

Klaten Regency

East of Yogyakarta, Central Java.

Candi Merak. Two 10th century Hindu temples, rich in reliefs and decorations, in the middle of
a village.
Candi Karangnongko. Difficult to date because remains are few.

Mount Lawu

Near Surakarta, Central Java.

Candi Cetho. On the slopes of Mount Lawu. A 15th-century Hindu temple 1470m above sea
level.
Candi Sukuh. On the slopes of Mount Lawu. 15th-century Hindu complex resembling a Mayan
temple. Reliefs illustrate life before birth and sex education.

East Java

Malang area

Malang, East Java.

Candi Badut (also known as Liswa temple). Small Shivaite temple dating from the 8th century.
Candi Songgoriti. Very similar to Candi Sembrada at Dieng, this Hindu temple is located in a
valley between mount Arjuna and Mount Kawi, East Java
Candi Jago. Late 13th century. Terraces decorated with reliefs in the distinctive (Javanese
shadow puppet) style with scenes from the Mahabharata epic and underworld demons.
Candi Singosari. Dedicated to the kings of the Singosari Dynasty (1222 to 1292 AD), the
precursors of the Majapahit Kingdom, it was built in 1304.
 Arca Dwarapala. Dedicated to the kings of the Singosari
Dynasty (1222 to 1292 AD).
Candi Kidal.
Candi Singosari.
Sumberawan.
Candi Rambut Monte.
Candi Selakelir.
Singosari
Blitar area
Candi Penataran. East Java's only sizable temple complex, with a
series of shrines and pavilions. Constructed 12th through 15th
centuries. Believed to be the state temple of the Majapahit Empire.
Candi Bacem
Candi Boro
Candi Kalicilik
Candi Kotes
Candi Wringin Branjang
Candi Sawentar
Candi Sumbernanas
Candi Sumberjati or Candi Simping
Candi Gambar Wetan
Candi Plumbangan
Penataran
Candi Tepas

Kediri area
Candi Surowono is a small temple, of the Majapahit
Kingdom, located in the Canggu Village of the Kediri (near
Pare) district in Java, Indonesia. It was believed to have
been built in 1390 AD as a memorial to Wijayarajasa, the
Prince of Wengker.
Candi Tegowangi Surowono
Arca Totok Kerot
Arca Mbah Budho
Candi Dorok
Candi Tondowongso
Gua Selomangleng
Gua Selobale
Calon Arang Site is a site who inspired Leak dance in Bali Indonesia
Babadan or SumberCangkring Site
Prasasti Pohsarang
Candi Setono Gedong and today a mosque

Sidoarjo, Tretes, and Probolinggo areas

 Pari, in Sidoarjo. Dated from 1293 Saka (1371 CE), this Majapahit
red brick temple bear similarity with Champa architecture.
Candi Sumur, in Sidoarjo. Located just a hundred meters from
Candi Pari, probably built in the same era.
Gunung Gangsir, in Gunung Gangsir hamlet, Beji village,
Pasuruan Regency, located about 18 kilometres east from
Pasuruan city.[23]
Candi Jawi, Tretes. A 13th-century funerary temple. Slender
Shiva-Buddhist shrine completed around 1300.
Penanggungan sites, Mount Penanggungan, which has terraced
sanctuaries, meditation grottoes and sacred pools, about 80 sites
in all including Candi Belahan believed to be the burial site of
King Airlangga, who died in 1049.
Candi Jabung, east of Probolinggo, near Kraksaan. According to
the inscription on the top of the temple portal, Jabung dates from Jawi
1276 saka (1354 CE).

Trowulan
Candi Tikus, Trowulan. Trowulan was once the capital of the
Majapahit kingdom, the controller of most of the important ports of
the day. Survived thanks to a sophisticated irrigation system. Tikus
held run-off water from Mount Penanggungan for sanctification
rites. Site also contains parts of the palace gate, entryway and
water system.
Candi Brahu, Trowulan. Location the temple front of Bubat Area in
Majapahit Palace environment (7°32'33.85"S, 112°22'28.01"E).
Brahu Temple is a budhis temple, built at 15 a.c and restored
during 1990 and was finished during 1995. There was no
accurate note the function of the temple. Candi Brahu, Trowulan
Candi Gentong, Trowulan. Location the temple 350m east of
Brahu temple(7°32'38.05"S, 112°22'40.65"E). Many Ceramic from
Ming and Yuan Dynasty founded in this temple area. There was no accurate note the function
of the temple.
Candi Muteran, Trowulan. Location the temple north of Brahu temple ( 7°32'27.72"S,
112°22'29.41"E). There was no accurate note the function of the temple.
Kolam Segaran, Trowulan. Segaran pond is Majapahit Heritage (7°33'29.55"S,112°22'57.54"E)
The Pond was found during 1926 by Ir.Maclain Pont. First restoration was 1966, finished at
1984. The function of this pond was as the place of recreation and to greet the foreign guest.
This was the biggest ancient pond founded in Indonesia.
Gapura Bajang Ratu, Trowulan.
Gerbang Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.

Bali
Candi Gunung Kawi. Located in Sebatu village, Tampak Siring area, Gianyar regency. It is one
of the oldest temple in Bali dated from 989 CE, the five temples is carved on the stone slopes
forming grottoes.
Candi Kalibukbuk. Located in Kalibukbuk village, Buleleng regency. It is one of the few
Buddhist temple in Hindu dominated Bali. The temple is thought to be dated from the 8th
century.
 Candi Mengening. Located in Banjar Sarasada,
Tampaksiring village, Gianyar regency. Dated from the
reign of king Marakata circa 1022 CE.[24]

Sumatra
Candi Biaro Bahal, South Tapanuli, North Sumatra
Candi Bumiayu, South Sumatra
Candi Muara Takus, Riau Gunung Kawi, Bali

Candi Muaro Jambi, Jambi

Kalimantan
Candi Agung, North Hulu Sungai, South Kalimantan, a
Hindu Candi. South Kalimantan was a base of Hindu
Kingdom of Negara Dipa, which then inherited by Negara
Daha.
Candi Laras, Tapin, South Kalimantan, a Buddhist Candi.
Buddhist Kingdom in South Kalimantan was represented
by the kingdom of Tanjung Puri. Biaro Bahal, North Sumatra

Gallery
Indonesian candi, Hindu-Buddhist temples, dated from the oldest circa 2nd century, to latest, circa 15th
century.
Blandongan, Gumpung, Muaro Bojongmenje, 7th Cangkuang, 8th
Batujaya, 2nd to Jambi, 7th-12th century, Rancaekek, century, Leles,
12th century, century, Jambi Bandung, West Java Garut, West Java
Karawang, West
Java

Candi Bima, 7th-8th Candi Puntadewa, Candi Arjuna, 7th- Candi Srikandi, 7th-
century, Dieng 7th-8th century, 8th century, Dieng 8th century, Dieng
Plateau Dieng Plateau Plateau Plateau

Candi Gatotkaca, Candi Semar, 7th- Candi Gedong Gunung Wukir, 8th
7th-8th century, 8th century, Dieng Songo, 7th-8th century, Muntilan
Dieng Plateau Plateau century, Ungaran
Badut temple, 8th Kalasan temple, 8th Sari temple, 8th Lumbung, 8th
century, Malang century, near century century
Prambanan

Sewu, 8th century, Bubrah, 8th century, Gana temple, 8th Ngawen temple, 8th
Central Java part of Sewu century, part of century, Muntilan,
Mandala Sewu Mandala Central Java

Mendut temple, 8th Candi Gebang, 8th- Asu Temple, 8th-9th Lumbung Sengi
century, near 9th century, century, Sengi, temple, 8th-9th
Borobudur Yogyakarta Magelang century, Sengi,
Sawangan,
Magelang
Pawon temple, 9th Borobudur, 9th Plaosan, 9th century Plaosan Kidul, 9th
century, between century, Magelang, century
Borobudur and Central Java,
Mendut world's largest
Buddhist monument

Prambanan, 9th Sojiwan, 9th century, Banyunibo, 9th Sambisari, 9th

century, the largest near Prambanan century century
Hindu Temple in
Indonesia

Barong temple, 9th Kimpulan, 9th-10th Morangan temple, Merak temple, 10th
century century, Kaliurang, 9th-10th century, century, Klaten,
Yogyakarta Ngemplak, Sleman, Central Java
Yogyakarta
Ijo Temple, 10th- Belahan temple, Candi Gunung Candi Mengening,
11th century, fountain and pool, Gangsir, 11th 11th century,
Yogyakarta 11th century, Mount century, Pasuruan, Tampaksiring, Bali
Penanggungan, East Java
Gempol, Pasuruan,
East Java

Gunung Kawi, 11th Muara Takus, 11th- Bahal temple, 11th- Penataran, 12th-
century, Tampak 12th century, Riau 13th century, North 15th century, Blitar
Siring, Bali Sumatra

Kidal, 13th century, Jago, 13th century, Jawi, 13th century, Candi Plumbangan,
Malang Malang Prigen, Pasuruan 14th century, Blitar,
East Java
Simping temple, Candi Gayatri, 14th Brahu, Trowulan, Candi Wringin
14th century, century, Boyolangu, 14th century Lawang, Trowulan,
Sumberjati, Blitar, Tulungagung, East 14th century
East Java Java

Bajang Ratu, Candi Tikus, Candi Rimbi, Surawana temple,

Trowulan, 14th Trowulan, 14th Jombang, 14th Kediri, 14th century
century century century

Jabung, Paiton, Candi Pari, 14th Sukuh, 15th century, Ceto, 15th century,
Probolinggo, 14th century, Porong, Karanganyar Karanganyar
century Sidoarjo

See also
Architecture of Indonesia
Ancient temples of Java
Hindu temple architecture
Buddhist architecture
History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia
Wat, temples in Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos
References
1. Soekmono (1995), p. 1
2. "Candi" (http://kbbi.web.id/candi). KBBI (in Indonesian).
3. Sedyawati (2013), p. 1
4. Tomi Sujatmiko (9 June 2013). "Peninggalan Majapahit Yang Tersembunyi di Alas Purwo" (htt
p://krjogja.com/read/175829/peninggalan-majapahit-yang-tersembunyi-di-alas-purwo.kr).
Kedaulatan Rakyat (in Indonesian).
5. "Replika Candi Pawon" (http://www.dhammacakka.org/?channel=tentangkami&mode=detailfas
ilitas&id=93). Vihāra Jakarta Dhammacakka Jaya.
6. "Prasada" (http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=prAsAda&direction=SE&script=HK&link=
yes&beginning=0). Sanskrit dictionary.
7. Philip Rawson: The Art of Southeast Asia
8. Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia.
trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
9. Soekmono, R. "Candi:Symbol of the Universe", pp.58-59 in Miksic, John, ed. Ancient History
Volume 1 of Indonesian Heritage Series Archipelago Press, Singapore (1996) ISBN 978-981-
3018-26-6
10. Soekmono, Dr R. (1973). Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2. Yogyakarta, Indonesia:
Penerbit Kanisius. p. 81. ISBN 979-413-290-X.
11. "History of Women in Buddhism - Indonesia: Part 10" (http://awakeningbuddhistwomen.blogsp
ot.co.id/2015/06/history-of-women-in-buddhism-indonesia_29.html). Shakyadita: Awakening
Buddhist Women.
12. Sedyawati (2013), p. 4
13. Konservasi Borobudur (http://konservasiborobudur.org/?p=11) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20110726234819/http://konservasiborobudur.org/?p=11#) 2011-07-26 at the Wayback
Machine (in Indonesian)
14. Soekmono, Dr R. (1973). Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2. Yogyakarta, Indonesia:
Penerbit Kanisius. p. 86. ISBN 979-413-290-X.
15. Schoppert, P.; Damais, S. (1997). Didier Millet (ed.). Java Style. Paris: Periplus Editions.
pp. 33–34. ISBN 962-593-232-1.
16. "The Greatest Sacred Buildings" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170207105433/http://www.mw
r.org.tw/content_en/exhibitions/permanent-exhibition/sub_12.aspx#). Museum of World
Religions, Taipei. Archived from the original (http://www.mwr.org.tw/content_en/exhibitions/per
manent-exhibition/sub_12.aspx) on 2017-02-07. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
17. "Candi Gunung Wukir" (https://southeastasiankingdoms.wordpress.com/2013/06/17/candi-gun
ung-wukir/). Southeast Asian Kingdoms. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
18. Cockrem, Tom (May 18, 2008). "Temple of enlightenment" (http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/inde
x.php?id=58,6456,0,0,1,0). Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 11 November 2011 – via The
Buddhist Channel.tv.
19. Degroot (2009), p. 2
20. Sedyawati (2013), p. 36
21. Sedyawati (2013), p. 38
22. "Garut: The Hidden Beauty of West Java" (http://www.thejakartapost.com/print/317912). The
jakarta post.
23. "Candi Gununggangsir" (http://candi.perpusnas.go.id/temples/deskripsi-jawa_timur-candi_gun
unggangsir). Perpusnas.
24. "Pura Mangening" (http://diparda.gianyarkab.go.id/index.php/id/news/item/306-pura-mangenin
g). diparda.gianyarkab.go.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2019-01-21.
Bibliography
Soekmono, R. (1995). Jan Fontein (ed.). The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Volume
17 from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol 17 (https://books.google.com/books?id=7cd
2Ha7fT90C). Leiden: E.J. BRILL. ISBN 9789004102156.
Degroot, Véronique (2009). Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution,
Orientation and Spatial Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=u2HzduME8OcC). Leiden: Sidestone Press, Issue 38 of Mededelingen van
het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde. ISBN 9789088900396.
Sedyawati, Edi; Santiko, Hariani; Djafar, Hasan; Maulana, Ratnaesih; Ramelan, Wiwin Djuwita
Sudjana; Ashari, Chaidir (2013). Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa (https://books.google.com/books?
id=MsLiCQAAQBAJ) (in Indonesian and English). Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan.
ISBN 9786021766934.

Further reading
Dumarcay, J. 1986 Temples of Java Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press
Holt, C. 1967 Art in Indonesia Ithaca: Cornell University
Patt, J.A. 1979 The Uses and Symbolism of Water in Ancient Indonesian Temple Architecture
University of California, Berkeley (unublished PhD thesis)
Prijotomo, J. 1984 Ideas and Forms of Javanese Architecture Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada
University Press
Degroot, Véronique 2009 Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution,
Orientation and Spatial Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=u2HzduME8OcC&source=gbs_navlinks_s) Leiden: Sidestone Press, Issue
38 of Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, ISBN 9088900396

External links
List of Candi, National Library of Indonesia (https://web.archive.org/web/20130703051656/htt
p://candi.pnri.go.id/)
General site about Borobudur and candi (https://web.archive.org/web/20061025132810/http://w
ww.borobudur.tv/links.htm)

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