Topic 1 - focused on how the mind allows

people to function
History of Psychology - how people work, play, and adapt to
their surroundings, a viewpoint he
Psychology - is the scientific study of called functionalism.
behavior and mental processes.
Mary Whiton Calkins
Mental processes - all the internal, - completed every course and
covert (hidden) activity of requirement for earning a Ph.D.
our minds, such as thinking, feeling, and - established a psychological laboratory
remembering. at Wellesley College
- earliest research in the area of
Psychology is a relatively new field in human memory and the psychology of
the realm of the sciences, only about the self.
135 years old. - In 1905, she became the first female
president of the American
Wilhelm Wund, a physiologist, Psychological Association.
attempted to apply scientific principles
to the study of the human mind. ,Francis Cecil Sumner
- became the first African- American to
Objective introspection - process of earn a Ph.D. in psychology at Clark
objectively examining and measuring University in 1920.
one’s own thoughts and mental - chair of the psychology department
activities. at Howard University
- the father of African American
Structuralism - the focus of study was psychology
the structure of the mind.
George Sanchez
Margaret F. Washburn - a hyspanic psychologist in 1940
- First woman to receive Ph D. - conducted research in the area of
- In 1908 she published a book on intelligence testing, focusing on the
animal behavior that was considered an cultural biases in such tests.
important work in that era of
psychology, The Animal Mind.
Psychological Perspectives - Modern
Harvard University was the first school
in America to offer classes in Psychodynamic Perspective - Freud’s
psychology in the late 1870s. theory
- still used by many professionals in
Harvard’s most illustrious instrutors, therapy situations.
- focuses on the role of the unconscious
William James (1842–1910). mind and its inuence on conscious
- His comprehensive textbook on the behavior.
subject, Principles of Psychology.
- interested in the importance of Neurobiology
consciousness to everyday life rather - the study of the brain and nervous
than just its analysis. system
Behavioral Perspective - Watson and Cognitive neuroscience includes the
later B. F. Skinner study of the physical workings of the
- focuses on how behavioral responses brain and nervous system when
are learned through classical or operant engaged in memory, thinking, and
conditioning. other cognitive processes.
- also developed a theory called
operant conditioning, to explain how Cognitive neuroscientists use tools for
voluntary behavior is learned. imaging the structure and activity of
the living brain, such as magnetic
In addition to the psychodynamic and resonance imaging (MRI), functional
behavioral perspectives, there are five magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
newer perspectives that have and positron emission tomography
developed within the last 50 years. (PET).

Humanistic Perspective - Abraham Sococultural Perspective

Maslow and Cark Rogers
Sociocultural perspective, which
- Often called the “third force” in actually combines two areas of study:
psychology, humanism was really a
reaction to both psychoanalytic theory Social psychology, which is the study of
and behaviorism. groups, social roles, and rules of social
actions and relationships.
- Focuses on human potential, free will,
and possibility of self-actualization Cultural psychology, which is the
study of cultural norms,* values, and
Humanists held the view that people expectations.
have free will, the freedom to choose Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky
their own destiny, and strive for self- (1978) also used sociocultural concepts
actualization, the achievement of one’s in forming his sociocultural theory of
full potential. children’s cognitive development.

Today, humanism exists as a form of it reminds people that the way

psychotherapy aimed at self- they and others behave (or even think)
understanding and self-improvement. is influenced.

Cognitive Perspective - Gestalt Cross-cultural research also fits within

psychology this perspective. In cross-cultural
research, the contrasts and
- focuses on how people think, comparisons of a behavior or issue are
remember, store, and use information, studied in at least two or more
became a major force in the field in the cultures.
1960s.
This type of research can help illustrate
- focuses on memory, intelligence, the different influences of environment
perception, thought processes, when compared to the influence of
problem solving, language heredity.
Chapter Twelve: Social Psychology,
researchers Dr. John Darley and Dr. Psychological Perspectives - Now
Bibb Latané (1968) found that the
presence of other people actually Sociocultural - focuses on the behavior
lessened the chances that a person in of individuals as the result of the
trouble would receive help. presence of other individuals

The phenomenon is called the Biopsychological - focuses on

“bystander effect” and it is believed to influences of hormones, brain
be the result of diffusion of structures and chemicals, disease, etc.
responsibility, which is the tendency to
feel that someone else is responsible Evolutionary - focuses on the biological
for taking action when others are bases for universal mental
present. characteristics
Biopsychological Perspective
Topic 2
The study of the biological bases of
behavior and mental processes. Different Research Mehods

Biopsychology is part of the larger field 1. Scientific Method - In psychology,

of neuroscience: study of the physical researchers want to see only what is
structure, function, and development really there, not what their biases
of the nervous system. might lead them to see.

In the biopsychological perspective, 5 Steps of the Scientific Method

human and animal behavior is seen as
a direct result of events in the body. Percieving the Question - to have an
Hormones, heredity, brain chemicals, explanation.
tumors, and diseases are some of the
biological causes of behavior and Forming a Hypothesis - to overcome
mental events. the tendency to look at only the
information.
Evolutionary Perspective - Confirmation Bias - notice only
things that agree with their view of the
Focuses on the biological bases for world.
universal mental characteristics that all - Contradict Biases
humans share.
Testing the Hypothesis - testing the
Darwin (1859) first theorized, allowing hypothesis is all about the goal of
human beings to solve the problems getting an explanation for behavior
faced in the early days of human
evolution. Drawing Conclusion - can be related to
the goal of prediction.
evolutionary psychologists -
psychologists who study the Report your Results - share exactly
evolutionary origins of human what, why, and how you did it, which
behavior. provides means for replication
 - a form of detailed observation
2. Descriptive Method - to gather and are vulnerable to bias.
information about what has happened
or what is happening, 4. Surveys - researchers will ask a series
of questions about the topic they are
Naturalistic Observation - to get studying.
a realistic picture of how behavior
occurs because they are actually Topic 3
watching.
Neuroanatomy
Observer Effect - animals or people
who know they are being watched will The nervous system is a network of
not behave normally. cells that carries information to and
from all parts of the body
Participant Observation - use one-way
mirrors, or they might actually Neuroscience is the field of study that
become participants in a group. deals with the structure of the brain
and components of the nervous
Disadvantages system.
- Observer Bias - observing has
a particular opinion about what he or Dendrites (tree-like) - neuron that
she expects to receive messages from other cells,
see. attached to Soma.
- Each naturalistic setting is
unique and unlike any Soma (body) - the part of the cell that
other. contains the nucleus and keeps the
entire cell alive and functioning.
Solution - Blind Observers - who do
not know what the research Axon (axis) - fiber attached to Soma
question is. - to carry messages out to other
cells.
Laboratory Observation - observe
people or animals in laboratory setting Axon Terminals - end of the axon
branches.
3. Case Studies - researchers try to
learn everything they can about that Glial Cells - serve as a sort of structure
individual. on which the neurons develop and
work and that hold the neurons in
Advantage - the tremendous amount of place.
detail it provides.
Special Types of Glial Cells
Disadvantage - that researchers can’t
really apply the results to other similar Myelin - layer of fatty substance
people, they can’t assume that if
another person had the same kind of Oligodendrocytes - produce myelin for
experiences growing up. the neurons in the brain and spinal
cord. (central nervous system)
Schwann cells - produce myelin The Neural Impulse - occurs when
for the neurons of the body. positive sodium ions enter into the
(peripheral nervous system) cell, causing a reversal of the electric.
- Damaged nerve fibers can charge from negative to positive.
reconnect and repair themselves.

Tracts - Central NS Sac-like structures - synaptic vesicle

“little blister” or “fluid-filled sac.”
Nerves - Peripheral NS
Neurotransmitters - Inside the synaptic
Nodes - The places where the myelin vesicles are chemicals suspended in
seems to bump are actually small fluid.
spaces on the axon. - inside a neuron and they are
going to transmit a message.
Multiple sclerosis - the mylelin sheath
is destroyed. Synapse - fluid-filled space between

Ions - semi-liquid solution that is Presynaptic membrane - vesicles at the

electrically charged. end of the axon.

Diffusion - the process of ions moving Postsynaptic membrane - the surface of

from areas of high concentration to the dendrite next to the axon.
areas of low concentration.
Receptor Sites - proteins that allow
Electrostatoc Pressure - the relative only particular molecules of a certain
electrical charges when the ions are at shape to fit into it.
rest.
Excitatory effect - cells are on.
Semipermeable - some substances
that are outside the cell can enter Inhibitory effect - cells are off.
through tiny protein openings or
channel. Neurotransmitters

Axon Hillock - part of the axon closest Acetylcholine (ACh) - Excitatory or

to the soma. inhibitory; involved in arousal,
attention, memory, and controls
Resting Potential - cells are at rest. muscle contractions.

Action Potential - cells are in action. - between neurons and muscle cells
- stimulates the skeletal muscles
Travels 270 mi/hr - 2 mi/hr - Curare - drug used their blow darts,
gets into the nervous system.
The Neuron at Rest - negatively
charged inside and positively charged
outside.
Norepinephrine (NE) - Mainly up to the brain and from the brain
excitatory; involved in arousal and down to the body.
mood.
Inner sections
Dopamine (DA) - Excitatory or - is composed of cell bodies of
inhibitory; involved in control of neurons.
movement and sensations of pleasure, - made up of cell bodies separated by
glial cells.
Serotonin (5-HT) - Excitatory or
inhibitory; involved in sleep, mood,
anxiety, and appetite. Three basic types of neurons

Gaba-aminobutyric acid (GABA) - Afferent (Sensory) Neurons - carries

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; messages from the senses to the spinal
involved in sleep and inhibits cord
movement.
Efferent (Motor) Neurons - carries
Glutamate - Major excitatory messages from spinal cord to the
neurotransmitter; involved in learning, muscle and glands.
memory formation, nervous system
development, and synaptic plasticity. Interneurons - connects Afferent and
Efferent Neurons.
Endophins (endogenous morphine ) -
Inhibitory neural regulators; involved in Neuroplasticity - the ability to
pain relief. constantly change both the structure
- set of neuropeptides and function of many cells in the brain.

The Peripheral Nervous System

Nervous System - made up of all the nerves and
neurons that are not contained in
Central Nervous System the brain and spinal cord.

- composed of the brain and the spinal Two Major Systems of PNS
cord.
Somatic Nervous System
The Brain - consists of nerves that control the
- the core of the nervous voluntary muscles of the body.
system. - made up of sensory pathway
The Spinal Cord
- a long bundle of neurons that Autonomic Nervous System
serves two vital functions for the - consists of nerves that control the
nervous system. involuntary muscles, organs, and
glands.
Outer section - dividede into two systems;
- is composed of myelinated axons and Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
nerves Division.
- is to carry messages from the body
Sympathetic Division
- located from top of the ribcage down The Pancreas
to the waste area. - controls level of blood sugar
- reacts to stressful events and bodily - secretes insulin and glucagon
arousal - too little insulin leads to diabetes
- fight or flight system - too much insulin leads to
hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
Parasympathetic Division ‘
- top and bottom of spinal column
- eat drink and rest system
- allows the body to restore all the
energy it burned. The Gonads
- responsible for most of the ordinary, - sex glands, ovaries and testes
day-to-day bodily functioning - secretes hormones that regulates
sexual behavior and reproduction.
Hormones - class of chemicals released
by glands. The Adrenal Glands
- located on top of each kidney
The Endocrine Glands - divided into 2 sections; andrenal
medulla and adrenal cortex
The Pituitary Gland
- located in the brain, below Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine
hypothalamus and norepinephrine when people are
- master gland under stress.

Oxytocin Adrenal Cortex releases 30 different

- hormone that controls aspects of hormones called corticoids or steroids
pregnancy - hormones that regulates salt intake
- involved in a variety of ways with both and control stress reaction.
reproduction and parental behavior. - also provide sex hormones for Gonads
- stimulates contractions of the uterus
in childbirt. Cortisol
- contraction of mammary glands to - hormone being released when body
release milk. experienced stress.
- controls levels of water in our body - important in release of glucose in
called vasopressin. bloddstream during stress
- providing energy itself
The Pineal Gland - release of fatty acids from the fat
- located in the brain cellsthat provide the muscle with
- secretes melatonin (sleep-wake cycle) energy
- seasonal behaviors in some animals

The Thyroid Gland Topic 4

- located inside the neck
- secretes thyroxin (regulated Learning
metabolism) and growth hormon.
- any relatively permanent change in - CS and UCS must come very close
behavior brought about by experience together in time <5
or practic. - CS must be paired with the UCS many
times
Reflex - an unlearned, involuntary - CS must be distinct from other
response that is not under personal competing stimuli
control or choice.
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus - any object, event, or - responses to a stimulus that is similar
experience that causes a response. to original CS

Response - the reaction of an organism Stimulus Discrimination

- responses to different stimuli in
Classical Conditioning different ways
- learning to make an involuntary
response to a stimulus other than the Extinction
original, natural stimulus that normally - presentation of the CS in the absence
produces it. of the UCS leads to reduction in the CR

Ivan Pavlov Spontaneous Recovery

- discovered Classical Conditioning - reappearance of a previously
- worked with salivating dogs extinguished CR
- focused on observable, measurable
behavior Higher-order Conditioning
- occurs when strong CS is paired with
Elements of Classical Conditioning new neutral stimulus
- new previosly neutral stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus becomes a second CS
- leads to the involuntary response.
Operant Conditioning
Unconditioned Response - learning to make voluntary responses
- automatic and involuntary response through the effects of positive or
to the unconditioned stimulus. negative consequences

Conditioned Stimulus Thorndlike

- neutral stimulus - was among the first to study learning
- involuntary response when paired of voluntary responses.
repeatedly with UCS - developed law of effect—action
followed by pleasurable consequence
will tend to be repeated; action
followed by unpleasant consequence
will tend not to be repeated

Basic Principles for Classical

Conditioning to Occur Skinner
- CS must come before UCS - led field of behaviorism after Watson
- coined term operant conditioning
voluntary behavior that people and Martin Seligman
animals do to operate in the world. - originally studied escape and
avoidance learning in dogs.
Reinforcement - discovered that the animals did
- any event or stimulus, that when nothing in a specific situation
following a response increases - learned helplessness: tendency to fail
the probability that the response to act to escape from a situation
will occur again because of a past history of repeated
failures;
Primary Reinforcers - or according to recent work by Maier,
- satisfy basic biological needs possibly due to not learning how to
relax and take control accompanied by
Secondary Reinforcers activation of key brain structures
- gain reinforcing properties through
previous association with primary Observational Learning
reinforcers - the learning of a new behavior
through the observation of a model;
Positive Reinforcement typically associated with classic work
- addition, or experiencing of, a of Bandura and “Bobo doll” study
pleasurable stimulus - learning/performance distinction -
learning can take place without actual
Negative Reinforcement performance
- removal, escape, or avoidance of - an adult model’s aggressive or
unpleasant stimulus nonaggressive behaviors tended to
lateract in the same manner they saw
Cognitive Learning Theory modeled; no reinforcement was
- focuses on role of cognition, or necessary
thought processes, on learning - later research suggested that potential
consequences can influence motivation
Edward Tolman to imitate a particular model
- worked with rats in a maze
- suggested animals form a cognitive Elements of Observational Learning
map of the physical layout of the maze
- performance not due to reinforcement Attenion - pay attention to the model
- latent learning: learning occurs but Memory - able to remember what was
behavior not manifested until organism done
has reason to demonstrate it. Imitation - capable of reproducing,
or imitating, the actions of the model
Wolfgang Kohler Desire - have the desire or motivation
- worked with chimpanzees; set up a to perform the action
problem situation.
- chimp first exhibited trial-and-error
approach
- later appeared to experience a sudden Topic 5
insight into solving the problem
(retrieving a banana) Prenatal Influence on Development
 - once attached to the uterus,
Fertilization, Zygote, and Twinning developing organism is called an
- When ovum and a sperm unite in the embryo
process of fertilization, the result single - cell specialization continues to occur,
cell will have a total of 46 chromosomes resulting in the preliminary versions
and is called zygote. of various organs

Mitosis - process that cell replicates - embryo is vulnerable to hazards such

and its chromosome and producing 2 as diseases and substances ingested by
identical nucle. the mother as it receives nourishment
through the placenta
Kinds of Twins
Fetal Period
Identical - monozygotic twins - from about 8 weeks to birth
- the two babies come from one - developing organism now called a
fertilized egg fetus; time of tremendous growth and
development
Fraternal or Dizygotic Twins - organs continue to develop and
- two zygotes or possibly triplets or become fully functional
some other multiple number of babies - full-term birth occurs around end of
38th week
Three Stages of Development - miscarriages (spontaneous abortions)
are most likely to occur in the first three
Germinal months
- 2-week period following fertilization
- zygote continues dividing and moving Motor/Sensory Development
toward the uterus; the placenta and
umbilical cord also develop during this Infancy and Childhood Development
time
- cell differentiation is the process that Preferental Looking
results in specialized cells forall of the - assumes that the longer an infant
various parts of the body spends looking at a stimulus, the more
- placenta- a specialized organ that the infant prefers that stiumulus over
provides nourishment and filters away others
the developing baby’s waste products
- umbircal cord- begins to develop Habituation
connecting the organism to the - is the tendency for infants to stop
placenta paying attention to a stimulus that does
- stem cells- stays in immature state not change
untill needed to produce more cells

Embryonic Period
- 2 weeks after conception to 8 weeks Physical Development
Reflexes - freud said oral stimulation could lead
- babies come into this world able to to oral fixation in later life
interact with it -
- infants have a set of innate, Anal Stage
involuntary behavior patterns called - 1-3 years
reflexes - Erogenous Zone - gratification gaines
through stimulation of the anus
5 Infant Reflexes - children display destructive and
- grasping reflex aggressive behaviors
- startle refelx - a child also experiences pleasure
- rooting reflex through the act of defecating
- stepping reflex - “anal”means overly neat, orderly, rigid
- sucking reflex - freud believed that this may happen as
a result of shaming
Sensory Development
Phallic Stage
Sensation - interaction of information - Erogenous Zone - gratification ganes
with the sensory receptors through stimulation of genitals
- sensitivity concentrated in the genitals
Perception - process of interpreting and masturbation
what is sense - the child becomes aware of
anatomical sex
Reflexes - Oedipus Complex - the conflict
- inborn, behavior patterns that develop between erotic attraction, resentment,
during uterine life and are fully present rivalry, jealousy, and fear in boys
at birth - Electra Complex in girls
- these are involuntary movements, or - resolved through the process of
actions that are essential for a identification
newborn’s survival immediately after
birth and include: sucking, swallowing, Latency Stage
blinking, urinating, hiccuping, and - 6 years to Puberty
defecating - the libido is dominant
- freud thought that most sexual
Psychosexual Theory of Development impulses are repressed during the
latent stage
Stages - developing new skills and acquiring
new knowledge
Stages
Genital Stage
Oral Stage - Puberty to Adult
- birth to 1 year - Gratification gained through
- Eregenous Zone: Gratification gained stimulation of genitals with sexual
through stimulation of the mouth interest in others
- the libido is centered in a baby’s
mouth.
- stage in life are oras or mouth - a time of adolescent sexual
oriented experimentation
- heterosexual pleasure - 5-13 years
- freud - the proper outler was through - perform more complicated task and
heterosexual intercourse brain leads to maturity
- Fixation and conflict may prevent this - recognize their abilities as well as thei
with the consequence that sexual peers’ abilities
perversions may develop - success will lead to virtue of
competence
Psychosocial Theory of Development
- involves development of personality, Stage 5
relationships, and a sense of being male - Identity vs. Role Confusion
or female - 13-21 years
- the process begins in infancy and - find their sexual identity and began to
continues into adulthood imagine in future
- discern which activities are
Erik Erikson appropriate to their age
- refers to a comprehensive - Virtue of Fidelity
psychoanalytical theory that identifies a
series of stages a healthy individual Stage 6
must experience throughout their - Intimacy vs. Isolation
lifetime - 21-39 years
- each stage is characterized by a - confusion between identity and role is
psychosocial crisis two conflicting forces coming to an end
- priority for young adults
Stage 1 - Virtue of Love
- Trust vs. Mistrust -
- 0-18 months Stage 7
- children learn to trust or not to - Generativity vs. Stagnation
- developing of distrust can lead to - 40-65 year
frustration, suspicion, or insensitivity - Generativity - caring for people
- fails to acquire the virtue of hope and outside their circle of family
will develop to fear - vision extends from their direct
environment
Stage 2 - Virtue of Care
- Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
- 18 months to 3 years Stage 8
- acquire control, increase in autonomy - Ego Integrity vs. Despair
- virtue of will - confidence - 65 above
- looking back on their life with a sense
Stage 3 of closure and completeness
- Iniative vs. Guilt - accepts death without fear
- 3-5 years - Virtue of Wisdom
- begin to strengthen their power
- virtue of purposem while failure
results in a sense of guilt

Stage 4
- Industry vs. Inferiority