"Objective Introspection" - : Psychology

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CHAPTER 1: process that were the

result of physical
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY sensations.
PSYCHOLOGY - “Objective introspection” –
is the process of examining
- the scientific study of behavior and and measuring one’s own
mental processes thoughts and mental
- behavior – overt actions and activities.
reactions - First attempt to bring
- mental processes – covert actions objectivity and
(thinking, feeling, remembering) measurement to
- psyche – soul, mind psychology.
- reliability and consistency is
important STRUCTURALISM
- -t has methods for studying
phenomena - Edward Titchener (was a student of
- it has four primary goals Wundt’s)
(description, explanation, - Focuses on the study of structure
prediction, and control) and function of the mind.
- A relatively new science that - Experiences (emotions
formally began in 1879, when and sensations)
Wilhelm Wundt (Father of - Died in early 1900s
Psychology) established the - Margaret F. Washburn (1894)
psychological laboratory in Leipzig, o First woman with Ph. D. in
Germany. Psychology
- Expanded Wundt’s original idea
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
believed every experience could be
1. Description – what is happening broken down into individual
2. Explanation – why is it happening emotions and sensations.
3. Prediction – when it will happen - Applied introspection method to
again thought as well as physical
4. Control – how can it be changed sensation.

EARLY PIONEERS IN PSYCHOLOGY


FUNCTIONALISM
- Wilhelm Wundt (Leipzig,
Germany; 1879) - William James
- Scientific principles in - Importance of consciousness
studying the human mind - How the mind allows people to
- Objective introspection function in the real world
- Father of experimental - Influenced by natural selection
psychology o Mary Whiton Calkins – denied
- First psychological for Ph. D. because she is a
laboratory in Laeipzig, woman (First female president
Germany (1879) of American Psychological
- Studied non-physical Society.)
structure (i.e. thought, - Influenced by Darwin’s ideas about
experiences, emotions. natural selection- focused on how
Etc.) of the humankind. the mind allows people to function
- Used objective in the real world.
introspection to study - Interested in how behavioral traits

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could aid in survival. Jung, and his own daughter
- Influenced development in Anna Freud.
evolutionary psychology.
- Has elements in educational 3. Behaviorism
psychology and organizational - Associated with the work of
industrial psychology. John B. Watson. Who was
greatly influenced by Ivan
APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Pavlov’s work in conditionally
learning.
1. Gestalt Psychology - Based on Ivan Pavlov’s
- Founded by Max experiment (salivation of dog)
Wertheimer - Behaviors are learned
- “Little Albert” experiment
- Did not believe that
(Rosalie Rayner)
psychological events could
- Mary Cover Jones -
be broken down into smaller
counterconditioning (Little
elements; could only be
Peter) – “counterconditioning”
understood as a whole;
to cancel out phobic reaction.
entire event.
- Wanted to bring focus back on
- Has influenced field of
scientific industry and believed
cognitive psychology and a only way to do so was to focus
form of psychological on observable behavior and
therapy, Gestalt psychology. ignore “consciousness” issue;
- “the whole is greater than early work examined phobias.
the sum” - “reflex” – involuntary reactions
- (Gest-talt) is a German word - John Watson – Father of
meaning “an organized Behaviorism
whole”, or “configuration” - Phobias are learned through
the process of conditioning.”
- Early perspective in
- All behavior was a result of a
psychology focusing on
stimulus response relationship.
perception, and
participation, particularly
the perception of patterns MODERN PERSPECTIVES
and whole figures.
1. Psychodynamic Perspective
2. Psychoanalysis - Founded based on Freud’s
- Founded by Sigmund Freud Theory
- Stressed the importance of - Focuses on the role of the
early life experiences, the unconscious mind and its
rule of unconscious and influence on conscious
development through behavior, early childhood
stages. experiences, development
- Personality was formed in of senses of self, and other
the first 6 years of life, if motivations.
there were significant
- Modern version of
problems, those problems
psychoanalysis that is more
must have begun in the
focused on the
early years.
development of the sense
- Followers, Alfred Adler, Carl of a self and the discovery

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of motivations behind a remember, store, and use of
person’s behavior other information.
than sexual motivations. - Cognitive neuroscience- the
- Discovery of motivations study of physical working of the
behind behaviors brain and nervous system when
- Alfred Adler – community engaged in memory, thinking
feeling and other cognitive processes.

2. Behavioral Perspective 5. SocioCultural Perspective


- Based on early work of - Focuses on the behavior of
Watson and later B.F. the individuals as the result
Skinner. of the presence (real or
- Focuses on how behavioral imagined) of other
responses are learned individuals as part of groups
through classical operant or as part of larger culture.
conditioning - Social psychology (study of
- Operant conditioning- how groups) + cultural
voluntary action can be psychology (study of
learned. cultural norms
- Behavioral responses that - Cross-cultural research- the
are followed by pleasurable contrast and comparisons of
consequences are a behavior or issue are
strengthened, or reinforced. studied in at least two or
more cultures.
- Bystander effect
3. Humanistic Perspective
- “Third force” 6. Biopsychological Perspective
- Two pioneers are carl rogers - Focuses on influences of
and abraham maslow. hormones, brain structures,
- Focuses on human potential, and chemical, disease, etc.;
free will, and possibility of human and animal behavior
self-actualization is seen as a direct result of
- A form of psychotherapy event in the body.
aimed of self-understanding - Neuroscience- study of the
and self-improvement. physical structure, function,
- “free will” -freedom to and development of the
choose their own destiny. nervous system.
- Carl Rogers
o Congruence 7. Evolutionary Perspective
Unconditional - Focuses on the biological
Positive bases for universal mental
Regard characteristics, such as why
Empathy we lie, how attractiveness
influences male section, the
4. Cognitive Perspective universality of fear and why
- Has roots in Gestalt Psychology. we enjoy things like music
- Focuses on memory, and dance.
intelligence, perception,
thought processes, problem-
solving, language, and learning.
- Focuses on how people think,

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PROFESSIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY - about some empirical events
for which you would like an
explanation; can be derived from
1. Psychologist the goal of description; what is
- Has a doctorate degree happening here?
(Ph.D. Psy.D., or Ed.D.) And 2. Forming a hypothesis
works with either human or - a tentative explanation
animals in a variety of about an event.
settings based on the area -confirmation bias
of civilization. 3. Testing the hypothesis
- Must be licensed to practice - by collecting data,
independently; typically, analyzing results.
does not prescribe
- it’s all about the goal of getting
medication but can go
an explanation.
through specialized training
4. Drawing conclusions
to do so in a few states.
- about investigations success or
failure to explain event.
2. Psychiatrist
5. Report the result
- Medical doctor (M.D. or
- share exactly what, why, and
D.O.) that specializes in
how you did it, which provides
diagnosis and treatment
for replication.
of psychological
disorders; can prescribe DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
medication.
1. Naturalistic Observation
- Observe people or animal
3. Psychiatric Social Worker on natural environment.
- Focus more on the
environmental conditions ADVANTAGE:
that can have an impact - It allows researchers to get
on mental disorders, such a realistic picture of how
as poverty, overcrowding, behavior occurs because
stress, and drug abuse. they are actually watching
- Trained in the area of the behavior in its natural
social work and usually setting.
possesses a master’s - Observer effect
degree in that discipline. tendency to change
- behavior when being
observed
PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENTIFIC
- Participant observation
METHODOLOGY
observer becomes
immersed with
SCIENTIFIC METHOD participants

- A system for reducing bias and


DISADVANTAGE:
error in the measurement of
- Possibility of observer
data.
bias; happens
- A way to accomplish the goals of when the person doing
psychology. the observing has a
- Five steps particular opinion about
1. Perceiving the question what he/she expects to

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see about the individual
- Another disadvantage is
that each naturalistic
setting is unique. ADVANTAGES:
Observations that are - Tremendous amount of
made on one time in one details it provides
setting may not hold - It may also be the way to
true for another time- get certain kinds of
researchers don’t have information also good
that kind of control on ways to study things that
natural world. are rare.

- Observer bias –tendency DISADVANTAGES:


of observer to see what
- Researchers can’t really
he only expects to see
apply the results to
- To avoid observer bias, other similar people.
he/she may use “Blind
- It is a form of detailed
observer” – these are
observations and are
people who do not know
vulnerable to bias on the
what the research
part of the person
question is and,
conducting the case
therefore have no
study.
perceived notions about
what they “should” see.
4. Survey

2. Laboratory Observation - Asks questions about the


- Observe people or animals topic researchers are
in laboratory setting. studying telephone,
internet, or a
ADVANTAGE questionnaire.
- Observer has a high degree
of control on the setting. ADVANTAGES
- Ability to get private
DISADVANTAGE
information
- Artificial situation might
- Researchers can get a
result in artificial behavior.
tremendous amount of
Both animals and people
data on a very large group
often react differently in the
of people
laboratory that they would in
the real world.
DISADVANTAGES
“Both naturalistic and laboratory - Researchers have to be
observations can lead to the very careful about the
formation of hypothesis that can group of people they
later be tested.” survey
- People aren’t always going
3. Case Study
to give researchers
- One individual studied in
accurate answers
great detail
- Researchers try to learn Representative sample
everything they can - Randomly selected sample of

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subjects from a larger population of allow researcher to determine the
subjects. cause of the behavior by
deliberately manipulating some
variable and measuring changes in
Population
the variable of interest.
- The entire group of people or
animal in which the researcher is
interested. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

- Specifically names the steps or


procedures used to control or
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS IN DATA measure the variable in the
experiment.
- Different ways to find out more
than just descriptions of behavior INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

- It is variable that is being


Correlation
manipulated; it is independent of
- measure of relationship between anything participants do.
two or more variables (anything
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
that can change or vary)
- Is the measure used to evaluate the
- Produces a value called
manipulation of the independent
“Correlation coefficient (r)” –
variable.
represents both direction and
strength of relationship. GROUPS

- Does not prove causation- Experimental groups


variables can be related but you
- It is the group that is exposed to
cannot assume that one of them
the independent variable, because
causes the other to occur.
it is the group that receives
- Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
experiment manipulation
- 0.00 – no correlation
- Positive correlation - the two Control Group
variables increase in the same - Group that either gets no
direction – as one goes up, the treatment or some kind of
other goes up, as one decreases, treatment that should have no
the other also decreases. effect, because it is used to control
- Negative correlation – the the possibility that other factors
variables have an inverse might be causing the effect.
relationship. If one decreases, the
other increases. Random Assignment
- If the relationship is strong one, - Process of assigning subjects to the
the number will be closer to +1.00 experimental or control groups
or to -1.00. A correlation of +0.89 randomly, so that each subject has
is a very strong positive correlation an equal chance of being on either
while -0.89 is a strong negative group.
correlation.
- It is the best way to assure control
- The closer the number to zero, the
over extraneous variables, variables
weaker the relationship becomes.
that infer with each other and/or
THE EXPERIMENT on the variable at interest.

- The only research method that will

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EXPERIMENTAL HAZARDS important but can be difficult or
dangerous to answer with human
- Placebo Effect – beliefs or
participants.
expectations of participants
- Animals are easier to control
influence their behavior
- Animals have shorter lives, easier
- Experimenter Effect –
to study long-term effects.
experimenter’s biases can
influence participant’s behavior.
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT CRITICAL
THINKING
These effects can be controlled through:
- Single-blind study – subjects don’t
- Scientific thinking can be applied to
know which group they belong, or
many real-world situations
the participants are “blind” to the
- Critical Thinking is the ability to
treatment they receive
make reassured judgments.
- Double-blind study – experimenter
and subjects don’t know which
Four Basic Criteria for making reasoned
group they belong
judgments:
ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH - There are very few “truths” in the
world that do not need to be
Guidelines for Research with
subjected to testing.
Humans
- An evidence is not equal in
- Rights and well-being of availability.
participants must be weighed - Just because someone is
against the study’s value to science. considered an authority or to have
- Participants must be allowed to a lot of expertise does not make
make an informed decision about everything that perform claims
participating (informed consent) automatically true.
- Deception must be justified. - Critical thinking requires an open
mind.
- Participants may withdraw from
the study at any time.
- Participants must be protected
from risks or told explicitly of risks.
- Investigators must debrief
participants telling the nature of
the study and expectations of
results.
- Data must remain confidential.

Guidelines for Research with Humans

- Any animal research is also covered


by ethical considerations; primary
focus is on avoiding any
unnecessary pain or suffering.

Why use animals?

- Some research questions are

Prepared and Curated by: Russsyyy


Typewritten by: Ianlovestephi

Karunungan. Kaunlaran. Kadakilaan.

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