Design of Pressure Vessels

Design of Pressure
Vessels
Design of
Pressure Vessels
Edited By
Subhash Reddy Gaddam
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gaddam, Subhash Reddy, author.
Title: Design of pressure vessels / Subhash Reddy Gaddam.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group, LLC, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020035117 (print) | LCCN 2020035118 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367550646 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003091806 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Pressure vessels--Design and construction.
Classification: LCC TA660.T34 G34 2021 (print) | LCC TA660.T34 (ebook) |
DDC 681/.76041--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020035117
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020035118
ISBN: 978-0-367-55064-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-09180-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by SPi Global, India
Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................xiii
Author....................................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 Material................................................................................................ 3
2.1 Metallurgical Fundamentals...................................................... 3
2.2 Variety of Materials................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Carbon Steel (CS).......................................................... 3
2.2.2 Low Alloy Steel (LAS).................................................. 3
2.2.3 Stainless Steel (SS)........................................................ 4
2.2.4 Nonferrous Alloys.......................................................... 4
2.2.5 Nonmetallic Materials................................................... 5
2.3 Material Selection...................................................................... 5
2.3.1 Criteria for Selection of Materials................................. 5
2.3.2 Ductile and Brittle Materials......................................... 5
2.3.3 Chemical Effect of Fluid in Contact.............................. 6
2.3.4 Temperature................................................................... 6
2.3.5 Pressure and Allowable Stress....................................... 6
2.4 Heat Treatment........................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Division of the Ferrous Material.................................... 8
2.4.2 Post-fabrication Heat Treatment.................................... 8
2.4.3 Post-weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)............................... 8
2.5 Non-destructive Testing (NDT) and Weld Efficiency................ 9
2.6 Impact Test and Minimum Design Metal Temperature
(MDMT)�� 10
2.7 Hydraulic Test (HT)................................................................. 12
Reference........................................................................................... 12
Chapter 3 Mechanical Design Basics................................................................. 13

3.1 Basics....................................................................................... 13
3.1.1 XYZ Coordinate Convention....................................... 13
3.1.2 Degrees of Freedom..................................................... 13
3.1.3 Boundary Conditions................................................... 13
3.1.4 Load Condition............................................................ 14
3.1.5 Transfer of Forces........................................................ 14
3.1.6 Rotation of Axis........................................................... 15
3.1.7 Free Body Diagram...................................................... 17
3.1.8 Poisson’s Ratio............................................................. 17
3.1.9 Moment of Inertia........................................................ 17
v
viContents
3.1.10 Polar Moment of Inertia............................................. 18

3.1.11 Significant Figures in Numbers................................. 19
3.2 Design Theories....................................................................... 19
3.2.1 Elasticity Theory and Hook’s Law............................ 19
3.2.2 Plastic Theory............................................................ 19
3.2.3 Beam Theory.............................................................22
3.3 Flexure or Beam Formulas...................................................... 23
3.4 Deflection................................................................................. 24
3.4.1 Macaulay’s Method of Integration............................. 24
3.4.2 Moment Area Method................................................ 25
3.4.3 Strain Energy Method..�� 26
3.4.4 CastgLiano’s Theorem�� 26
3.5 Long Shells with Three Supports............................................27
3.6 Loads........................................................................................ 30
3.7 Stresses.................................................................................... 30
3.7.1 Tensile........................................................................ 31
3.7.2 Compression.............................................................. 31
3.7.3 Shear Stress................................................................ 31
3.7.3.1 Pure Shear................................................... 31
3.7.3.2 Transverse Shear Stress..............................31
3.7.3.3 Torsional Shear........................................... 33
3.7.4 Combined and Allowable Stress................................ 33
3.7.5 Compression Bending................................................ 34
3.7.6 Fatigue....................................................................... 34
3.7.7 Brittle Fracture........................................................... 35
3.7.8 Stress Concentration.................................................. 35
3.8 Analysis Methods.................................................................... 35
3.8.1 Equilibrium Method................................................... 35
3.8.2 Integration Method.................................................... 36
3.8.3 Theorem of Least Work............................................. 36
3.8.4 Experimental Method................................................ 36
3.8.5 Steps in Mechanical Design of Equipment................ 36
3.9 Elastic Failure Theories........................................................... 36
3.9.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory............................ 37
3.9.2 Maximum Strain Theory............................................ 37
3.9.3 Maximum Shear Stress Theory.................................37
3.9.4 Theory of Constant Energy of Distortion
(Von-Mises Theory)��37
3.10 Matrix Equation of the Beam Element.................................... 38
Reference........................................................................................... 38
Chapter 4 Pressure Vessel Design Basics........................................................... 39

4.1 General..................................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Shape of the Shell...................................................... 39
4.1.2 Pressure and Static Head........................................... 39
Contents vii
4.2 Loads........................................................................................ 40
4.3 Membrane Theory...................................................................41
4.3.1 Shells of Revolution..................................................... 41
4.3.2 Membrane Equation..................................................... 42
4.4 Stresses.................................................................................... 44
4.4.1 Stress Categorization.................................................... 45
4.4.1.1 Primary Stresses........................................... 45
4.4.1.2 Secondary Stresses....................................... 45
4.4.1.3 Peak Stress F................................................. 45
4.4.2 Shear Stress in a Cylindrical Shell............................... 46
4.4.3 Allowable Stresses....................................................... 46
4.4.4 Thermal Stresses.......................................................... 48
Chapter 5 Internal Pressure................................................................................ 49

5.1 Cylindrical Parts...................................................................... 49
5.1.1 Circumferential Stress.................................................. 49
5.1.2 Longitudinal Stress......................................................50
5.1.3 Radial Stress................................................................. 50
5.2 Spherical Parts......................................................................... 50
5.3 Conical Parts............................................................................ 51
5.4 Toroidal Shell and Tube Bend................................................. 53
5.5 End Closures............................................................................ 54
5.5.1 Flat...............................................................................55
5.5.2 Hemispherical.............................................................. 55
5.5.3 Ellipsoidal.................................................................... 55
5.5.4 Torispherical................................................................. 58
5.5.5 Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads
with 0.0005 < t/L < 0.002�� 60
5.6 Failure Analysis....................................................................... 60
References.......................................................................................... 61
Chapter 6 External Pressure............................................................................... 63

6.1 Cylinder................................................................................... 63
6.1.1 Effects on Analysis for Variations in L/D and D/t
Ratios�� 63
6.1.2 Critical Length............................................................. 64
6.1.3 Critical Pressure........................................................... 64
6.1.4 Strain Coincident to Pc.................................................66
6.1.5 Comparison of the above Equations with Code
Equations�� 66
6.1.6 Design of a Circumferential Stiffener Ring................. 67
6.2 Hemispherical Head................................................................. 69
6.3 Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads........................................ 69
6.4 Conical Parts............................................................................ 70
References.......................................................................................... 71
viiiContents
Chapter 7 Discontinuity Stresses........................................................................ 73

7.1 General..................................................................................... 73
7.2 General Procedure................................................................... 74
7.3 Cylindrical to Hemispherical Head......................................... 76
7.4 Cylinder to Other End Closures............................................... 77
7.4.1 Semiellipsoidal Head................................................... 77
7.4.2 Torispherical Head....................................................... 77
7.4.3 Flat Plate......................................................................77
7.5 Cylinder to Cone...................................................................... 78
7.6 Analysis in the Cylinder for Edge Forces at any
Distance from the Edge�� 81
7.7 Design Tips.............................................................................. 81
References.......................................................................................... 81
Chapter 8 Local Stresses.................................................................................... 83

8.1 Openings under Pressure......................................................... 83
8.1.1 Analysis........................................................................ 83
8.1.2 Small Openings............................................................ 84
8.1.3 Single Opening............................................................. 84
8.1.3.1 Set through (Insert) Radial Nozzle............... 85
8.1.3.2 Set on Nozzle................................................ 87
8.1.3.3 Taper Nozzle................................................. 88
8.1.3.4 Pad Type Nozzles......................................... 89
8.1.3.5 Non-radial Nozzles....................................... 90
8.1.4 Multiple Openings........................................................ 92
8.1.5 Continuous Openings (Ligaments).............................. 93
8.1.6 Large Bore.................................................................... 95
8.1.7 Weld Strength............................................................... 97
8.1.8 Local Stresses due to Opening in Other
Shells and Heads�� 100
8.1.9 Opening in Shells Subjected to External
Pressure�� 100
8.2 Local Stresses at the Junction in the Shell due to External
Forces through Attachments including Nozzles�� 100
8.2.1 Cylindrical Shell........................................................104
8.2.1.1 Cylindrical Attachment or Nozzle.............. 104
8.2.1.2 Square/Rectangular Attachment................. 104
8.2.1.3 Limitations and Effects............................... 107
8.2.2 Spherical Shell........................................................... 107
8.2.2.1 Rigid Attachment........................................ 108
8.2.2.2 Hollow Attachment..................................... 108
8.3 Local Stresses in the Cylindrical in Shell and Nozzle at
their Juncture due to External Force Tensor on the Nozzle�� 110
References........................................................................................ 112
Contents ix
Chapter 9 Thermal Stresses and Piping Flexibility.......................................... 113

9.1 Differential Movement........................................................... 113
9.2 Basics of Thermal Stresses.................................................... 114
9.3 Guided Cantilever.................................................................. 115
9.4 Simplified Analysis................................................................ 116
9.4.1 3D Piping with Elements in Orthogonal
Axes�� 117
9.4.2 3D Piping with Elements in any of the Three
Axes�� 117
9.4.3 Code Comparison.................................................... 118
9.4.4 Allowable Stress...................................................... 118
9.5 Analysis from Basics............................................................. 119
9.5.1 One-dimensional System......................................... 119
9.5.2 Two-dimensional System......................................... 119
9.5.3 Three-dimensional System...................................... 121
9.6 Formation of Flexibility Matrix of Shell (Pipe)
Elements�� 121
9.6.1 Single Element in Plane Forces............................... 123
9.6.2 3D System................................................................ 123
9.6.2.1 Beam Theory............................................. 124
9.6.2.2 Castigliano’s First Theorem...................... 125
9.7 Formation of Flexibility Matrix for Bend Elements.............. 127
Reference......................................................................................... 131
Chapter 10 Flat-Plate Components..................................................................... 133

10.1 Flat Plate Theory.................................................................... 133
10.2 Circular Plates........................................................................ 134
10.2.1 Simply Supported.................................................... 135
10.2.2 Clamped (fixed)....................................................... 136
10.3 Rectangular Plates................................................................. 137
10.3.1 Edges SS.................................................................. 137
10.3.2 Fixed Edges.............................................................138
10.3.3 Equations for Maximum Stress for
Rectangular Plates�� 139
10.4 Circular Ring......................................................................... 140
10.4.1 Flat Ring under Internal Pressure with Both
Edges Supported�� 141
10.4.2 Flat Ring under Internal Pressure with One
Edge (Outer) Supported�� 142
10.5 Stiffeners................................................................................ 143
10.6 Rectangular Vessels............................................................... 144
10.7 Tube Sheet............................................................................. 145
10.7.1 General..................................................................... 145
10.7.2 Attachment to Shells, Tubes, and Stays................... 147
xContents
10.7.3 Analysis................................................................... 147

10.7.3.1 Pressure Areas of Stays and Stress
in Stays�� 148
10.7.3.2 Unsupported Portions in the Tube
Sheet�� 149
10.7.3.3 Diagonal Stay and Gussets..................... 150
10.7.3.4 Flanged and Extended as Flange
Tube Sheets�� 150
References........................................................................................ 150
Chapter 11 Supports........................................................................................... 151

11.1 Saddle.................................................................................... 151
11.1.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Shear Stresses
in the Shell�� 153
11.1.2 Analysis of the Saddle Reaction due to
Wind/Seismic�� 154
11.1.3 Circumferential Stresses at the Saddle Section
due to Saddle Reaction Q�� 155
11.1.4 Design Philosophy................................................... 159
11.1.5 Saddle Part Design................................................... 159
11.1.5.1 Splitting Force........................................ 159
11.1.5.2 Compressive and Bending Stress
in Web and Rib�� 160
11.1.5.3 Bending Stress in Base Plate
due to Base Pressure�� 160
11.2 Skirt........................................................................................ 161
11.3 Leg and Lug Supports............................................................ 161
11.4 Bolted Bracket....................................................................... 161
11.5 Base Plate............................................................................... 161
11.5.1 Rectangular Base Plate............................................ 163
11.5.2 Circular Ring Type Base Plate................................. 166
11.5.3 Base Ring Thickness................................................ 170
11.6 Foundation Bolts.................................................................... 172
11.7 Rollers for Sliding Supports.................................................. 172
11.8 Handling and Transport......................................................... 174
11.8.1 Analysis................................................................... 175
11.8.2 Transport.................................................................. 177
References........................................................................................ 178
Chapter 12 Wind and Seismic............................................................................ 179

12.1 Wind....................................................................................... 179
12.2 Earthquake............................................................................. 180
Contents xi
12.2.1 Rigid-Structure Approach (RSA)............................ 181

12.2.2 Flexible Tall Structure Approach............................. 181
12.3 Other Standards..................................................................... 183
12.3.1 UBC-1997................................................................ 183
12.3.1.1 Wind Pressure Calculations.................... 183
12.3.1.2 Seismic Base Shear Calculation............. 183
12.3.2 Australian and New Zeeland Standard
AS/NZS 1170�� 184
12.3.3 American standard ASCE�� 185
12.4 Application of Wind/Seismic Load.......................................186
Chapter 13 Flanges............................................................................................. 189

13.1 Basics of Flange Analysis...................................................... 189
13.2 Selection of Parameters and their Influence on
Flange Design�� 190
13.2.1 Circumferential Pitch of Bolts (Pc)......................... 190
13.2.2 Flange Width............................................................ 191
13.2.3 Gasket...................................................................... 191
13.2.4 Philosophy of the Selection of Flange
Parameters�� 193
13.3 Flange Analysis...................................................................... 193
13.3.1 Seating Condition.................................................... 193
13.3.2 Operating Condition................................................ 194
13.4 Computation of Stresses in Flanges....................................... 195
13.4.1 Loose and Integral Flange.......................................195
13.4.2 Full Faced Flange....................................................198
13.4.3 Ring-type Joints....................................................... 198
13.4.4 Lap Flange............................................................... 198
13.4.5 Blind Flange............................................................. 199
13.4.6 Rectangular Flange.................................................. 199
13.4.6.1 Analysis in the Normal Direction........... 200
13.4.6.2 Analysis in the Tangential Direction...... 203
13.4.7 Standard Flanges...................................................... 203
13.4.8 Other Flanges........................................................... 204
References........................................................................................ 204
Chapter 14 Vibration.......................................................................................... 205

14.1 General................................................................................... 205
14.2 Damaging Effects of Vibration.............................................. 206
14.3 Natural Frequency.................................................................206
14.3.1 Tubes of the Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.......... 206
14.3.2 Tubes of the Tube Bank of Heat Exchanger............ 207
14.4 Vibration in Flat Plates.......................................................... 208
xiiContents
14.5 Tall Vessels Like Chimneys................................................... 208

14.6 Flow-induced Frequencies and Vibration.............................. 208
14.6.1 Vortex Frequency..................................................... 209
14.6.2 Buffeting Frequency................................................ 210
14.6.3 Acoustic Frequency................................................. 210
Reference......................................................................................... 211
Chapter 15 Expansion Joints.............................................................................. 213

15.1 Types of Expansion Joints: Circular or Rectangular
and Non-metallic or Metallic�� 213
15.2 Unreinforced Bellows............................................................ 215
15.2.1 Circumferential Membrane Stress in
Convolution (σc) due to Pressure��216
15.2.2 Longitudinal Bending Stress (σ8) due to
Pressure in Rectangular Bellows (N >1)��217
15.2.3 Meridian Membrane and Bending Stresses due
to Pressure�� 218
15.2.4 Expansion Stress, Fatigue Life, and Spring
Rate�� 218
15.2.5 Tangent and Collar................................................... 220
15.2.6 Instability due to Pressure........................................ 221
15.3 Reinforced Bellows................................................................ 223
15.4 Movements............................................................................. 225
15.4.1 Axial........................................................................ 226
15.4.2 Angular Rotation..................................................... 226
15.4.3 Lateral Displacement............................................... 227
15.4.4 Total Equivalent Axial Displacement Range
per Convolution�� 227
15.4.5 Cold Pull.................................................................. 228
15.5 Factor Influence on Design.................................................... 228
15.6 Vibration in Bellows.............................................................. 228
15.6.1 Internal Flow............................................................ 228
15.6.2 Calculation of Natural Frequency (fn).....................229
15.6.2.1 In Single Bellow..................................... 229
15.6.2.2 Universal Expansion Joint
(Dual Bellow)�� 229
References........................................................................................ 229
Index.......................................................................................................................231
Preface
On the subject of pressure vessel design, several books and codes are available. They
are voluminous and expensive. Some of the books contain derivations of equations
by integration and others ready to use formulas. Codes contain equations by rule.
In this generation with availability of software programs even for simple calcula-
tions, the requirement of fundamental stress analysts is limited to the development of
computer software programs for analytical and numerical engineering stress analy-
sis. Most of the design engineers are becoming software operators.
But it is the belief of author (who worked in this field from the slide rule genera-
tion to PVEllite and Ceasar generation) that today’s designers shall have sufficient
basic knowledge of the subject to effectively use the software programs and codes to
give optimum design. He shall be in a position to comment on the software for more
effectiveness and suggest changes in codes. For designers, the design software shall
be only a tool to reduce time and accuracy.
Efforts are made in this book to fill this gap. This book avoids lengthy integration
which is generally skipped by present engineers and explains the equations by simple
fundamental design methods. It will give feeling of how the parts will resist and
deform under various types of loads and explains various tools of design from funda-
mentals giving practical applications so as to modify or combine them where direct
formulas are not available.
Effort of this book is not to develop knowledge parallel to software, but to take
stress analysis software operating engineers to a step inside, backend, to understand
the loading diagram or free body diagram, deformation etc., so that they can be con-
fident in selecting the correct program, giving error free input, analyzing the report
and validating the results. Guidelines are provided for fundamental stress analysis.
This book will be useful to new graduates and post-graduates for the subject of
solid mechanics and aspiring career in pressure vessel design field, advance educa-
tion, and research and to working professionals in static equipment, pressure vessels,
heat exchangers, boilers, and similar equipments.
Efforts are made to include an optimum material so that the reader will not skip
even a small part of the chapter or section of the chapter interested or relevant to him/
her. The pressure-retaining parts and connected non-pressure parts in general are
many types. Efforts are made to cover design of all such parts, but in depth analysis
is covered to parts related to the boiler industry. This book contains terms, and lan-
guage used by working professionals may be marginally different from that used by
faculty or is usually found in most of the books.
This book would not have been possible without the support of several friends and
Thermal systems (Hyderabad) Pvt. Ltd where the author works. The author is thank-
ful to all of them particularly, SimharajuYogesh, Toji Tharakan, and Lakshman for
providing figures and Praveen Mittapelli, Mani Kumar, Ram Sri Pavan, Mastan, and
Dr. Raman Goud for their support.
xiii
Author
Subhash Reddy Gaddam has been associated with design,
development, engineering, project execution, manufacturing,
and commissioning of pressure vessels and boilers of various
types and capacities for over 50 years.
He is a 1970 graduate in Mechanical Engineering from
Osmania University, College of Engineering. Starting as a
graduate trainee with the Indian subsidiary of the Babcock
& Wilcox Ltd., U.K., where he worked on the shop floor and
construction site in the commissioning of a 120MW boiler,
he spent over a decade in design and engineering of industrial and power boilers at
various large industries in India. He then joined the Andhra Pradesh State
Government as Inspector of Boilers until his retirement as the Director and Head of
the Department of Boilers in 2006. He is currently an adviser for mechanical design
of pressure vessels, heat exchangers and waste heat boilers at Thermal Systems
(Hyderabad) Pvt. Ltd.
This book has been painstakingly compiled over the past several years and con-
tains deep technical insights from his experience spanning 50 years. He has person-
ally developed worksheets for design calculations of all components of pressure
vessels & boilers described in this book.
xv
1 Introduction
Mechanical design (analysis) reported in this book is the calculation of thickness for
maximum allowable stress or maximum induced relevant stresses for a given thick-
ness of any element for which equation is derived using maximum principal stress
theory of failure by any analytical method of analysis and relevant design theories.
The activities involved in connection with pressure vessel design for manufacturing
them are briefly covered in this chapter.
Design in general starts with process design, which is normally performed in R &
D organization. The next step is plant design for satisfactory operation and facilitat-
ing maintenance of the plant, which is the design and linking of other auxiliary parts:
a. Equipments in which process or part of it takes place.

b. Controlling parts such as instruments, valves, etc., which are used to isolate or
regulate the process parameters such as flow, pressure, and temperature or any
other required controls to perform.
c. Instruments, gauges, control valves, etc., which are involved in measuring the
process parameters in field as well as in a control room/a digital control system.
d. Auxiliary rotating equipments such as pumps, fans, and other such
equipments.
Linking between equipments is performed by process piping with required instru-

ments, field gauges, process valves, etc. as per piping and instrumentation diagrams
required for the process.
Instruments and valves are normally manufactured by specialized organizations.
Other auxiliary equipments are also manufactured by specialist organizations mostly
involving casting, forging, and fabrication. Equipment and piping are manufactured
by fabricating mostly welding using raw materials such as plates, tubes, pipes, pipe
fittings, etc.
Equipment, piping, and most of the line/process instruments are under pressure
and hence are called pressure vessels.
Pressure vessels are first designed (detailed process design and operating param-
eters involving heat transfer and fluid dynamics) to give arrangement, shape, and size
required for a specified process. Then, design data are obtained, residual process
design is carried out, materials are selected, remaining geometry and arrangement
are finalized, and thickness is calculated to withstand prevailing loads.
The pressure vessel consists mostly of plates and tubular shaped parts formed as
required and welded. Most of the components of pressure vessels excluding nonpres-
sure parts such as attachment supports and internals are subjected to pressure and
1
2 Design of Pressure Vessels
hence called pressure parts. Selection of materials, calculation of thickness, and

other requirements shall be in accordance with relevant national technical codes and
statutory rules/acts. Materials for nonpressure parts welded to pressure parts shall be
the same as those for pressure parts. All the nonpressure parts are to be designed as
per relevant standards, fundamentals, and accepted technical literature and practices.
It also includes the preparation of detailed specification or data sheets of controls,
instruments, and auxiliaries for procurement/manufacturing. Design also includes
arrangement and calculation of handling and shipping components.
Design details not given in codes for pressure parts are submitted for the accep-
tance of the statutory or authorized inspector, and the designer provides details of
design from other sources such as other codes, standards, fundamentals, and excepted
practices, which will be as safe as those provided by the rules of code. Alternately,
strength of pressure parts can be established by a proof test or finite element
analysis.
The next step is engineering and producing drawings for arrangement and details
of parts of equipments required for manufacturing, erection, and shipping. The mate-
rial list, detailed data sheets for the purchase of raw materials, and other components
are prepared.
Pressure vessels including boilers are normally allowed to use in most of the
countries duly registered, and certified for use similar to automobile vehicles. The
statutory and/or mandatory rules vary from country to country and are not the same
for boilers and pressure vessels and more stringent for boilers. In general, complete
activity of manufacturing boilers and pressure vessels (generally termed pressure
parts) right from raw materials until completion of installation at the place of their
use is inspected as per the Acts and Rules of the country by agency authorized in the
Acts and Rules for the purpose before being registered and certified for use.
The manufacturing drawings are to be approved by the inspection agency duly
conforming to the rules (code), the components are inspected, required tests are car-
ried out in various stages, identification marks are stamped, and finally the pressure
vessels are hydraulically tested for preliminary check of their resistance to pressure
before transporting to the place of erection. The code stipulates that the manufacturer
should prepare all required documents duly signed by them and the inspection agency
which will accompany the pressure component for verification before erection and
for registration.
2 Material
2.1 METALLURGICAL FUNDAMENTALS
• Toughness: Strength and ductility = area under stress-strain curve, toughness of
structural steel > spring steel.
• Microstructure: Ferrite, austenite, cementite, pearlite, and martensite.
• Ferrite: It has a body centered cubic crystal structure. It is pure or 0.01% c (dis-
solve at room temperature), soft, and ductile.
• Austenite: It has a face centered cubic crystal structure and exists over 912°C.
• Cementite: Compounds of iron and carbon iron carbide (Fe3C) are hard and
brittle.
• Pearlite: The lamented structure is formed of alternate layers of ferrite and
cementite. It combines the hardness and strength of cementite with the ductility
of ferrite. The laminar structure acts as a barrier to crack movement as in com-
posite, which gives its toughness.
• Martensite: It has a very hard needle-like structure of iron and carbon and is
formed by rapid cooling of the austenitic structure (above the upper critical
temperature), which needs to be modified by tempering before acceptable
properties are reached.
2.2 VARIETY OF MATERIALS
The following materials are normally used in manufacture of boilers and pressure
vessels.
2.2.1 Carbon Steel (CS)

CS generally contains carbon 0.3% max. CS is easily formable, weldable, and
machinable. However, CS has limited corrosion resistance and low creep strength
and is normally not advised for use in the creep range that is for higher temperatures
more than 400°C.
2.2.2 Low Alloy Steel (LAS)

LAS contains one or more alloying elements to improve mechanical and other prop-
erties such as corrosion resistance, strength at elevated temperatures, impact and
toughness at low temperatures, and resistance to pitting. The most usual used
3
alloying elements are chromium 9% max, molybdenum 1% max, traces of vanadium,

nickel, etc. Nickel up to 9% is used for special requirements. Objects of main alloy-
ing elements are given below:
• Chromium (Cr) improves resistance to oxidation and improves corrosion resis-

tance, abrasion resistance, high-temperature strength, and resistance to high-
pressure hydrogen.
• Molybdenum (Mo) improves strength at elevated temperature, creep resistance,
and resistance to pitting.
• Vanadium (V) improves wear resistance, high-temperature strength, and resis-
tance to high-pressure hydrogen.
• Nickel (Ni) improves toughness, low temperature properties, and corrosion
resistance.
2.2.3 Stainless Steel (SS)

There are three varieties of SS: austenitic, martensitic, and ferritic.
1. Austenitic is corrosion resistant, tough, ductile, and easy to form and weld.
These steels are suitable for low service temperature in the range of – 80 to
250°C as well as high service temperature in the range of 400 to 500°C. Some
special grades such as 304H, 316H, and 321H are suitable for very high ser-
vice temperatures in the range of 500 to 816°C.
2. Martensitic contains 1 to 14% chromium. Type 409, 410, and 410S are com-
monly used for noncooled and nonpressure parts (PPs) required for high-tem-
perature service.
3. Ferritic contains 14 to 20% chromium. Type 429, 430, and 439 belong to this
category. These grades are corrosion-resistant and suitable for higher service
temperatures up to 650°C and up to 800°C for noncooled and non-PPs.
2.2.4 Nonferrous Alloys
Inconel and incoloy are used for very high temperature services above 800°C, for
noncooled and non-PPs such as coil supports, tube supports in high temperature radi-
ation zones, and furnace components.
1. Inconel: Different grades of inconel contain nickel in the range of 50 to 75%

and chromium in the range of 15 to 25% and are suitable for high temperature
above 800°C. SB-168 Alloy Nos. 6600, 6601, 6617, and 6690 belong to this
group.
2. Incoloy: Different grades of incoloy contain nickel in the range of 30 to 40%
and chromium around 20% and are suitable for high temperature above 800°C.
SB-409 Alloy No.8120, 8800, 8810, and 8811 belong to this group.
Material 5
2.2.5 Nonmetallic Materials
• Insulation
• Refractory
2.3 MATERIAL SELECTION
Generally, codes for pressure vessels do not contain material selection. Codes stipu-
late only the manufacturing process, chemical composition, mechanical properties
(mandatory and optional), inspection, heat treatment and testing requirements, certi-
fication, marking etc., for the general or listed materials. Most of the nations have
their own material standards to suit various processes and functional requirements.
Material selection out of the available specifications with or without additional
requirements is absolutely left to the technical judgment, knowledge, and experience
of professional engineers. Some of the literature studies and consultants recommend
material selection.
2.3.1 Criteria for Selection of Materials

Criteria for material selection are a very broad subject and cover several aspects and
factors. No equation can be evolved for selection of material. There can be many
material specifications available for given conditions with little difference. There can
be overlapping. The designer has to compare their physical properties and apply his
mechanical and metallurgical knowledge as well as cost and compare thickness
required with each material to select particular specification. However, some of the
main criteria are listed below:
1. Nature of fluid and chemical reaction

2. Service temperature
3. Strength of material
4. Formability, weldability, and machinability
5. Resistance to corrosion
6. Resistance to the outside environment
7. Safety and hazards of life
8. Service life
The following factors are useful for the selection of material.
2.3.2 Ductile and Brittle Materials

The material used in pressure-retaining parts needs to be ductile, in which marked
plastic deformation commences at a fairly definite stress (yield point, yield strength,
or possibly elastic limit), and exhibits considerable elongation (plastic deformation)
before it fails reaching ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Observing this deformation,
necessary steps can be taken to stop further deformation and possible accidents.
Ductile materials have a sufficient gap between yield (Sy) and UTS to observe the
deformation. The ratio of Sy to UTS of normally used PPs is as low as 0.5 for
SA-178A and SA-179 and max 0.7 for 91 grade LAS. The beginning of plastic defor-
mation is not clearly defined in brittle metals, and the material exhibits little or no
deformation before it fractures. Brittle materials are used in PPs with high tempera-
ture and low pressure whose thickness is designed mainly according to parameters
other than pressure-like castings in valves.
2.3.3 Chemical Effect of Fluid in Contact

The chemical effect is mostly due to corrosion. LASs are used for hydrogen service, and
austenitic SSs are selected for acidic fluids. Nonferrous materials are selected for vari-
ous chemical fluids. For temperatures below 425°C, CS can be used with SS weld over-
lay or cladding or lining. Glass, rubber, lead, and Teflon can also be used as lining.
2.3.4 Temperature
In the cryogenic temperature range (−250°C to −100°C), carbon and LASs are brit-
tle; therefore, austenitic SSs or nonferrous metals such as aluminum alloys, which do
not lose impact strength at very low temperatures, are used. At low temperatures
(−100°C to 0°C), LAS and fine grain CS that possess required impact properties are
found to perform satisfactorily. In the range of intermediate temperatures (0°C to
425°C), low CSs can be used. At temperatures above 400°C, CSs exhibit a drop in
yield and tensile strength and cease to be elastic and become partly plastic. Under a
constant load, a continuous increase in permanent deformation called creep occurs.
For high temperatures up to 650°C, LASs, molybdenum or chrome–molybdenum
(up to 9% Cr+1%Mo), are used. For higher temperatures up to 816°C, austenitic SSs
are used. For temperatures more than 816°C, nonferrous alloys, incoloy, or inconel,
are used. However, codes permit up to temperatures 454 to 530°C for CS, up to
565°C for 11 and 22 grades of LAS, 600°C for 91 grade LAS, 830°C for SSs, and
900°C for high alloy steels.
For bolts and nuts, CS is not advised above 230°C (max up to 343) and for
long periods of operation as relaxation will occur. Therefore, alloy steels are
used. For higher temperatures over 500°C, austenitic SSs are used. Table 2.1
shows recommended American (ASME-SA) materials for different service tem-
perature ranges.
2.3.5 Pressure and Allowable Stress

Allowable stress and ductility are generally opposite. The higher the allowable stress,
the lower the ductility, and vice versa. Thickness depends on allowed stress for a
medium and high pressure so a material with optimum higher allowable stress and
cost can be selected. For very low pressure vessels, allowable stress is not effective,
so a low strength material with low cost can be used. Alloy and SSs have compara-
tively lesser allowable stress at temperatures less than 400°C, than CS; hence they are
not preferred normally.
Material
TABLE 2.1
Recommended American (SA) Materials for Different Service Temperature ranges
Temp °C Plate Tube Pipe Forging Bolt&nut Strl Parts
−250 to −200 SA240 TP304, 304L, SA213 TP304, 304L, SA312 TP304, 304L, SA182 F304, 304L, SA320 B8 SH, SA194 Same as PPs
347 347 348 349 gr8
−200 to −100 SA240 TP304, 304L, SA213 TP304, 304L, 316, SA312 TP304, 304L, SA182 F304, 304L, SH=strain-hardened, Same as PPs
316, 316L, SA353 316L, SA333 gr.B 316, 316L, SA333 gr.B 316, SA522 SA320B8 SH, SA194
gr8
−100 to −45 SA203 SA-334 gr1 SA333 gr1 SA350 grLF1, 2 SA320 B8, SA194 gr4 Same as PPs
−45 to 0 SA515, 516 impact SA210 A1, SA278, SA279 SA106B SA105, 266 SA320 B8 SH, SA194 SA36 Si killed,
tested gr8 fine grain for LT
0 to 425 SA515, 516, SA205, 302 SA210 A1, SA278, SA279 SA106 B SA105, 267 SA193 B7, 194 gr2H SA36
425−470 SA205, 302 SA213 T1 SA335 P1 SA182 gr F1 SA193 B7, 194 gr2 Same as PP
470−535 SA387 gr.11,22 SA213T11, 22 SA335P11, 22 SA182 F11, 22 SA190 B5, 194 gr3 Same as PP
535−650 SA387 gr.11, 22, 91 SA213 TP11, 22, 91 SA335 P11, 22, 91 SA182 F11, 22, 91 SA190 B5, 194 gr3 Same as PPs
600−816 SA240 304, 316, 321, SA312 304H, 316H, SA312 304H,316H, SA182 304H, 316H, SA190 B8, 194 gr8 Same as PPs
347 321H, 347H 321H, 347H 321H, 347H
Note: PP = pressure part.
7
2.4 HEAT TREATMENT
Pressure components fabricated from plate materials will undergo various manufac-
turing processes in steel mills and manufacturing units such as welding, rolling, and
forming, during which internal stresses may be induced. During operation, these
stresses together with membrane stress may exceed the yield point. Therefore, such
fabricated parts, after rolling, bending, or forming and after the final stage but before
the hydraulic test, are subjected to suitable heat treatment for relieving such internal
stresses. Heat treatment is not required if the intensity of such internal stresses is mar-
ginal. The holding temperature and time of heat treatment depend on materials and are
given in codes. The code1 gives rules which are briefed in the following subsections.
2.4.1 Division of the Ferrous Material

For the purpose of heat treatment and radiography, the ASME code divides ferrous
materials into part number (P) and group number (G). Some of the normally used
materials are listed below:
a. CSs
1. UTS ≤ 485 MPa (SA-192, SA-106B, SA-210 A1) P.No. 1 and G.No. 1
2. UTS > 485 MPa (SA-105, SA-516 70, SA-266, SA-350) P.No. 1 and
G.No. 2
b. LASs
1. Gr-11 (1.25Cr, 0.5Mo) P.No. 4 and G.No. 1
2. Gr-22 (2.25Cr, 1Mo) P.No. 5A and G.No. 1
3. Gr-91 (9Cr, 1Mo) P.No. 15E and G.No. 1
c. Austenitic SS P.No. 8 and G.No. 1
d. Others
1. low Mn, Cr, and Ni alloys (P1/G2, P1/G3, and P3)
2. high Cr and Ni alloys (P6, 7, 9, 10, and 11)
2.4.2 Post-fabrication Heat Treatment

For CS, this requirement is mandatory in code when fiber elongation is > 40% [50%
for certain conditions given in UCS-79(d)(2)] in rolling (bending) or forming at a
temperature below 480°C. The equation for fiber elongation (εf) is given by
f kt/R f (1 R f /R o ), k 50 for cyl. and 75 for head (double curvature)

f 50d/R for tube/pipe
Where R = bend radius and Ro = radius of part before forming, infinity for plates, and
d = OD of the pipe/tube
2.4.3 Post-weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

PWHT is required for all welds of equipment with lethal gas in it, unfired steam
boiler and material with part and group numbers (G3 of P3, G1 of P10B, G1 of P10F
and P15E/G1) as per code. For other groups, PWHT is not required when certain
Material 9
parameters are within certain limits. The limits are higher for carbon steels and strin-
gent as alloying is more.
For carbon steels of part & group numbers (P1/G1,2,3) as per table UCS-56-1, PWHT
is not required under the following conditions: (Reprinted from ASME 2019 BPVC,
Section VIII-division 1, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
a. For welds directly exposed to firing with thickness (T) ≤ 16 mm

b. For butt welds if [T ≤ 32 mm or {T ≤ 38 mm & pre-heated to (PH) > 95°C}]
c. For attachment welds with groove ≤ 13 mm & throat ≤ 13 mm, {for nozzle
with (ID < 50 mm or PH > 95°C)}
d. For Tube to tube sheet (TS) welds if (tube OD ≤ 50 mm & TS Carbon ≤ 0.22%
& PH > 95°C)
e. For non-pressure parts if (shell T ≤ 32 mm & PH > 95°C)
For other groups, similar but stringent rules are provided in Tables UCS-56. Boiler
codes are more stringent than above code. Indian boiler code exempts only up to 20
mm thick.
2.5 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) AND WELD EFFICIENCY

NDT includes radiography (RT), ultrasonic (UT), die penetration (DT), magnetic
particle (MPT), impact test, hydraulic test (HT), pneumatic test, etc., and extracts
from the Tab UCS-57 & UW-12 of ASME 2019 BPVC, Section VIII-division 1, by
permission of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers are given below.
For the purpose of NDT of welds and weld efficiency, welds are categorized as
A = long. BW, B = circ. BW, C = flange weld, and D = branch weld. Abbreviations:
BW = butt weld, AW = attachment weld, PH = preheating, CE = [C + (Mn + Si)/6 + (Cr +
Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15] or [C + (Mn + Si)/6 + 0.15) ≤ 0.45, & individual pass ≤ 6]
a. RT of welds: UT can be performed in lieu of RT

All BWs of vessels with the following parameters require 100% RT:
1. Using lethal substances, having weld thickness (t) > 38(1.5”), [UFSB with
internal pressure >50 psi(350kPa)], and [B and C category with > NPS 10”
(DN 250) or t > 1.125”(29)]
2. C&LAS material with part no. and thickness larger than as indicated below
(refer: tab. UCS-57 of code): [(t > 32 mm for P. No 1), (>19 for 3,9A,10A,10F:
19), (16 for 4,9B,10B,10C), and (0 for 5A,5B,5C,15E)]
3. For boilers: (all longitudinal), (circumferential with DN > 250 or t > 29
mm), {if the fluid in the shell is steam and (DN > 400 or t > 41)}, and {if
the weld is exposed to radiant heat and (DN > 100 or t > 13)}
4. T≤19, (T≤19 & one of plate thick ≤25 & PH>95), (T≤38 & CE &PH≤
120), [AW-fillet throat ≤13 or if(≤19 & PH ≤ 95)], and [header to tube
weld if (C≤0.3 & header DN≤200 & tube OD≤50 & PH>95)]
b. Weld joint efficiency E:
1. Double BW from both sides or equivalent (single welded with a backing strip
that remains): E = 1 for 100% RT, E = 0.85 for 10% RT, and E = 0.7 for no RT
2. Single BW with a backing strip: E = 0.9 for 100% RT, E = 0.8 for 10% RT,
and E = 0.65 for no RT
3. Single circ. BW without a backing strip with t ≤ 16 & OD ≤24” (600) and
E=0.6 for no RT
2.6 IMPACT TEST AND MINIMUM DESIGN METAL TEMPERATURE

(MDMT)
a. F racture toughness is the ability of a material to withstand fracture in the pres-
ence of cracks. With a decrease in temperature, strength of material increases
but fracture toughness decreases and experiences a shift from ductile to brittle.
It is sometimes defined as the temperature at which the material absorbs 15 ft.
lb of impact energy during fracture. However, physical properties and micro-
structure will remain the same after returning to normal temperature. Flaws
may appear as cracks, voids, metallurgical inclusions, weld defects, design dis-
continuities, or some combination thereof. Many engineering metals and alloys
that become brittle shatter unexpectedly at low temperatures when loaded to
stress levels below allowable at normal temperatures. Addition of the Ni alloy
improves toughness. Toughness is measured by the impact test in ft.lb (Nm).
b. Impact test: Generally, raw materials for PPs are selected as specified in codes
whose specification such as SA516 70 specifies all the requirements of testing
suitable for PPs including impact testing for low temperature use and those
carried out in steel mills. For the material not tested for, the impact property
can be used for duly testing if required by the code. Figure UCS-66 of code
gives the minimum required V-notch test value for the component thickness
and its UTS.
c. MDMT (Td): All parts of pressure vessels are to be designed not only for maxi-
mum operating conditions (pressure and temperature) but for all transient con-
ditions such as start-up, shutdown, idle, etc. The lowest temperature among all
the conditions is called design MDMT (Td). Parts of certain material designed
to the rules of code may fail when its metal temperature is lowered to certain
limit under coincident pressure due to inadequate toughness. This temperature
coincident with pressure is called MDMT (Ta) of that part. If Ta > Td, the impact
test is to be carried out. The value of Ta depends on the type of material, tem-
perature, stress ratio (induced membrane stress to allowed stress), thickness,
and other properties. The components shall meet toughness to a minimum
limit at design MDMT so that its ductility will not shift to brittle and shall be
checked before operating them. The code gives rules in UCS-66
d. Calculation of MDMT of component Ta:
1. Material: The code categorizes the raw material into four groups (A, B, C,
and D) depending on their metallurgical composition, heat treatment, and
product form, and min temperature limit (Tma) can be read from Figure
UCS-66 or table UCS-66 for A, B, C, and D against governing thickness (tg)
of the component, below which they are prone to the above brittle failure.
Some random values from table UCS-66 of ASME 2019 BPVC, Section
Material 11
TABLE 2.2
Values of Tma °C
Tg" A B C D
0-3/8 −8 −29 −48 −48
0.5 0 −22 −37 −48
1 20 1 −18 −33
2 37 17 −3 −20
3 43 26 5 −12
4 47 32 11 −5
5 49 37 16 1
6 49 40 19
VIII-division 1, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical

Engineers are listed in Table 2.2.
2. Calculation of governing thickness tg: for welded parts = t nominal thick-
ness and for nonwelded parts tg = t/4
3. Stress ratio: The stress ratio will influence Ta. The lower the stress ratio, the
lower the limit and for the stress ratio less than 0.35, brittle failure may not
occur. For stress ratio > 0.35 and < 1, Tma can be reduced by Tr which
reduces with the increase of stress ratio. Ta is calculated by deducting Tr
from Tma and given by Ta = Tma – Tr
Tr against the stress ratio can be read in Figure UCS-66.1 of ASME 2019 BPVC,
Section VIII-division 1, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers and given below
Tr = {140, 95, 58, 40, 30, 20,10, 0}°F for stress ratio {0.35, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9,1}
Tr = {80, 52, 32, 23,17, 6, 0}°C for stress ratio {0.35, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9,1}
If Ta for any part > Td of equipment, the material of that part is to be impact tested
as per UG-84 and shall meet the result given in Figure UG-84.1M.
(e) Before calculating Tma, if the raw material of part is satisfactorily impact tested
as per its specification or the part has certain properties and conditions given
in UCS-66, it is concluded that the part has the required toughness and the
impact test is not mandatory. Such properties and conditions are given below.
1. Nonwelded parts with tg < 150 mm and Td > 50°C [ref: (a)(1)–a(e)]
2. welded parts with tg < 100 mm and Td > 50°C [ref: (a)(1)–(a)(5)]
3. tg ≤ 2.5 and Td ≥ −48 [ref: (d)(1)–(e)]
4. −105 < Td < −48 & stress ratio ≤ 0.35, [ref: (b)(3)]
5. plate t ≤ 2.5 and temp ≥ −48 (tube & pipe ref rule) not required [ref:
UCS-16(d)]
(f) Impact test required in the following conditions

1. yield tress >450 MPa required, [ref: (f)]
2. Td < −105 impact test required, [ref: (b)(3)]
3. Td < −48 and stress ratio >0.35, [ref: (b)(2)], however may be impact tested
if Td <−48 even if the component is not under pressure.
If none of the factors in (e) and (f) is applicable to the part, Tma of that part is calcu-
lated to verify whether the impact test is required or not.
2.7 HYDRAULIC TEST (HT)

The HT is carried out after completing manufacturing and before dispatching in the
presence of the inspecting agency to verify any leakage. Apart from leakage, radial
growth (yield) of the shell is measured by noting the circumference of the shell
before, during and after the hydraulic test. Any leakage other than through flange
joints and yielding indicates error in any one or more activities right from raw mate-
rial manufacturing until this stage of HT. The HT of any equipment is NDT. Therefore,
stress in any component or at any point of equipment under HT pressure (Ph) shall
not exceed its yield stress (Y) theoretically, practically limited to 0.9Y.
Let Ph = K x MAWP, P = MAWP = max allowed working pressure of equipment
There are three methods of computing constant K based on the concept explained
above.
1. Constant method: Because the factor of safety is normally 1.5, K is taken as 1.5
in most of the codes. The maximum stress at any point in this method may exceed
0.9Y in the case of almost the same temperature at HT (Th) and working condi-
tion (T), or the gap between max stress and Y is higher with higher temperature
difference leaving scope for increasing HT pressure for more safety. Some codes
such as IBR and ASME S I provide this rule to limit stress to 0.9Yat Ph.
2. Variable method: K is not constant and equal to 1.3 times least stress ratio
(LSR). 1.3 in place of 1.5 is to limit max stress to 0.9Y.
LSR = Sh/S, where Sh = allowed stress at test temp. Th and S = allowed stress
at design temp. T.
Because the LSR value is 1 for Th = T and also for some high strength mate-
rials having S is the same up to certain temperature. As the difference in Sh and
S increases, the LSR increases and max stress in HT is nearer to 0.9Y indepen-
dent of the T value. ASME S VIII D 1 uses this rule.
3. Least calculated pressure method: Ph = 1.3 times least calculated pressure
(LCP -least MAWP at any point or component). when margin is provided by
designer second method results in lesser stress at HT. Ph is increased in propor-
tion to margin to increase stress at HT nearer to 0.9Y. Hence, LCP is used
instead of LSR times MAWP. ASME S VIII D 1 uses this method as an option.
REFERENCE
1. Code ASME S VIII D 1, 2019
3 Mechanical Design
Basics
3.1 BASICS
Readers are advised to review basics of direct (tensile and compressive), shear, bending,
and torsion stresses and strains; force, moment, and torque; yield and tensile strength,
elastic modulus, rigidity modulus, Poisson’s ratio, first and second moment of area; and
polar second moment of area before reading this book. However, some of the above
and other basics difficult to feel are described below to get a practical feeling.
3.1.1 XYZ Coordinate Convention

One of the three conventions normally used is: forces and displacements x and z are
horizontal and y vertical + up. When looking from top (+y) +z rotated by 90° in the
anticlockwise will coincide with +x (yzx). Similar is the convention for zxy and xyz
systems. Planes are referred as xy (z-axis), yz (x-axis) & zx (y-axis). Moments and
rotations by the right hand thumb rule: thumb pointing in + direction of force (FX)
and rotation of fingers is + for moment (MX).
3.1.2 Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of freedom of a boundary point (node point) are six, three-translational x, y,
and z; and three-rotational θX, θY, and θZ for space elements; and three, two-transi-
tional x, y and one-rotational θZ for the xy plane (Z axis) element.
3.1.3 Boundary Conditions
Boundary Conditions of Each End of Element Are Fixed, Pinned, Simply Supported,
Guided, and Free
• Fixed: all the six degrees of freedom are zero

• Pinned: translations are zero and rotations are free
• Simply supported: all rotations and two axial translations are free
• Free: all the six degrees of freedom are free
• Guided: all rotations are zero and all translations are free
Boundary conditions of a node can be in any combination. For the beam element to
be stable and determinate, the sum of the degrees of freedom of both ends shall be six.
Elements with three degrees of freedom are called statically determinate, and
reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static equilibrium equations
alone. Less is in-determinate which requires deformation equations in addition to
13
static equilibrium to solve for unknown forces. Fixed beam is in-determinate and
analyzed by deriving the deflection equation by the integration method. Beams with
three supports (long horizontal vessel) are in-determinate and analyzed using three-
moment (Clapeyron’s) theorem. See Example 3.4. The rest is unstable, cannot be
analyzed, and needs further restraints.
Boundary conditions can also be restricted (like x = +3 mm mean the point can
move 3 mm in positive x direction and further movement is restricted), and each
degree of freedom can be plus or minus or both.
3.1.4 Load Condition
Like boundary conditions, loads are three forces FX, FY, and FZ and three moments
MX, MY, and MZ. Forces include moments and are called force tensor; and displace-
ments include rotations and are called displacement tensor.
Force tensor (matrix)[ F ] {FX , F, FY , FZ , M X , M Y , M Z}

Displacement tensor (matrix)[ D] {x, y, z, X , Y , Z}
3.1.5 Transfer of Forces
Transfer of forces from 1 to 2 is given by equations below:
(FX , FY , FZ )2 (FX , FY , FZ )1
M X2 M X1 FY1 z FZ1 y
M Y2 M Y1 FZ1 x FX1 z
where x = x2–x1, y = y2–y1, and z = z2–z1
Matrix equation for [ F2 ]61 = [ T]66 [ F1 ]61
Transformation matrix [T] is given in Table 3.1
TABLE 3.1
Matrix for T & R, C = cos, and S = sin
Trans. matrix-T Rotation matrix-R
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Cθ Sθ 0 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0 0 0 −Sθ Cθ 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
4 1 0 0 0 Z y 0 0 0 Cθ Sθ 0
5 0 1 0 z 0 x 0 0 0 −Sθ Cθ 0
6 0 0 1 y X 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Note that the [R]33 for forces and moments is same.

Mechanical Design Basics 15
3.1.6 Rotation of Axis
a) One plane is the same say XY(Z axis) or rotation of axis in one plane (XY):
Rotation of the corresponding (Z) axis by angle θ, from XYZ to X’Y’Z’
Angle anticlockwise from x to x’ or y to y’ = θ
Angle anticlockwise from y to x’ = 270 + θ
Angle anticlockwise from x to y’ = 90 + θ
The rotation vector can be expressed in matrix form
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
Similarly, the matrix for YZ and ZX can be derived as

cos 0 sin 1 0 0
0 1 0 and 0 cos sin
sin 0 cos 0 sin cos
To convert any vector [F] from global to local [F’] or in reverse, this matrix can be
used in equation [F’] = [R] [F].
It may be noted that [R]33 for forces and moments is the same.
Example 3.1: Calculate force tensor FX = FY = FZ = MX = MY = MZ = 1

for rotation of Z axis by angle θ = 30° = 0.5236 radians.
FX ’ FX cos FY cos( 270 ) FX cos FY sin 1.366

FY ’ FY cos FX cos(90 ) FY cos – FX sin 0.36
FZ ’ FZ 1
MX ’ MX cos MY sin 1.366
MY ’ MY cos MX sin 0.366
MZ ’ MZ 1
Matrix equation for [F’]61 = [R]66[F]61

Rotation matrix [R] is given in Table 3.1
b) None of the planes are the same

1) Rotation of axis in two planes for converting vector OA (L) along +x axis
in the global system (XYZ) to vector in the (ABC) system so that it aligns
with +A axis. Vector direction cosins in the (ABC) system are: x/L, y/L,
z/L, where x, y, and z are unit vectors in the XYZ system.
To derive the [R] matrix for rotation of Force vector [F] to F’], rotate Z axis
by angle (θ) to align with force F’ component in the XY plane. Where cos θ = x/LXY,
LXY = √(x2 + y2). Then, rotate the new Y axis (formed by first rotation) by angle (ρ)
to align with force F’. where cosρ = Lxy/L, L = √(x2 + y2 + z2). The rotation matrix
for both rotations [R1] and [R2] is as derived above in (a)
cos 0 sin cos sin 0
0 1 0 and sin cos 0
sin 0 cos 0 0 1
C C cos sin sin
1 2
R R sin cos 0
cos sin sin sin cos
The force matrix equation is
F’ R1 R 2 F
Example 3.2: Calculate F’ at point P given unit force (Fx = Fy = Fz = 1)

at O (0,0,0).
Forces at point of P’ projection of P on the XY plane after first rotation θ = 30° are
the same as Example 3.1.
That is, FX1 = 1.366, FY1 = 0.36, and FZ1 = 1
For the computation of forces at point of P for second rotation of 30°, the same
procedure is used (rotation is in new Y axis).
Fx ’ FX1 cos FZ1 sin 0.683 Fx cos cos Fy sin cos Fz sin
Fy ’ FY1 0.183 Fy cos Fx sin
FZ ’ FZ1 cos FX1 sin 1.55 Fz cos Fx cos sin Fy sin sin
It may be observed that the equations in Example 3.2 by basics are the same as
matrix equations given above.
2) General rotation of the 3d system: Unlike rotation of axes in (1), analysis

involves the rotation of planes. OA is a straight line in space of global coordi-
nate system XYZ with origin O and coordinates of A (x, y, z) and ABC local
system with OA as + x-axis. The rotation matrix [R]33 can be computed as per
the Eularian angle method, by rotating first Z axis by angle α, then rotating
new Y axis by angle β, and third new Z axis by angle γ. A three rotation matrix
RZ(α). RY(β). RZ(γ) can be computed as given in (a) and is multiplied to obtain
a [R] general matrix and given by
R R Z ( ) R Y () R Z () [(C C C S S ),( C C S S C ),(C S)]

[(S C C C S ), ( S C S C C ),(S S)]
[( S C ), (S S ), C ]
where α, β, and γ = angles of rotations in rotating XYZ to coincide with ABC.

C = cos and S = sin.
3.1.7 Free Body Diagram

The free body diagram shown in Figure 3.4 of an element of a structure (equipment)
is the diagram of only that element, as if made free from the rest of the structure, with
all the internal and external forces acting on it including end restraints. It is the same
as the loading diagram with boundary supports replaced by reactions. Apart from
analysis under forces, it is used for solving unknowns. For the plane element, three
equations can be compiled by static equilibrium:
1) and 2) Vector sum of forces in both directions is zero and 3) moment of all
forces (include moment) at any point is zero.
Several equations can be formed by taking moment at several points. It is true, but
cannot combine them to obtain the fourth unknown. For the fourth unknown, use
other criteria such as deformation. For solid elements, six equations can be formed.
3.1.8 Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s ratio can be explained by the example of a rectangular bar (10 × 50 × 1000
mm) with E = 20000 kg/mm2 subjected to tensile load 5000 kg along length which
will increase by 0.5 mm. At the same time, its section will reduce to 9.9985 ×
49.9925. Sides 10 and 50 each are reduced by [0.3(0.5/1000)10 = 0.0015] and
0.0075 mm, respectively. This 0.3 in the above equation is Poisson’s ratio. It is the
ratio of transverse strain to axial strain. For small values (theoretically for cuboids),
it is the transverse movement by axial movement. Volume 10*50*1000 = 500000
reduces to 9.9085*49.9925*1000.5 = 495598. If the load is compressive, the volume
will increase with the corresponding change in its density for conservation of weight.
Symbol (v) is used for Poisson’s ratio in this book.
3.1.9 Moment of Inertia
Moment of inertia (MI or I) or second moment of area of a plane section at its neutral
axis (NA) is integration of second moment of area of section at NA. In dynamics, this
is the mass of body instead of area of plane section. Thus, MI is the property of sec-
tion resisting bending moment and deflection.
For rectangle B X L, MI at its CG (middle axis) by definition is integration of the
second moment of area (B dx) at a distance x from middle is given by
L /2
I
Bx dx B( x /3 C )
L /2
2 3
Because I = 0 when x = 0, constant of integration C = 0, therefore
I B[ x 3 ]/ 3 B[( L / 2)3 ( L / 2)3 ]/ 3 B L[ L3 /8 L3 / 8]/ 3 B L3 /12
Similarly for any section, it can be derived.
I D 4 / 64 for circle of diameter D

Integration is not required for all sections. Use logic and maths as π(Do4–Di4)/64 for
a cylindrical shell with outside diameter (Do) and inside diameter (Di) using MI of
solid cylinders.
In general to calculate MI at any axis of any section, divide the section into ele-
ments with available formula for I at its NA parallel to the required axis, or with NA
in the required direction passes through its CG, or symmetrical in the required direc-
tion. Calculate NA of section by the first moment method and then MI of elements at
NA of section by the equation below.
In = I of element at its NA (IC) + area of element multiplied by square of the dis-
tance of its NA to NA of section. Add In of all elements to obtain I of section at its NA.
Example 3.3: Calculate MI of angle 100 × 100 × 10 mm as shown in

Figure 3.1 and divide into two rectangles 100 × 10 and 10 × 90 with
IC = 8333 and 607500. The distance of NA from the flange bottom is
found out by taking moment at the flange bottom.
100 10 5 90 10 (10 45)

y 28.68
(100 10 90 10)
I of element 1 = 8333 + 100*10*(28.68–5)2 = 569265

I of element 2 = 607500 + 90*10*(55–28.68)2 = 1230779
Adding both = I of section = 569265 + 1230779 = 1800044
Being equal angle, I is the same in either axes. Ixx = Iyy
3.1.10 Polar Moment of Inertia

Polar moment of inertia (J) of a section used to resist torsion moment (T) at that sec-
tion is equal to the sum of MI of the section in both perpendicular axes and given by
100
y
10
NA
2
100
10
FIGURE 3.1 Angle for MI.

J = IXX + IYY. Its value for angle shown in Figure 3.1 with dimensions of Example 3.3
being equal to 2 × 1800044 = 3600088.
3.1.11 Significant Figures in Numbers

No calculated value of stress, strength, or deformation can be regarded as exact. The
formulas used are based on certain assumptions as for properties of materials, regu-
larity of form, and boundary conditions that are only approximately true. They are
derived by mathematical procedures that often involve further approximations. In
general, therefore, great precision in numerical work is not justified. Three signifi-
cant figures concerning the use of formulas may be of value like 34500, 5.49, and
0.00568.
3.2 DESIGN THEORIES
General: Elastic and Plastic theory
Particular: Beam, Membrane (Chapter 4), and Flat Plate Theory (Chapter 10)
The subject of analysis of any problem using the above design theories is gener-
ally called structural engineering, and the analysis is called structural analysis.
3.2.1 Elasticity Theory and Hook’s Law

Hook’s law states that within the elastic limit stress is proportional to strain. It holds
for the material of which a body is composed, the body will usually confirm to a
similar law of load-deformation proportionality, and in most instances, the deforma-
tion is proportional to the magnitude of the applied load or loads.
There are two important exceptions to this rule. One is to be found in any case
where the stresses due to loading are appreciably affected by the deformation like
beam subjected to axial and transverse loads and a flexible wire or cable held at the
ends loaded transversely. The second exception is represented by any case in which
failure occurs though elastic instability, as in a slender (Euler) column or in buckling
of the cylindrical shell under external pressure or local load.
External forces with points of application that do not move are called reactions,
and external forces with points of application that move are called loads.
When an elastic system is subjected to static loading, the external work done by
the loads as they increase from zero to maximum value is equal to the stain energy
acquired by the system. For single load, the deflection at the point of loading in the
direction of load is equal to twice the strain energy divided by the load.
When an elastic system is statically loaded, the partial derivative of the strain
energy with respect to any one of the applied forces is equal to the movement of the
point of application of the force in the direction of that force.
3.2.2 Plastic Theory
In elastic theory, maximum stress occurs at extreme fiber for bending moment and
allows up to yield stress divided by the factor of safety. Ductile materials such as
STRESS
UPPER
YIELD
LOWER
YIELD
fy
ELASTIC PLASTIC
STRAIN
FIGURE 3.2 Stress strain diagram in plastic theory.
mild steel components and extreme fiber will not fail even after reaching yield stress,
but will continue to withstand until the central section remains within the elastic
limit.
As the load increased gradually, the outer fiber of the section will reach the upper
yield point and then reduced to lower yield as shown in Figure 3.2. This outer fiber is
in plastic state and shows a considerable increase in strain and deflection at that sec-
tion with redistribution of stress. In mild steel, this increase in strain takes place
without the increase in stress as shown in the figure. When the whole cross-section
becomes plastic, no further increase in resistance is possible and a plastic hinge is
formed. One or more such hinges are required for a complete collapse. The number
depends upon the type of structure. The load at which this state collapses is called the
collapse load, and the ratio of this load to the working load is called the load factor.
In plastic design, this factor is used instead of the normal factor of safety.
Figure 3.3 shows the variations in stress and strain in a beam of symmetrical
cross-section subjected to a bending load. As per theory of bending, the maximum
working stress is ft & fC as shown in Figure 3.3a, and elastic theory is applicable. As
load is increased, the extreme fibers reach lower yield stress fY, and the beam is in a
partial plastic state as shown in Figure 3.3b and then complete plastic state with
stress fY uniform over the whole cross-section shown in Figure 3.3c. The moment of
resistance and shape factors in plastic theory are explained below.
(a) Max moment of resistance (M) of any cross-section as per elastic theory is equal
to allowed stress multiplied by section modulus = f Z.
For rectangle of size b × d, M = f b d2/6
Moment can also be derived from the stress diagram from elastic theory as
follows.
When stress at edges is ft tension and fC compression, stress at any depth is reduc-
ing from edge to NA and zero at NA as shown in Figure 3.3a.
Consider dX depth at x from NA
b = width at x from NA and b = f(x), for simplicity consider b as a constant.
fc fc fc
dx
dx
dx
dt
dt
dt
NA NA
x
x
NA
dc
dc
dc
ft ft ft
STRAIN STRESS STRAIN STRESS STRAIN STRESS
(a) WORKING STRESS (b) PARTIALLY PLASTIC (c) FULLY PLASTIC

STATE STATE
FIGURE 3.3 Variations in stress and strain diagrams in a beam.
dt or dc depths both sides from NA

Stress at x, fX = ft x/dt and fC x/dC
Resisting force F = fX b dx
Moment due to F at NA = F x = fx b x dx
0 0
M b ( ft /dt ) x 2 dx b ( fc /dc ) x 2 dx
dt dc
M b ( ft /dt )dt / 3 ( fc /dc )dC 3 / 3

2 (3.1)
b
M ft dt 2 fC dc 2
3
For rectangle dt = dC and d = 2dC = 2dt. Then, ft = fC = fY
b d2 b d2
M 2 fY fY fY Z (3.2)
3 4 6
M can also be derived and is equal to the moment of area of stress diagram at NA
multiplied by width.
f d
A = Area of stress diagram Figure 3.2a = 2 Y
2 2
2d
M b A fY b d 2 / 6 (3.3)
32
Note that Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 for the rectangle are the same.
(b) Max moment of resistance (MP) of any cross-section as per plastic theory for the
above can be derived as the moment of area of stress diagram Figure 3.3c at NA
multiplied by width.
d d
M P 2b fY fY b d 2 / 4 fY Z P (3.4)
2 4
(c) Shape factor Sf: Shape factor is the ratio of MP/M or ZP/Z. Therefore, for a rect-
angle, Sf can be obtained from Eqs. 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 and is given as Eq. 3.5

Sf
MP ZP
M

Z

fY b d 2 / 4 / fY b d 2 / 6 1.5

(3.5)
The shape factor for other sections can be derived as above.

Shape factor for circular section = 16/3π
The shape factor for the cylindrical shell with inside and outside radius ri and rO
can be derived and is equal to Eq. 3.6
16rO rO ³ ri ³
Sf (3.6)
3 rO 4 ri 4
For 2 m dia × 10 mm, the shell shape factor by solving Eq. 3.6 = 1.3
Allowable bending stresses are therefore higher than that for tensile stress and are
equal to or less than the shape factor.
Plastic theory is used for bending stresses.
3.2.3 Beam Theory
Any member of equipment subjected to bending in the axial plane under the action
of lateral force is called beam.
The formulas of beam theory are based on the following assumptions:
• The elasticity and rigidity modulus and Poisson’s ratio are the same in tension
and compression and in all directions.
• The beam is straight or nearly so; if it is slightly curved, the curvature is in the
plane of bending and the radius of curvature is at least 10 times the depth.
• The cross-section is uniform.
• The beam has at least one longitudinal plane of symmetry.
• All loads and reactions are perpendicular to the axis of the beam and lie in the
same plane, which is a longitudinal plane of symmetry.
• The beam is long in proportion to its depth; the span to depth ratio is at least
eight for compact sections and 15 for sections with thin webs.
• The beam is not disproportionately wide.
• The maximum stress does not exceed the proportional limit.
• Restraint is not on a point; it is plane with area.
• Concentrated load is not on a point, but on a plane.
• The sectional shape is not rigid. Local displacements (distortion) due to load-
ing induce local stresses which reduce as the distance increases.
Applied to any case for which these assumptions are not valid, the formulas given
yield results that at best are approximate.
3.3 FLEXURE OR BEAM FORMULAS

Consider the free body diagram of beam element dx in any beam with UDL = w as
shown in Figure 3.4
By equilibrium of vertical forces
F dF F w dx, or dF /dx w (3.7)
By taking moments at the left edge of element for all loads
M dM ( F dF )dx M w dx dx /2 0
Neglecting the product of two small quantities

dM
=F (3.8)
dx
Consider small fiber AB with area dA at a distance y from the NA with radius R at
NA of the bending curve as shown in Figure 3.5.
Strain in AB is given by Eq. 3.9
( R y )d R d y
(3.9)
R d R E
By equilibrium of moment load and resisting moment

y
M ydA

y
F F+dF
M+dM w
M
dx
F+dF
F
FREE BODY DIAGRAM of BEAM ELEMENT dx
FIGURE 3.4 Free body diagram of the beam element.

dx
NA A B
y
dɵ
R
NA
BENDING CURVE of BEAM
FIGURE 3.5 Bending curve of the beam
Substituting y E/R for σ from Eq. 3.9

y y
E E
M
R
y ² dA
R
y ² dA (3.10)
y y
Substituting I moment of inertia of section containing AB for ∫(y²dA) in Eq. 3.10
=M E=
I/R or M/I E/R, and from Eq. 3.9
M E
(3.11)
y I R
Eq. 3.11 is called the flexure formula
3.4 DEFLECTION
Deflection can be derived by three methods. Two methods are described below and
third Castigliano’s first theorem is covered in Chapter 9
3.4.1 Macaulay’s Method of Integration

Consider the deflected beam under any load. Choose any convenient point as origin.
dx and dy are incremental values at any point at x and y on the deflected curve in
Figure 3.5. The deflected curve is considered as circular with radius R. The geometri-
cal relation with R, dx, and dy is given by Eq. 3.12
1 d 2 y/dx 2 (3.12)

R [1 (dy/dx )2 ]1.5
Within the elastic limit, the slope dy/dx is very small and (dy/dx)² can be neglected
in comparison, and Eq. 3.12 can be simplified to
1/R = d 2 y /dx 2 (3.13)

Substituting R = EI/M from Eq. 3.11 in Eq. 3.13, we obtain
EI d 2 y /dx 2 = M (3.14)
By successive differentiation, we get shear force and UDL given by
EI d 3= =
y /dx 3 dM /dx F (3.15)
EI d 4 y= =
/dx 4 dF /dx w (3.16)
By double integrating Eq. 3.14, y can be solved
3.4.2 Moment Area Method

The loading, shear force, and moment diagrams of beam are shown in Figure 3.6
Rate of change of F or slope of F-diagram = rate of loading at any point.
At C, dF/dx from A to C = (w L/2–0))/(L/2) = w
Rate of change of M or slope of M-diagram = F at any point.
At C, dM/dx = slope of M-diagram or F at C = 0
Change of slope (i) of beam between any two points = [area of the M-diagram
between the two points]/EI
At C, EI(ic–ia) = (area of the M-diagram from A to C) = (w L²/8)(L/2)(2/3) = w
L³/24
Deflection y2–y1 = (Moment at origin of the M-diagram area between any two
points 1 and 2)/EI = (x2 i2–y2 ) – (x1 i1–y1)
Taking origin at A, points A and C, ( yC ya ) ( xC iC yC ) ( xa ia ya ) (w L3 / 24)
(5L /16) = 5w L4 / 384
Because iC = 0, xa = 0, ya = 0, (xC iC − yC) − (xa ia − ya) = (0 − yC) − (0 – 0) = yC
w
x dx
A B
y
wL/2 C
5L/16
CG
wL²/8
LOADING , SHEAR and MOMENT DIAGRAM
FIGURE 3.6 Loading, shear, and moment diagram.

TABLE 3.2
Value of K in Beam Formulas
Load Type Conc. load W Uniformly dist. load
Beam Type C S F C S F
MS = KWL 1 0 1/8 1/2 0 1/12
MC = KWL 0 1/4 1/8 0 1/8 1/24
y = KWL3/(EI) 1/3 1/48 1/192 1/8 5/384 1/384
θe = KWL²/EI 1/2 1/16 0 1/6 1/24 0
M – moment, y – deflection, and θ – slope

L, span; W, w L for UDL; C, cantilever; S, simply supported; F, fixed; y, max deflection;
subscript: s at support, c at centre, e at end, W at c for S & F and end for C
From the above two equations

5
yC = w L4 (3.17)
384
Formulas for moment, slope, and deflection for beams derived by the above theory
are tabulated for reference in Table 3.2.
3.4.3 Strain Energy Method

When any load applied within elastic limit on an element, it deforms and returns back
on releasing the load. The work done (energy input) is stored in the body as strain
energy (U). Let a bar of cross section area (A), length (L), is under tension load (F),
elongates by d and tensile stress (σ) induced.
Work done = U = F d/2 = (A σ)(σ L/E)/2 = (σ2/2E)(volume)
Deformation d = 2U/F
For beam or shell element under bending load, U is to be derived by integration as
the displacement varies along length. Take a length dx at distance x from one end, let
M be the moment at dx due to load F.
L
M2

U
0
2 EI
dx
For single point load W, calculate moment M in two parts either side of load at dx
at a distance x from one end and calculate U in each part using above equation, inte-
grate with limits 0 to L/2 and L/2 to L, and add both to get U in the beam for load W.
Deflection (d) can be calculated under the load from equation 2U/W. For multiple
loads and UDL, U can be calculated but deflection cannot be calculated. But using
Castgliano’s theorem deflection can be calculated for any element, at any point and
any number and type of loads.
3.4.4 Castgliano’s Theorem

Statement: partial differentiation of the strain energy calculated as explained in 3.4.3
with respect to any one of static load (W) is equal to the displacement at the point and
direction of W, similarly rotation for moment load.
For displacement at point where there is no applied load, assume load/moment,

derive equation for displacement/rotation, equate assumed load or moment to zero to
get required displacement or rotation. This theory can be applied to curved beams
and applied to straight and bend pipe elements in chapter 9.
3.5 LONG SHELLS WITH THREE SUPPORTS

Long shells with three supports as shown in Figure 3.7 are a case of continuous beam
which can be solved by theorem of three moments (Alapeyron’s theorem). A, B, and
C are supports (B middle). Moments at A and C are calculated from the loading dia-
gram. Calculate the slope at B from both sides by the integration method and equate
both (different signs) to get an equation from which unknown M at B can be calcu-
lated. Then by static equilibrium, three support reactions can be calculated.
Wa w (UDL) Wc
a a1 a2 c2 c1 c
x
La Lc
A B C
(a) Loading Diagram
A La B
(b) Moment Diagram for UDL

Xa2
Xa1
A B
CG
CG m
a1 a2
La
(c) Moment Diagram for Load
FIGURE 3.7 Long shell with three saddles.

Ma, Mb, and MC = moments at support A, B, and C

La = length AB and Lc = length CB
Ia and IC = second moment of area of the cross-section of shell AB and CB
To calculate slope at B, use the deflection equation given below at a distance x

from A in span AB.
EI d 2 y /dx 2 M a x /La ( M b M a ) M
M is moment at a distance x from A in span AB due to the loading diagram of the

span with ends SS and called free bending moment. Multiplying by x and integrating,
we get
La
x2

EI x dy /dx EI x ix

0
M a x ( M b M a ) M x dx
La
Where i = slope, integrating and applying limits

La
L3

EI [ La ib 0 ia ] [ M a L / 2 a ( M b M a ) M x dx
2
a
3 La
0
L 2

EI ib ( M a 2 M b ) A x’ /La
a
6
Where ∫M dx = ΣA x’ = moment of the area (A) of the free bending moment diagram
of AB at support A. x’ = distance of CG of the area from support A.
Similarly, we get slope at B from the C side and by equating these two slopes,
assuming Ia = IC, we get an equation
L2a L2c
( M a 2 M b ) A x / La ( M c 2 M b ) A x /Lc
6 6
Multiplying by six and simplifying, we get
M a /La 2 M b / ( La Lc ) M c /Lc 6(Aa xa /La Ac xC /Lc ) 0 (3.18)
From Eq. 3.18, Mb can be calculated.
Ma 2 Mb Mc Aa xa A x
If Ia I C , 6 C C 0
La I a La I a Lc IC Lc I C La I a Lc I C
If the supports sink nonuniform, an additional factor is added as below

If support A, B, and C sink by ya yb yC, add 6EI[(yb − ya)/La + (yb − yC)/LC] in Eq.
3.18 in LHS
Note that the vessel with more than two supports is difficult to install that all the sup-
ports are positioned at the correct level to have reactions as per the calculation. Actual
reactions will never be as per calculations, and it is advised to increase about 10–20%
for further calculations. Further if the shell is made up with more than one part, their
joint shall be rigid not to have relative rotation for validity of the above equations.
Example 3.4: Calculate reactions and moments in the shell of 16 m

long with three supports as shown in Figure 3.7
UDL of shell weight w = 1000 kg/m, conc. Loads Wa = 1000 kg, Wb = 2000 kg
Dimensions in m: a = 2, a1 = 2, a2 = 4, c2 = 2, c1 = 3, c = 3
La a1 a 2 6,LC c1 c 2 5
By beam formulas, Ma and Mc are:
= =
Ma w a 2 / 2 2000 and
= =
Mc w c 2 / 2 4500
For UDL: moment m = w La2/8

Area of moment diagram (Figure 3.7b) Aa = 2/3(m La) = w La3/12
= =
A a xa /La ( wL 3
a /12) (La / 2) /La wLa 3 / 24 = 9000
Similarly, Ac xc/LC = w LC3/24 = 5208

For concentrated load, Wa moment is given by
m = Wa a1 a 2 /( 4La )
Areas of moment diagram (Figure 3.7c) Aa1 = m a1/2, Aa2 = m a2/2
xa1 2a1/ 3, xa2 a1 a 2 / 3

[A a xa /La ] ( A a1 xa2 A a2 xa2 ) /La m[(a1/2)(2a1/ 3) (a 2 / 2)(a1 a 2 / 3)]/La
Wa a1( 2a12 3a1.a2 a 22 ) /(6La 2 ) 1778
Similarly, C side = 3200,

Rearranging Eq. 3.18 and substituting the above values
Mb [Ma La MC LC 6( A a xa /La A C xC /LC )]/[2(La LC )]

Mb [2000 6 45
500 5 6(9000 1778 5208 3200)]/[2(6 5)]
3664 kgm
Reactions Ra and Rc can be calculated by taking moments at B from either side
R a [w(a La )2 / 2 Wa a2 Mb ]/La 5389 kg

R C [w(c LC )2 / 2 WCc 2 Mb /Lb ] 6467 kg
Rb total load R a R C (1000*16 1000 2000) 5387 6467 7143 kg
3.6 LOADS
The loadings to be considered in designing other than pressure are
• D-Dead
• L-Live
• W-wind
• E-earthquake/seismic
• S-snow
• T-thermal, applied displacements
Loads due to mass (dead, live, and snow) are ultimately reacted by earth. Loads
arising without mass are balanced by elasticity of material (wind, seismic, and
thermal) or effects on earth at certain point of equipment in contact, an equal
effect of opposite sign is induced at some other point of equipment in contact so
that the resultant effect on earth and equipment is nil. Thus, only loads due to
mass are transferred and reacted by earth. All mass less loads are not transferred
to earth.
Load combination: Because all the loads will not act simultaneously, standards
and codes consider the same with different procedures for analyzing stresses and
coincident allowable stress (S).
Sustained + occasional (wind or seismic or snow) : 1.33S (allowed)
Method of loading: The mechanical properties of a material such as ultimate

strength and elastic limit are usually determined by laboratory tests. To apply these
results in engineering design, we require an understanding of the effects of many
variables including the method of loading.
The method of loading affects the behavior of bodies under stress. There are many
ways in which load may be applied to a body, but for most purposes, it is sufficient
to distinguish the types of loading as under.
1. Short-time static loading as in material testing in universal testing machines.

2. Long-time static loading as in pressure vessels where pressure is raised gradu-
ally and is maintained for a longer time. Most materials will creep or flow to
some extent and eventually fail under such pressure and temperature beyond
its creep range.
3. Repeated loading: Load is applied and wholly or partially removed or reversed
repeatedly. In this type of loading, the body fails to give desired service if high
stresses are repeated for a few cycles even though stresses are within the allow-
able limit or if relatively low stresses are repeated many times.
4. Dynamic loading as in the effect of wind or seismic.
3.7 STRESSES
Basic stresses are direct (tensile or compression) and shear.
3.7.1 Tensile
Tensile stress is equal to force divided by the effective area of cross-section of plane
where stress is desired perpendicular to the force direction. Practically, force is not
uniform over the area at the point of application. It will become uniform after certain
length. This transition length with nonuniform stress will not lead to plastic deforma-
tion of elemental areas with higher force due to the resistance offered by elemental
areas with lower force. Plastic elongation will not start until all the elements of areas
reach the yield point. At the point of boundary, practically local or discontinuity
stresses exist which is normally bending and shear.
3.7.2 Compression
Pure compression exists only when the cross-section of plane perpendicular to the
force, on which force is applied, is large enough compared to the length in the direc-
tion of force. An example is the stress induced in a washer when a bolt and nut is
tightened with a washer in it. Deviation occurs when the length is increased and the
body buckles and deflects in a direction perpendicular to the force in middle or at a
plane with the lowest area. Such yield or plastic deformation occurs below the yield
stress of the material.
3.7.3 Shear Stress
Shear stresses are pure, flexural (transverse), and torsional.
3.7.3.1 Pure Shear
Pure shear exists only when the distance between resistance and shear force plane
tends to zero. As the distance increases, bending moment exists due to the
increase in lever arm, and transverse shear and bending moment are induced. The
example of pure shear stress is in rivets, bolts, etc. Torsional shear exists in rotat-
ing parts.
3.7.3.2 Transverse Shear Stress

Transverse shear stress in beams under bending is difficult to feel. Shear stresses on
one side of an element are accompanied by shear stresses of equal magnitude acting
on perpendicular faces of an element. Thus, there will be horizontal shear stresses
between horizontal layers (fibers) of the beam, as well as transverse shear stresses on
the vertical cross-section. At any point within the beam, these complementary shear
stresses are equal in magnitude.
A single bar of depth 2h is much stiffer that two separate bars each of depth h.
Sliding takes place at the contact area between two. This shows the existence of hori-
zontal shear stresses in a beam. See Figure 3.8
To derive the equation for beam, assume that shear stress is the same at all points
on width. Consider small area (dA) length dx and height dy at a distance y from NA
as shown in Figure 3.9. There is a difference between moments of both sides which
will result in balance force (σ b dy). For horizontal (length) equilibrium, this balance
h
h
h
h
(a)
h
h
h
h
(b)
FIGURE 3.8 Horizontal shear stress in the beam.
b
h/2
y
h/2
σx
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 3.9 Shear stress in a rectangular beam.
force is resisted by force (τ b dx) due to shear stress and equating both shear stress is
given by Eq. 3.19.
b dy
(3.19)
b dx
where
σ = difference between bending stress at either side of dx
b = width of the beam at the point
Using equations σ = dM y/I and V = dM/dx, Eq. 3.19 can be written as
(dM y /I )b dy dM y b dy V VQ
( y b dy) (3.20)
b dx dx I b Ib Ib
where
V = shear force at section containing the point
Q = first moment of area = ∫(y b dy)
The above integration is from point to top (or bottom) of the moment (lever arm y)
at (NA-Neutral Axis of the total section) of the area (b dy).
Q for any point of the regular section = area from the line parallel to NA to top (or
bottom) of section multiplied by the distance of line from NA.
Stress is zero at top and bottom and maximum at NA.
Example 3.5: Calculate shear stress in given rectangle sides b × h =

100 × 200 mm and V = 100 KN
For rectangle I = b h3/12, Q at middle (NA) = (b h/2)(h/4) = b h2/8

Substituting I and Q in Eq. 3.20,
V (b h2 / 8) 1.5V

b 2h3 /12 bh
1.5 1000 /(100 200) 7.5 MPa
The general equation for max transverse shear stress is
V/A (3.21)
where
V/A = average shear stress.
Α = shape factor 3/2 for rectangle as derived in the above example.
For other sections, α can be derived as per above basics and given below.
4/3 for a solid bar and 0.5 for a thin cylinder
For ductile materials, shear stress is normally not significant compared to other
stresses.
3.7.3.3 Torsional Shear
Torsional shear is given by a simple equation the same as bending stress, replacing
torsion moment for bending moment and polar moment of inertia (J) for I.
J I XX I YY , for cylinder J 2I
3.7.4 Combined and Allowable Stress

Allowable stress is the max stress as calculated for the expected conditions of service and
is less than the damaging stress because of uncertainty as for the conditions of service,
nonuniformity of material, and inaccuracy of assumptions made in the stress analysis.
Allowable stresses as per IS800 are yield stress (Y) / factor of safety and given
below for all types of stresses.
• Tensile axial σt = 0.6Y

• Tensile bending σbt = 0.66Y,
• Shear τ = 0.45Y,
• Compression axial σC = 0.6f.Y,
where
f = fCC/(fCCn + Yn)1/n, fcc = π2 E/k2 , k = L/r,
L = equivalent length = K La, La = actual length
The K value depends on boundary conditions [translation (T) and rotation (R)],
zero (restrained) or free, is given in Table 3.3.
Allowable stresses for combined stresses are
2t 4 2 0.6Y

2b 4 2 0.9Y

C / ( 0 . 6f Y ) or t / 0.6Y b / 0.66Y 1
3.7.5 Compression Bending
Compression bending is the same as tensile bending provided the section is laterally
supported for torsion buckling for sections such as I-beams, T-sections, angles, and
channels. Else allowed stress is less and depends on D/T and L/r ratios. IS-800 pro-
vides the tables for allowed stress.
3.7.6 Fatigue
Practically, all materials will break under numerous repetitions of a stress that is not
as great as the stress required to produce immediate rupture. This phenomenon is
known as fatigue. Fatigue life or the number of cycles is inversely proportional to the
stress ratio. The lower the induced stress, the higher the fatigue life. Details are cov-
ered in Chapter 9.
TABLE 3.3
K value for Boundary Conditions of a Beam
A end B end
S.No T R T R K value
1 0 0 0 0 0.65
2 0 0 0 free 0.8
3 0 free 0 free 1
4 0 0 free 0 1.2
5 free 0 free 0 2
6 0 0 free free 2
T = Translation, R = Rotation
3.7.7 Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture is a term applied to an unexpected brittle failure of a ductile material
at low temperatures, where large plastic strains are usually noted before actual separa-
tion of the part. Major studies of brittle fracture started when failures such as those of
welded ships operating in cold seas led to a search for the effect of temperature on the
mode of failure. For a brittle fracture to take place, the material must be subjected to
a tensile stress at a location where a crack or other very sharp notches or defects are
present, and the temperature must be lower than the so-called transition temperature.
3.7.8 Stress Concentration
The distribution of elastic stress across the section of a member may be nominally
uniform or may vary in some regular manner, as illustrated by the linear distribution
of stress in flexure. When the variation is abrupt so that within a very short distance,
the intensity of stress increases greatly, the condition is described as stress concen-
tration. It is usually due to local irregularities of form such as small holes, screw
threads, scratches, and similar stress raisers. The ratio of this increased actual stress
divided by stress as per normal elastic theory is the stress concentration factor. It can
be better understood by an example. Consider a straight rectangular beam, originally
of uniform breadth b and depth D, which has cut across the lower face a fairly sharp
transverse V-notch of uniform depth h, making the net depth of the beam section at
that point D–h. If now the beam is subjected to a uniform bending moment M, the
nominal fibre stress at the root of the notch may be calculated by ordinary flexure
formula σ = Mc/I = 6M/[b(D–h)2]. But the actual stress σ’ is very much greater than
this because of the stress concentration that occurs at the root of the notch. The ratio
σ’/σ actual stress divided by nominal stress is the stress concentration factor.
3.8 ANALYSIS METHODS
Stress analysis of pressure vessels can be performed by an analytical method using
mathematical solutions directly or by integration based on applicable theory.
Mathematical solution includes available formulas, and combination of them, explor-
ing them to make new formulations using fundamentals by making acceptable
assumptions. Available formulas include empirical formulas based on practical and
experimental data such as the frictional factor, combination of dimensionless numbers
to calculate the heat transfer coefficient, etc. When the problem is too complex by this
method, finite element analysis is adopted (refer Part 5 of ASME S VIII D 2). If the
problem is beyond these solutions or alternate to finite element analysis, a proof test
can be carried out [refer UG-19(c) and UG-101 of ASME S VIII D 1]. Some analysis
methods are given below. Others are used where ever is required in this book (refer
sections 9.6.2.2 and 9.7) for the analysis method using Castigliano’s first theorem).
3.8.1 Equilibrium Method
The equilibrium method is by forming equations using static equilibrium of any free
body diagram of element like equating forces in each direction and taking moment at
any point in each axis. ΣF = 0, ΣM = 0.
3.8.2 Integration Method
The integration method is the summation method of all elements of the body to cal-
culate any mathematical equation by taking the infinitesimal element, when a direct
formula is not available. This method is used for calculating the equation for MI of a
section of body at its NA in 3.1.9 which is very simple. Similarly for any complicated
problem, this method will give solution. It can involve double or triple integration for
two- or three-dimensional problems.
3.8.3 Theorem of Least Work

When an elastic system is statically loaded, the stresses are distributed in such a way
to make the strain energy minimum consistence with equilibrium and the boundary
conditions. It is used to solve statically indeterminate problems. Select unknown like
boundary reactions to be considered as redundant until it is determinate. The strain
energy of the system is then formed, and its partial derivative with respect to each of
the redundant reactions or stresses is then set to zero, and the resulting equations are
solved for redundant reaction or stress.
3.8.4 Experimental Method
The experimental method is used by carrying performance analysis of actual or pro-
totype element. The values of input and output are tabulated or graphed so as to use
for all input values of identical or similar element. On the basis of the analysis,
empirical formulas can be derived.
3.8.5 Steps in Mechanical Design of Equipment

Divide the equipment into structural members. Analyze the end members first
with only loads on it other than pressure by making the free body (loading) dia-
gram. Calculate the maximum stress including stress due to pressure and compare
with allowed limit. Transfer the loads to a common node point with adjacent
members. Continue until all elements are analyzed and reactions and moments on
concrete pedestal or supporting structure are calculated. Practically, the path is
not a line. Boundary conditions of edges of members are assumed. Certain mem-
bers are so stiff that they only transfer the forces and need not be checked for
stresses.
A structural member may be of such a form or may be loaded in such a way that
the direct use of formulas for the calculation of stresses and strain produced in it is
ineffective. Then one must resort either to numerical techniques such as the finite
element method or to experimental methods. Experimental methods can be applied
to the actual member in some cases, or to a model thereof.
3.9 ELASTIC FAILURE THEORIES

σ1, σ2, and σ3 are principal stresses; Y yield stress.
3.9.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory

This theory states that elastic failure (yield) occurs when the maximum principal
stress becomes equal to yield stress. It disregards the effect of other two principal
stresses.
Y max(1,2 ,3 )
ASME S-I & S-VIII D-1 and IBR use this theory. It is oldest and most widely used.
This theory is used for biaxial states of stress assumed in thin walled pressure ves-
sels. It accurately predicts failure in brittle materials; it is not always accurate in
ductile materials. Ductile materials often fail along lines 45° to the applied force by
shearing, long before tensile or compressive stresses are maximum.
3.9.2 Maximum Strain Theory

This theory states that elastic failure occurs when the maximum tensile strain
becomes equal to Sy/E.
3.9.3 Maximum Shear Stress Theory

This theory states that elastic yielding occurs when the maximum difference of shear
stress becomes equal to Y/2. Max shear stress in a tensile test specimen is half the
axial principal stress. It assumes that yielding starts in planes of maximum shear
stress for biaxial state of stress when
(1 2 ) / 2 Y/ 2
In tri-axial state of stress when
max[(1 2 ) / 2,(2 3 )/ 2,(3 1 )/ 2] Y/ 2.
This theory closely approximates experimental results. ASME S VIII D-2 & S III
uses this theory.
3.9.4 Theory of Constant Energy of Distortion (Von-Mises Theory)

This theory states that elastic yielding occurs when distortion energy at a point in
stressed and equal to distortion energy in a uniaxial test specimen at a point it begins
to yield. The stress is called Von-Mises stress and given by
Y {(1 2 )2 (2 3 )2 (3 1 )2}/ 2
ASME S-VIII D 2 Part 5 uses this theory.

3.10 MATRIX EQUATION OF THE BEAM ELEMENT

For the beam element, AB with one end A fixed, other end B is applied with force
tensor ‘F’, no other loads in the element length, displacement tensor at B, [D] = [K] ×
[F], [K] = flexibility matrix [6 × 6] and force tensor [F] = [S] × [D], [S] = stiffness
matrix.
For the cantilever beam, [K] and [S] can be derived from elastic theory and beam
formulas and are given below.
L/AE vL/AE 0 AE/L vAE/L 0

[K ] v=
L/AE 3
L / 3EI 2
L / 2EI [S] vAE/L 12EI/L3 6EI/L2
2
0 L / 2EI L/EI 0 6EI/L2 4EI/L
Refer Chapter 9 for a general 6 × 6 flexibility matrix which is used in the finite ele-
ment method with beam elements.
REFERENCE
1. IS-800
4 Pressure Vessel Design
Basics
4.1 GENERAL
Notation: P – Pressure, t – Thickness, σ – Stress
1. Pressure vessels: Pressure vessels are the containers of fluid static or flowing,
internal and/or external under internal and/or external pressure.
2. Closed pressure vessel: Closed vessels containing fluid under pressure are
termed closed pressure vessels. Boilers and their components and heat
exchangers with water or steam as the internal fluid (water tubes, steam drum,
etc.) or external (fire tube, furnace tube, etc.) or both sides (tubes in steam feed
water heaters) are specific types of pressure vessels.
3. Open vessel: It is defined as the enclosure open to the atmosphere of spherical,
cylindrical, rectangular, or other geometry or in combination, holding any
material or fluid such as tanks, bunkers, chimneys, etc, which are under pres-
sure due to static head or flow.
4.1.1 Shape of the Shell

The shell is the major part of a vessel enclosing all the internals required for the given
process and allowing external attachments connecting other equipments including
supports, instruments, controls, etc. Internal pressure is the major load for a shell.
Shapes of shells are listed below:
• Spherical
• Cylindrical
• Conical
• Rectangular
• Toroidal (Torus)
The factor for selecting the shape of a vessel is primarily the process requirement;
however, comparison of main shells and various other factors in the selection of the
shape of the shell is tabulated in Table 4.1.
4.1.2 Pressure and Static Head

To obtain a physical feeling of pressure, consider being submerged in water at a par-
ticular depth. The force of the water one feels at this depth is a pressure, which is due
to static head.
39
TABLE 4.1
Comparison of Shells
Spherical Cylindrical/cone Rectangular
Utilization of material 100%, maximum Intermediate Minimum
Internal space utilization Minimum Intermediate Maximum
Weight of shell Minimum Intermediate Maximum
Local stresses Maximum Intermediate Minimum
Utilization of external space Maximum Intermediate Minimum
Supporting arrangement Complicated Moderate Simple
Pressure application Any Any Low
Atmospheric (absolute) pressure is due to static head of air from the altitude
where it is measured to the height where the atmosphere ends. At the mean sea level,
the atmosphere exists up to height (H = 12 Km approximately).
Air density is 1.3 kg/m3 at the mean sea level, zero at height H, and average 0.866
kg/m³.
Pressure due to static head is 12000 0.866 10400 kg/m 2 1.04 kg/cm 2
This pressure is the reaction of weight (1.04 kg) of the air column over an area of
sq.cm.
4.2 LOADS
The loadings to be considered in designing pressure vessels in addition to loads given
in 3.3 are:
• Internal and external design pressure (P) including static head (Ps).
• Weight of the vessel, internal fluid, and components under operating or test
conditions (D).
• Live loads (L) and superimposed static reactions from weight of attachments
such as motors, machinery, piping, linings and insulation, and vessel supports.
• Cyclic and dynamic reactions due to pressure or thermal variations or from
equipment mounted on a vessel and mechanical loadings.
• Wind (W), snow(S), and seismic (E) reactions, where applicable.
• Impact reactions such as those due to fluid shock.
• Thermal loadings due to temperature gradients and differential thermal expan-
sion (T).
• Abnormal pressures, such as those caused by deflagration.
• Test pressure and coincident static head acting during the test.
Pressure (mass less) load is reacted by internal energy of the element material, and
no support is required (no load on earth).
Pressure Vessel Design Basics 41
Load combination: Hoop stress in the cylindrical shell under internal pressure is
main load. Other loads induce stresses which generally will not combine with hoop
stress, but combine with longitudinal stress which is half of the hoop stress. Further
allowable stress for the combined loads is up to three times the tensile stress.
Unless stresses due to combination of loads are very high, hoop stress alone will
decide the thickness of the element.
Load combination is related to allowable stress. In pressure part load combina-
tion, the primary load is always pressure. Whenever one or more other loads are act-
ing, the allowable stress will be greater than allowed tensile stress, and the value
depends on the stress category of other stresses induced due to other loads. Some
normal combination loads and their stress category as per ASME S VIII D 2 are
P Ps D L 0.9P Ps D L S (0.6W or 0.7E) Pm Pb 1.5S

P Ps D L T 0.9P Ps D 0.75(L T) 0.75S Pm Pb Q 3S
4.3 MEMBRANE THEORY
4.3.1 Shells of Revolution
A line straight or profile (A-B) is revolved around an axis (YY) to form a shell which
is called shell of revolution and axis YY is called axis of revolution as shown in
Figure 4.1. The following are examples.
FIGURE 4.1 Partially spherical membrane shell.

1. Cylindrical shell: line (middle of thickness) straight and parallel to axis

2. Conical: inclined line at an angle (α half cone angle) to the axis.
3. Spherical: semicircular line touching the axis of rotation.
4. Partially spherical (ellipsoidal or torispherical): line of relevant profile touch-
ing the axis of rotation.
5. Toroidal: line is a closed curve, usually a circle at a radius from axis of
rotation.
If the thickness of the line of shell of revolution is less than 1/10th of minimum
dimension of shell and properly shaped and correctly supported to retain the shape of
the shell under uniform pressure load, the shell is called membrane shell as only
membrane stresses are induced. Shells with a larger thickness are called thick shells
and covered in Chapter 5.
4.3.2 Membrane Equation
Figure 4.1 shows the mean profile line in (a) of a partially spherical membrane shell
under uniform internal pressure.
Notation (see Figure 4.1):
F = Force on element 1234
R = Mean radius normal to axis of rotation at point 1 on the shell surface
t = thickness of head
Rm = actual (meridian) radius of the curve at any point (0–1)
L = Length
Rt = tangential radius or normal distance from the point to the axis of rotation
(1-D).
m, t = suffix for meridian (long), tangential (circ)
For membrane shells other than cylindrical shells, meridian and tangential are used
in place of longitudinal and circumferential due to curvature in both directions. A
line (profile AB) that represents the intersection of the wall and a plane containing
the axis of the vessel is called a meridian, and a line (1C) representing the intersec-
tion of the wall and a plane normal to the axis of the shell is called tangential.
Obviously, the meridian through any point is perpendicular to the circumference
through that point.
Consider a differential shell element 1234 at latitudinal radius R subtend angle dθ
at an angle θ as shown in figure. If the loading is axisymmetric like uniform internal
pressure, boundary forces of element are membrane stresses only σm and σt as shown
in Figure 4.1.
By equilibrium in the direction normal to the shell element (direction F in figure),
Eq. 4.1 is derived.
Pressure force F normal to element 1234
F = P L12 L13
The component of resisting force due to σm on element side 13 and 24 in the direction
of F
d d
Fm m L13t sin m L24t sin
2 2
d
m ( L13 L24 )t sin
2
Similarly, the component of resisting force due to σt on element side 12 and 34 in the
direction of Ft
d d
Ft t L12t sin t L34 t sin
2 2
d
t ( L12 L34 )t sin
2
Equating forces
d
F P Lm Lt Fm Ft [m ( L13 L24 ) t ( L12 L34 )]t sin
2
d L /2 L /2
Denoting Lm for L13 and L24, Lt for L12 and L34 and sin t m
2 Rm Rt
Lt L
P Lm Lt 2m Lm t 2t Lt t m
2 Rm 2 Rt
Simplifying, membrane equation 4.1 is obtained.
P m t
(4.1)
t Rm Rt
By equilibrium of pressure force and component of force due to σm in the direction

of the axis of rotation using the resisting thickness component = t sin θ
R 2 P (2R)(t sin )m

m P / 2t ( R /sin ),
Substituting R/sinθ for Rt
PRt
m L (4.2)
2t
Substituting σm from Eq. 4.2 in Eq. 4.1, σt can be calculated and depends on shell
geometry. σm, σt, and σr are called principal stresses. Principal stress is defined as
stress in a plane in which shear stress is zero.
The third principal stress is radial stress maximum at inside P and 0 inside; taking
average value σr = P/2
Membrane theory neglects radial stress as its value is very less compared to σm
and σt. Membrane stresses for different shells are computed from Eq. 4.1 and 4.2.
Cylindrical shell: Substituting Rm = RL = ∞, and Rt = R in Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2
PR PR
t C & m L
t 2t
Conical shell: Substituting Rm = RL = ∞, and Rt = R/cos α in Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2
PR PR
t & m
t cos 2t cos
Spherical shell: Substituting Rm = Rt = R, in Eq. 4.1
PR
t m C L
2t
Membrane stresses in other shells under uniform internal pressure are covered in
Chapter 5.
4.4 STRESSES
Stresses due to internal pressure are a major part in pressure vessels. The tensile
stress in thin (R/t > 10) membrane shells due to pressure is considered the same
across thickness and called membrane stress.
Due to internal pressure, the element of vessels is subjected to three principal
stresses
1. Circumferential/hoop: approximately equal to p R/t, maximum inside and min-

imum outside.
2. Longitudinal: approximately equal to p R/2t, maximum inside and minimum
outside.
3. Radial: equal to pressure inside and zero outside.
The difference of stress from inside to outside decreases with the increase in the
R/t ratio and is insignificant above 10. The radial stress above this ratio is very less
compared to other two stresses and can be neglected. Codes give a slightly modified
formula for stresses (average) to cover most of the practical shells up to R/t = 2.
Almost all applications, the R/t ratio of shells will be above this value.
The circumferential stresses are applicable for the elements remote from discon-
tinuity due to branch, end closing part, fitting, etc. The stress changes local to discon-
tinuity from a distance of √(R t). The local elements of shell and joining part at the
discontinuity share the stress proportional to their stiffness. The stress in the vessel
joining any type of end closing part reduces, and that of the end closing part increases.
4.4.1 Stress Categorization
4.4.1.1 Primary Stresses
A tensile, compressive, or shear stress is developed by imposed loading which is
necessary to satisfy the law of equilibrium of forces and moments. These are not
self-limiting.
1. Primary general: Primary general stresses are generally due to internal or

external pressure or produced by sustained external forces and moments.
σ (direct) = F/A
τ (shear) = F/A
τt (torsional shear) = M/J
σb (bending) = M/Z
2. Primary general membrane stress, Pm: this stress occurs across the entire cross
section of the pressure vessel. It is remote from discontinuities such as head–
shell and cone–shell intersections, nozzles, and supports.
3. Primary general bending stress, Pb: these stresses are due to sustained loads
and are capable of causing collapse of vessels. Examples are bending stress in
center of a flat head or crown of a dished head and bending stress in the liga-
ments of closely spaced openings.
4. Primary local membrane stress, PL: Local membrane stresses are produced
from sustained loads (by pressure alone or by other mechanical loads) and are
limited to a distance √(R t) in meridian direction. When these stresses reach
yield, the load is redistributed to a stiffer portion of the vessel and is unrelent-
ing. Examples are membrane stresses from local discontinuities such as junc-
tures of head-shell, cone-cylinder, nozzle-shell, nozzle-flange, head-skirt, and
shell-stiffener ring and from local sustained loads such as support lugs, nozzle
loads, beam supports, and attachments.
4.4.1.2 Secondary Stresses
These are self-limiting, strain induced. Local yielding and distortions will reduce the
stress. Examples are thermal and bending stresses at a gross structural discontinuity.
1. Secondary membrane stress, Qm: examples are thermal, axial stress at the junc-
ture of a flange and hub of the flange, and membrane stress in the knuckle area
of the head.
2. Secondary bending stress, Qb: examples are discontinuity stresses at stiffening
or support rings, and shell–nozzle juncture.
4.4.1.3 Peak Stress F
Examples are stresses at corner of a discontinuity, thermal stresses in a wall caused
by a sudden change in the surface temperature, thermal stresses in a cladding or wall
overlay, and stress due to the notch effect (stress concentration).
4.4.2 Shear Stress in a Cylindrical Shell

Shear stress in shells under bending is max at middle and is given by Eq. 3.20 V Q/(I b)
where
V = shear force, dO and di are outside and inside diameters
Q = area from top to centerline × distance middle to its CG
dO2 2dO di2 2di dO3 di3

8 3 8 3 12

Moment of inertia I = do4 di4 /64, b = 2 × thickness = (dO–di)
Substituting
V Q V (do3 di3 )/12

Shear stress =
b I do di (d 4 d 4 ) / 64
o i
For thin cylinders with mean radius (r)
r t (do2 di2 ) / 4, r 2t (do3 di3 ) / 24r 3t (do4 di4 ) / 64
Using the above equations, shear stress
V /(r t ) (4.3)
4.4.3 Allowable Stresses
Allowable stresses:
Allowable stress (S) refers to basic allowable stress for tensile or general mem-
brane stress.
S = min of Sy/(1.5 to 1.6) or St/(2.7 to 3.5) below the creep temperature

S = min of Sy/(1.5 to 1.6) or St/(2.7 to 3.5) or Sr/(1.25 to 1.50) or Sc,
above the creep temperature
where
SY = Yield strength at metal temperature (T)
St = Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) at ambient temperature
Sr = Average stress to produce rupture in 100,000 hours at T
Sc = Average stress to produce an elongation of 1% (creep) in 100,000 hours at
temperature
The above varies marginally in different codes mainly on the factor of safety.
If codes do not specify allowable stress, values of Sy, Sr, and Sc at temperature are
to be obtained specifically from material manufacturers. If the values are not avail-
able, specified UTS is used for computing the value of S. The Indian code for boilers
IBR specifies Sy at elevated temperatures = n St below the creep range.
Here the conservative value of n is given by

n 0.4, 0.38, 0.36, 0.34, and 0.32 for
T 250, 300, 350, 400, and 450C
Table 4.2 gives St at room temperature, and S at working temperature for commonly
used materials. Other allowable stresses will vary and depend on the type of stress
and loading and specifications along with the equations of respective design rules
and covered in respective chapters. Some of the general rules are given below.
1. 1.2 times when combined with seismic/wind/snow loads or loads can be

reduced by 1/1.2
2. 0.8 times for shear stress
Allowable stress for each type of stress or combination depends on whether primary
or secondary, general or local, thermal, etc. and is normally as given below:
Pm < S as the stress is uniform over thickness and due to sustained load
(Pb or PL or Qm or PL + Pb) < SPL as the stress is local or bending
TABLE 4.2
Allowable Stresses (appx.) in Mpa at Temperature °C of Some Commonly Used
C&LAS and SS Material
UTS 250C 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450
CS plates 450 118 117 115 112 108 104 89 76 63
CS plates 485 138 137 135 132 128 123 101 85 67
CS tubes 325 93 92.5 92 91 88 84 76 66 55
CS tubes & pipes 415 118 118 118 118 117 106 89 77 63
CS forgings 485 136 133 129 125 121 117 101 84 67
UTS 450C 475 500 525 550 575 600 625 650
Gr11 plates 515 143 107 73 52 36 25 18 12 8
gr11-tubes & pipes 415 97 95 77 51 37 25 18 12 8
Gr22 plates 515 130 116 89 64 45 30 20 13 8
gr22-tubes & pipes 415 114 100 81 64 48 35 24 16 9.5
gr91-tubes&pipes 585 141 134 126 117 107 89 65 46 29
UTS 300C 350 400 450 475 500 525 550 575
SS.18-8/304 515 116 111 107 103 101 99 97 93 80
SS.16-12-2Mo/316 515 119 114 111 108 108 107 106 105 100
SS18-10-ti/321 515 127 123 119 115 114 113 112 95 59
600C 625 650 675 700 725 750 775 800 825
SS.18-8/304 65 51 42 33 27 21 17 14 11 8
SS.16-12-2Mo/316 80 65 50 39 30 23 18 14 11 8
SS18-10-ti/321 45 33 24 18.3 12.6 8.4 6.2 4.4 2.8 1.6
(PL + Pb + Q) < SPS as the stress is self limiting

(PL + Pb + Q + F) < (>3S)
Peak stresses as specified in codes generally limited to 4S.
Where SPL = 1.5S and SPS = max (3S, 2Sy)
4.4.4 Thermal Stresses
Thermal stresses are developed whenever the expansion or contraction that would
occur normally as a result of heating or cooling of component is prevented. These are
“secondary stresses” because they are self-limiting. That is, yielding or deformation
of the part relaxes the stress. Thermal stress will not cause failure by rupture in ductile
material except by fatigue over repeated application. They can, however, cause failure
due to excessive deformations. All most all equipments (except piping) are rigid
between supports. Therefore, one support is designed as fixed and other sliding. If
both supports are fixed, expansion joint (bellow) is provided between them. In such
case, pressure thrust is induced in both fixed supports and generally not viable to
design support. For low pressures, ties are provided between two parts separated by
expansion joint to prevent supports from getting pressure thrust.
Piping systems are generally not rigid and providing one fixed and rest sliding
will land in vibration problems. Several supports or restraints are required to prevent
vibration. Pressure thrust is not high, and design of support or restraint is viable. A
system can be designed to provide sufficient flexibility. Bellows are provided for low
pressures and only when the required flexibility cannot be provided. Detailed analy-
sis is covered in Chapter 9.
Effects of discontinuity, openings, and attachments to shell and external loads are
covered in Chapters 7 and 8.
5 Internal Pressure
Notation: UTS – ultimate tensile stress, S – allowed stress, P – internal pressure, σ –

stress, t – shell thickness
Suffixes: m – meridian, L – longitudinal, t – tangential, o – outside, and i – inside
5.1 CYLINDRICAL PARTS
Notation:
R = radius at the point across thickness
Ri and Ro = inside and outside radius
k = Ro/Ri
Suffixes: c = circumferential (circ) r = radial
The three principal stresses in cylindrical parts under internal pressure by Lame’s
theory are:
1. Circ or hoop stress = σc = k1P Ri/t
2. Long stress = σL = k2P Ri/(2t), and
3. Radial stress = σr = k3PRi/t
where
( Ro /R )2 1
k1
Ro /R 1
2 Ri
k2
Ro Ri
( Ro /R)2 1
k3
Ro /R 1
5.1.1 Circumferential Stress
Circ stress is the maximum of the three principal stresses and varies across thickness
as per the value of k1, which is ≥1.
k2 1
k1 is maximum at inside and
k 1
k1 increases with the increase in thickness and is minimum at outside and equal to 1. For
thin cylinders (Ri/t > 10), k1 at inside is maximum 1.05 when Ri /t = 10. Therefore, stress
can be considered constant across thickness with maximum 5% error. Maximum stress
in the cylinder due to internal pressure is circumferential stress k1P Ri/t; therefore, min
thickness required for given pressure and to limit stress to allowed (S) is given by Eq. 5.1
P Ri
t= (5.1)
S/K1
49
Because this thickness cannot be found without iteration, S/k1 is replaced with a
lesser value of S in various boiler and pressure vessel codes, with S–0.6P in the code1.
It is valid up to t = Ri/2 or P = 0.385S. At the limiting value, the code equation gives
hoop stress almost the same as average stress across thickness by Lame’s equation.
The code equation gives a marginally higher thickness over Lame’s equation up to
the limiting condition and conservative.
Although S depends on the material and temperature, solving the code equation
with S = 100 MPa and P = 38.5 MPa, t is equal to Ri/2. That is, both code limits
match.
Applications more than the above pressure are very rare. Above the limiting con-
dition, the code gives less thickness than Lame’s equation, and the designer is advised
to use the equation from Ref. 2, which is based on maximum shear stress theory. The
Ref. 2 equation gives less thickness than that with the code.1
For low pressure (<2 MPa) or thin cylinder (Ri/t > 50), simple equation t = (P/S)Ri
gives less than 1% error over Lame’s equation. However, the correct thickness can be
found by replacing Ri by a higher radius little over the mean radius, meant for lowest
pressure and higher and higher as pressure goes up.
5.1.2 Longitudinal Stress
Longitudinal stress is the same across thickness. The K2 value is less than 1 and
reduces as pressure or thickness increases.
Therefore, S/k2 is replaced with a higher value of S, with S + 0.2P in the code1 and
valid for thickness and pressure the same as in circumferential stress. Longitudinal
stress is approximately half of σc. It is more than that with Lemi’s formula up to the
limiting pressure.
5.1.3 Radial Stress
Radial stress at inside is maximum and equal to P and zero at outside. It is much less
than other two principal stresses and insignificant for thin cylinders.
5.2 SPHERICAL PARTS
Two of the principal stresses other than radial in the spherical shell or hemispherical
dish under internal pressure are the same and approximately equal to σL of the cylin-
der with the same diameter. Thickness required is approximately half that of the
cylinder for the same parameters and given by
0.5P R i
t=
S / K1
The code1 gives the equation for calculating the thickness with limiting pressure
equal to 0.665S as follows:
P Ri / 2 S 0.1P

Internal Pressure 51
5.3 CONICAL PARTS
Notation (see also Figure 5.1)
R = mean radius perpendicular to axis
α = half cone angle
TC = cone thickness
At any point in the cone, two principal stresses exist as per membrane theory: tangential
and meridian. The actual radius at the point is equal to R/cos α.
The hoop stress is the same as that of the cylinder called equivalent cylinder with
radius equal to R/cos α and thickness required is calculated as an equivalent. However,
it is applicable only remote from its junction from the shell. At junctions, discontinu-
ity stresses are induced in addition to principal stresses in the cone, which are cov-
ered in Chapter 7. To understand the effect of discontinuity, consider the equilibrium
of forces at the shell to cone junction as shown in Figure 5.1. The figure is drawn with
the mean thickness and shows notation and forces.
For static equilibrium at point A
N = T cos α and F = T sin α
Substituting T = N/cosα and N = P R/2, the equation for F can be expressed as Eq. 5.2
F = P R tan α / 2 (5.2)
where F, T, and N are forces per unit circumference acting at A or B as shown in
Figure 5.1.
At junction A, force F is compressive, and the cone tends to deflect inwards and
the shell outwards under internal pressure. Reverse is the case at small end junction
point B, and force F is tensile.
For α ≤ 30°, a simplified analysis (reinforcement method) in lieu of discontinuity
stresses can be used. This method is based on calculating the area required to with-
stand additional radial force F and by providing the area in both shells and cone
locally at joint in addition to withstanding the hoop stress due to pressure and/or by
adding a reinforcing pad at the junction.
Reinforcement method: The required area (Ar) is directly proportional to R and F
(Eq. 5.2) and inversely to allowable stress S and given by
Ar = K F R /S
N A T F
T
N
F α B
R
cos α
R
FIGURE 5.1 Conical reducer.

The code1 gives a constant of proportion K(<1) = 1–Δ/α, where Δ = angle ≤ 30°
which depends on the ratio of P/S for each joint at large and small ends of the cone
and is given in Tables 1-5.1 and 1-5.2 of the code1.
K = 1 if the cylinder length at the large end is less than 2√(R t) and less than
1.4√(R t) at the small end. Due to the insufficient length, the shell will not contribute
reinforcement.
If Δ > α, K will become negative which indicates that the reinforcement area avail-
able in the cylinder and cone is adequate.
The available area is the area with net thickness in excess of max required thick-
ness to withstand pressure, and limiting lengths are given below.
Large end: shell R t , cone R TC /cos
Small end: shell 0.78 R t , cone 0.78 R t /cos )
The detailed calculation is illustrated by the example in Table 5.1.
TABLE 5.1
Compensation Calculation Due to Internal Pressure at Cone to Shell Junctions
Input data: pressure P = 1MPa, all. Stress S = 138MPa, E = 200000MPa Large (L) Small (s)
Thickness of the cone (half cone angle α = 30) TC mm 14 14

Thickness of cylindrical shells T mm 12 8
Mean radius R mm 1500 1000
Length of cylindrical shells La mm 300 300
Calculations:
Required thickness of the cone for pressure = P R/(S cos α} tC mm 12.55 8.37
Required thickness of shells at the junction for pressure = P R/S t mm 10.87 7.25
Reinforcement is not required if delta > α, where delta = f(P/S) P/S 7.2E-03 7.2E-3
Delta for large end = {11,15, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28.5, 30} for
[P/S = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)/1000] (note 2)
Delta for small end = {4,6,9,12.5,17.5, 24, 27, 30} for
[P/S = (2, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, 100, 125)/1000] (note 2)
Angle delta Δ depends on P/S Δ deg 27.37 6.00
If Δ > α, no check is required for compensation. Else check for compensation
Compensation check:
Radial force per unit circ given in Eq. 5.2 = P R tan α/2 F1 N/mm 433.0 288.7
Area required = (1–Δ/α)R F/S, if La < L, else Δ = 0 Ar mm2 412.7 966.2
Limits of comp. from shells, (large = 2√(R T), L mm 268.3 178.9
small = 1.4√(R T)
Area available = If La < L, shell area is ineffective, cone area = (TC–tC)√(R TC/cosα)
Area at large end = (T–t)√(R T) + (TC–tC)√(R TC/cosα) Aa mm2 377.3
Area at small end = 0.78√(R T)[(T–t) + (TC–tC)/cosα] Aa mm2 741.6
If Aa < Ar additional area is added by providing the pad on the cone within a distance of L from the junction
and centroid of the added area at a distance of 0.25L.
Because Aa < Ar add 25 × 10 pad at 30 mm from the junction on the cone at both ends.
Note 1: If external axial force Fe and moment M are added, F = [P R/2–Fe/(2πR) + M/(πR2)] tan α
Note 2: Reprinted from ASME 2019 BPVC, Section VIII-division 1, by permission of The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers
For α > 60°, the conical shell resembles a shallow shell and, finally, a circular
plate and can be analyzed by assuming a (conservative) flat circular ring with both
junctions as simply supported. For 30 < α > 60°, toriconical can be used or disconti-
nuity stresses can be analyzed as per Table 7.1 or by Rules 4.3.11 and 12 of Ref. 2. It
also gives the procedure to calculate the discontinuity stresses with knuckle.
A toriconical reducer consists of knuckle at the large end and flares at the small
end to overcome the sharp discontinuity at the cylinder to cone junction and will
greatly reduce discontinuity stresses.
Code rules for the toriconical reducer with α ≤ 30°: the thickness of the conical
portion of the head is the same as the conical shell provided knuckle inside radius
≥ 6% of ID of cone and also ≥ three times thickness of knuckle. The knuckle por-
tion thickness is the same as the torispherical head given by Eq. 5.4, L replaced by
Ri/cos α.
5.4 TOROIDAL SHELL AND TUBE BEND

Notation: (see also Figure 5.2)
Points i = intrados, e = extrados

Rt = tangential radius = R/sin θ
Ro = mean bend radius (radius of revolution)
r and t = radius and thickness of torus (tube)
A toroid (torus) is the membrane shell developed by the rotation of the closed curve,
usually a circle about an axis passing outside the generating curve as shown in
Figure 5.2. While an entire toroidal shell, such as an automobile tube, is rarely used
in pressure vessel components, segments are used for connecting two separate shells.
Tube bend is the segment of the toroidal shell.
The principal membrane longitudinal stresses (σL) can be derived by static equi-
librium between internal pressure P and membrane stress at any point b with radius
R and angle θ from axis of rotation yy as shown in Figure 5.2.
FIGURE 5.2 Toroidal shell.

The pressure effect on ac is equal and opposite and that on ab is resisted by the sin
component of thickness over circumference with radius R at point b and given by the
equation
P ( R 2 Ro2 ) L t sin (2R)
Rewriting
L P( R Ro )( R Ro ) /(2t R sin )
Substituting R–Ro = ab = r sin θ
L ( P r / 2t )( R Ro ) /R (5.3)
At intrados point i, where R = Ro–r
L ( P r / 2t )[(2 Ro r ) /(Ro r )]
At extrados point e, where R = Ro + r
L ( P r / 2t )[(2 Ro r ) / ( Ro r )]
At point c, where R = Ro the same as hoop stress of the cylinder with radius r, and is
given by
L P r /t
Longitudinal stress σL varies and is maximum at point c and minimum at e.
Tangential stress σt which is a circle with radius r is the same as longitudinal stress
of the cylinder with radius r which is the same at any point and given by Eq. 5.4
t P r /2t (5.4)
This can also be derived from membrane theory Eq. 4.2

t /Rt L /r P /t
t P( R RO ) / (2t sin ) P r /(2t )
Applying the above theory for tube bends under internal pressure, stress σL at extra-
dos (e) is less than the straight pipe and more at intrados (i) as per Eq. 5.3. Therefore,
when the tube is bent, its thickness at the outer radius is reduced and the inner radius
is increased, and this thinning can be allowed to the extent of the above equations.
Some codes give this provision, but ASME codes do not allow. Actually when tested,
the bend fails at the inner radius.
5.5 END CLOSURES
Shells require to be closed at both ends. Types of closures are flat, conical, and
formed. Formed end closures can be many to the designer’s expertise, but normally
hemispherical, ellipsoidal, toriconical, and flat with knuckle (in order of reducing
depth, cost, and resistance to pressure) are used. In addition to membrane and
bending stresses in end closures, discontinuity stresses are induced in shells and end
closures at the junction. Refer Chapter 7 for discontinuity stress analysis. The coni-
cal shell covered in 5.3 without the small end closes the connected cylindrical shell.
5.5.1 Flat
Flat is simple but requires higher thick and more weight compared to formed, practi-
cally economical only to small diameters and low pressures.
Refer Chapter 10 for flat plate fundamentals and analysis of flat circular and rect-
angular end closures.
5.5.2 Hemispherical
The hemi-spherical head is half of the spherical shell, and analysis is the same as that
for the spherical shell in Section 5.2. However, discontinuity stresses exist at its junc-
tion with the shell due to the difference in hoop strain which is normally insignifi-
cant. Discontinuity stresses are covered in Chapter 7.
The code gives the same equation given to the spherical shell for stress but the
limitation is different and given by T ≥ 0.356L or P ≥ 0.663S, where L is the internal
radius.
5.5.3 Ellipsoidal
Figure 5.3 shows the mean profile of the ellipsoidal head and notation.
The geometrical property of the ellipse is
x 2 /a 2 y 2 /b 2 1
Y
r
A
P
σm
b=h
B
a=R
m
R
θ
t
R
FIGURE 5.3 Semiellipsoidal head.

where
a and b are semiaxes of an ellipse.
a/b = R/h = k, and a, b, R, h, and other symbols are as shown in Figure 5.3.
Practically, this relation is used with outside dimensions
Half of the ellipse has max radius in middle (crown) point A and is gradually
reduced to min radius at 90° apart at point B. If k = 1, the depth b is equal to the radius
of shell a, which is spherical. If k = 2, the depth is equal to half the radius of the shell
and called 2:1 semiellipsoidal.
Radius Rt and Rm vary continuously and at any point P with latitudinal radius r
(0 to a) and can be derived from the geometrical property and are given by
Rt R 2 ( R /h)2 (1 R 2 /h2 )r 2 (5.5)

Rm = Rt3 h2 /R 4 (5.6)
Calculation of σm and σt: By equilibrium at latitudinal plane at P
2r t m sin r 2 P
Rewriting
Pr
m
2t sin
Substituting Rt for r/sin θ, we obtain
P Rt
m (5.7)
2t
Using Eq. 4.2 of membrane theory and substituting σm from Eq. 5.7 in Eq. 4.2, σt can
be derived
m /Rm t /Rt P /t
P Rt
t ( P /t m /Rm ) Rt P /t Rt
2t Rm
P Rt Rt
t 1 2 R (5.8)
t m
At point A, Rt = Rm and substituting in Eq. 5.6
=
Rt R=
m R 2 /h (5.9)
Substituting Rt from Eq. 5.9 in Eqs. 5.7 and 5.8, and k for R/h
P R2 k P R
m (5.10)
2t h 2t
P ( R 2 /h) 1 P R 2 k P R
t 1 2 2t h 2t same as Eq. 5.10
t
At point B, Rm = h2/R and Rt = R substituting in Eqs. 5.7 and 5.8
m P R / 2t
R2 R
h

t ( P R /t ) 1 2 ( P R /t ) 1 k 2 / 2 ] P (2 k 2 )
2 2t
(5.11)

If R2/2h2 > 1 or k > 1.414, σt will become compressive.

Hence as the k (>1) value (hemispherical = 1) increases, stress increases at A and
decreases at B until k = √2, then reverses to compression and increases. At k = 2,
max stress is the same at A and B (compressive at B) and given by Eq. 5.12 which is
the same as the connected shell.
t P R / t (5.12)
For k > 2 (code covers up to 3), stress at B increases sharply, and being compressive
is not recommended. Due to discontinuity, moment is induced at the B shell to head
joint, and the additional bending stress is induced. The elliptical profile undergoes
deformation due to pressure and tries to become more spherical. Such deformation
induces moment which will cause compression in the head at the joint and tension
in the shell. Figure 5.4 shows the exaggerated deformation mean profile of the ellip-
tical head in the dotted line. The shell at the tan point bends and tan point B will
shift to C.
C
SHELL
B
DISHED END
FIGURE 5.4 Deformation of the elliptical head.

The code1 gives the equation for thickness with limitation t/L ≥ 0.002
PDK
t
2(S 0.1P )
where K = (2 + k2)/6
For 2:1 semiellipsoidal (k = D/2h = 2)
t = P Ri/(S–0.1P) or stress = P(Ri/t + 0.1) appx = P Rmean/t, which is the same as
Eq. 5.12.
For 0.0005 < t/L < 0.002, refer section 5.5.5.
5.5.4 Torispherical
Figure 5.5 shows the torispherical mean profile and notation.Torispherical has two
radii, smaller radius (r) at the end called knuckle and larger at rest of the center called
crown radius (L). For a given k (≥1) = R/h = a/b = shell radius to head depth, one
extreme case is with the crown radius is infinity (straight line) and knuckle radius
maximum ( = b) to other extreme with knuckle radius almost zero and crown radius
minimum equal to spherical, an infinity number of knuckle and crown radii combina-
tions exist. It can be noticed that the crown radius increases from its minimum value
a to infinity and knuckle radius from zero to maximum b, and the ratio of the knuckle
radius to crown radius goes from zero to maximum and back to zero. When this ratio
is maximum, the resulting torispherical head most closely approximates to the ellip-
tical head. The discontinuity increases from min at the first extreme case to max at
other, and the junction of knuckle and crown produces additional discontinuity.
Deformation of crown due to pressure is trying to become elliptical, that is, the radius
reduces from A to B max at B.
FIGURE 5.5 Torispherical head.

The maximum ratio r/L is related to k (2 to 3) by Eq. 5.13.
r (k 2 1) k
(5.13)
L ( k2 1 1
The membrane stress is maximum in the crown portion. As per the beam theory, the
crown to knuckle junction is considered as a fixed boundary and the crown portion as
the curved beam is under uniformly distributed load (UDL) due to internal pressure.
In the knuckle portion apart from membrane stress, bending moment exists in the
entire knuckle portion and max at the junction. Combined stress is max at the junc-
tion. Membrane stresses in crown portion as per membrane theory are
m t P L/2t (5.14)
and in the knuckle portion at point B, the knuckle to crown junction is
m P r/2t
σt can be derived using Eq. 4.2 of membrane theory
t /rt m /r P /t
Substituting σm from Eq. 5.14
P rt
t
2t
where
rt = tangential radius of knuckle at the junction
The knuckle radius less than three times thickness and less than 6% of the inside
diameter, and crown radius more than the inside diameter will have large local
stresses due to discontinuity. The torispherical dished heads with the above limits are
not permitted by the code. L and r are used for the inside radius in the code.
The code gives the equation of thickness for t/L ≥ 0.002 and knuckle radius r ≥
0.06L and d L ≤ Do as follows:
0.8885P L
t
S 0.1P
If the limits except t/L ≥ 0.002 exceed, the thickness is given as follows:
PLM (5.15)
t
2(S 0.1P )
where M is the stress intensification factor = [3 + √(L/r)]/4

For 0.0005 < t/L < 0.002, refer section 5.5.5 below.
5.5.5 Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads with 0.0005 < t/L < 0.002
Deformation is appreciable leading to buckling in the knuckle portion. The code
gives equations to calculate min pressure (Pr) at which knuckle will fail by buckling
[Appendix 1.4(f)(1)(2)] and is given by Eq. 5.15
Pr = Pe /(1.5Py ) (5.16)
where
Pe = internal pressure expected to produce elastic buckling = C3 Se
Py = pressure expected to result in yield stress at the point of max stress = C3 Sy
Sy and E = yield stress and elastic modulus at temperature and Se = elastic buck-
ling stress = C1 E (t/r)
Constants a, b, ø, β, c, and Re; a = D/2–r, b = L–r, ø = L t /r, β = Acos(a/b),
and D = inside diameter of the head
L = crown inside radius for torispherical and for ellipsoidal = K1 D
r = knuckle inside radius for torispherical and for ellipsoidal = K2 D
K2 = {0.5, 0.37, 0.29, 0.24, 0.2, 0.17, 0.15, 0.13, 0.12, 0.11, 0.1}
K1 = {0.5, 0.57, 0.65, 0.73, 0.81, 0.9, 0.99, 1.08, 1.18, 1.27, 1.36}
For D/2h = {1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3}
c: [if ø < β, c = a, else c = a/cos (β–ø)], Re = c + r
Coefficients C1 and C2 = A + B r/D, where A and B are constants given below
(A, B) = if [r/D > 0.08 (for C1 = 0.692, 0.605, for C2 = 1.46, −2.6), else (for C1 =
9.32, −0.056, for C2 = 1.25, 0)]
C3 = C2(t/Re)(0.5Re/r–1)
5.6 FAILURE ANALYSIS
The stress equation of any part for any load will indicate the factors responsible for
the increase of stress. For internal pressure load, the failure of the cylindrical shell is
due to hoop stress. The increase of diameter and decrease of thickness will increase
hoop stress in the cylindrical shell. When hoop stress reaches the yield point, yield-
ing starts longitudinally at a point generally remote from support planes where the
diameter is more due to ovality or reduced thickness due to erosion or corrosion. Due
to yield, the diameter increases and thickness reduces, which will further increase
hoop stress even when the pressure is same, further yield, and so on. When stress
reaches ultimate tensile stress and the shell opens longitudinally (bursts) with a small
length and the fluid comes out with velocity, simultaneously pressure and stress start
FIGURE 5.6 Hoop stress failure of the tube.

reducing and the opening length increases until the stress drops to yield stress. The
shell looks like as shown in Figure 5.6.
Stresses due to other loads normally do not combine with hoop stress, but they do
combine with longitudinal stress due to pressure. This combined stress is membrane
cum bending and yields when stress reaches the yield point. Unlike in hoop stress,
the progressive damage generally does not take place as long as the loads remain the
same. When other loads increase, combined stress enters the plastic range and
depending on the type of other load stress may relax for self-limiting or bending
tensile failure may occur for primary bending loads. In the former case, brittle failure
takes place on reaching fatigue cycles. In the latter case on tensile bending, failure
takes place. On reaching yield across the entire tensile half area, yielding starts and
on reaching ultimate tensile stress (UTS) circumferential crack develops at the
extreme outer edge. As the fluid leaks out, pressure and stress reduce and crack
development stops when stress drops to its yield point. As such materials used in
pressure parts are ductile (long gap between yield point and UTS), the failure is time
taking if not rare and less dangerous unlike hoop stress failure.
REFERENCES
1. Code: ASME S VIII D-1, 2019
2. ASME S VIII D-2, 2019
6 External Pressure
The action of external pressure on all pressure parts other than a flat plate is similar
to the distortion of compressive flange of the I-beam in beam theory. The boundary
planes are formed depending on the geometry of the part, and the portion under this
boundary will buckle forming dish in reverse side with the mean surface area remain-
ing the same. The max pressure the part can withstand depends on its geometry (D/t
and L/D) and physical properties of the material (E, yield stress, and tangent modu-
lus) at the component temperature. Higher the d/t and L/d, lower is the resistance to
pressure. Basics of analysis are similar for all shells and are covered for cylindrical
shells. For other shells, only code1 rules are explained.
6.1 CYLINDER
Notation:
PC = theoretical critical external pressure at which a long cylindrical shell will
collapse by buckling
A = Strain coincident to Pc (same as in Ref. 2)
B = allowable stress for external pressure depends on yield stress and A
D = outside diameter of shell
E = elastic modulus
k = collapse coefficient
f = critical buckling stress at Pc
I = MI = moment of inertia
L = length (effective) between two sections with resistance to retain the circularity
against external pressure.
LC = critical length over which A remains constant.
Pa = allowed pressure
t = thickness
v = Poisson’s ratio
External pressure will induce hoop stress of the same value as internal pressure, but
compressive instead of tensile. However, stress being compressive allowable stress is
less than tensile and depends on L/D and D/t ratios.
6.1.1 Effects on Analysis for Variations in L/D and D/t Ratios

a. A very short cylindrical shell with L < t or [L/D < 0.25 and D/t < 4] is not stressed,
and entire pressure load is resisted by ends. It is rigid and transfers the load to both
ends without any deformation. Therefore, stress induced can be neglected.
b. A short and thick shell (L/D < 2.2 and D/t < 4) fails by plastic yielding alone
at high stresses close to the yield strength. The pressure effect is almost pure
compression. Local buckling is not present. Stress and allowable stress are the
same as internal pressure.
63
c. Long and thin shell (L/D > 2.2 and/or D/t > 10) buckles at stresses below the
yield point. Corresponding critical pressure Pc is a function of D/t, L/D and E.
For L < Lc, the shell buckles into multiple lobes and for L > Lc, Pc is indepen-
dent of L, and the shell collapses into one or two lobes by buckling.
6.1.2 Critical Length
The critical length depends on D/t and is given by
Lc 4 6 / 27 (1 v 2 )0.25 D D /t
Substituting v = 0.3 for steels
Lc = 1.11D D /t (6.1)
LC is independent of pressure and is useful in selecting the spacing of stiffeners.

Stiffeners are effective only if they are spaced at less than LC. Tubes normally used
are with D/t < 25 and LC > 5.55D. Hence for D/t < 25, stiffeners are not required for
tubes irrespective of their length
6.1.3 Critical Pressure
Critical pressure (Pc) can be derived by elastic theory for a strip (dS) subtend (dθ) at
axis of unit length of cylindrical shell of radius (RO) diameter (D) and unit width of
circumference as follows using the flexure formula and is briefly explained below.
For a complete derivation, refer 8.1 of Ref. 3.
On applying external pressure P, it will deflect by w and the radius increases to
r, and dθ will increase to dθ + Δdθ, ds to ds + Δds as shown in Figure 6.1. Flexure
formula Eq. 3.11 for beam, M = EI/R can be converted for the above strip as
FIGURE 6.1 Cyl. shell deformation under ext. pressure.

External Pressure 65
1 1
M EI
ro r
Expressions for r, rO, and dθ can be computed by geometry as
rO ds/d, r (ds ds)/(d d), and d (ds ds)/(rO w)
Using the above equations, PC can be derived by integration and is given by
=
PC 3=
EI/ro3 24EI/D3 (6.2)

Substituting I = t3/12
2E (6.3)
Pc =
( D /t )3
The adjacent metal either side of strip offers restraint to the longitudinal deformation
of the strip. To allow this restraint, multiply Eq. 6.3 by k/2 to obtain Eq. 6.4
KE (6.4)
Pc =
( D /t )3
Case 1: L > Lc and D/t > 10

K is independent of geometry = 2/(1–v2)
For steels with v = 0.3, K = 2.2
Substituting the K value in Eq. 6.4
2.2 E (6.5)
Pc =
( D /t )3
Case 2: L < Lc and D/t > 10

K is different from case 1 and depends on both the ratios D/t and L/D and can be
read from Figure 8.3 in Ref. 3.
The approximate equation for K is given by
( D /t ) (6.6)
K = 2.6
L /D
Substituting K from Eq. 6.6 in Eq. 6.4
2.6 E
Pc = (6.7)
( D /t )2.5 ( L /D)

Pa can be calculated by dividing Pc by the factor of safety (4 to 5) which depends on
L/D, D/t, and tangent modulus.
6.1.4 Strain Coincident to Pc
Strain A is derived by substituting Pc from Eq. 6.4 for P in the hoop stress equation
(σc = P D/2t) and stress f for σc
f = ( k / 2 ) E ( t /D ) 2 (6.8)

Substituting f from Eq. 6.8 in equation A = f/E
A = (k / 2)(t /D)2 (6.9)

6.1.5 Comparison of the above Equations with Code Equations

The value of A by Eq. 6.9 is the same as A in Ref. 2 for D/t >10 and almost the same for
D/t < 10. It may be observed from graph A of Ref. 2 that the A value is constant beyond
a certain ratio of L/D. This is the same as case 1. Rest of the curve is the same as case 2.
The values of Pc and f depend on E, which is not valid above the proportional
limit; instead tangent modulus (Et) is relevant.
Et is much less than E. It is equal to stress/strain above the proportional limit and
not constant. Due to the effect of tangent modulus, Eqs. 6.5 and 6.7 will deviate from
actual values. Exact (practical) values can be calculated as per Ref. 2 rules.
Table 6.1 illustrates comparison of analysis of the above theory and code rules
with examples.
TABLE 6.1
Comparison of Code and Theory 6.1 for Cylindrical Shells Under External
Pressure
L-length 88 176 1600 1000 600 2000 3000 60000
D-OD 40 80 80 100 200 200 3000 3000
t-thickness 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
L/D 2.2 2.2 20 10 3 10 1 20
D/t 4 8 8 10 20 20 300 300
LC/L L< LC L< LC L> LC L> LC L< LC L> LC L< LC L> LC
A.code 0.0959 0.0262 0.0174 0.0111 0.0045 0.0028 2.54E-04 1.30E-05
A = Eq. 6.8 0.0739 0.0261 0.0172 0.011 4.84E-03 2.75E-03 2.50E-04 1.22E-05
B code 118 118 105 101 88 82 62 1.2233
k1 0.4585 0.1876 0.1876 0.1334 0.0251 0.0251 −0.0761 −0.0761
k2 0.3333 0.1667 0.1667 0.1333 0.0667 0.0667 0.0044 0.0044
Pa code 54.0971 22.1339 19.6954 13.4734 5.8667 5.4667 0.2756 0.0054
LC = Eq. 6.1 88.8 251.2 251.2 351.0 992.8 992.8 57677.3 57677.3
K 2.36 3.34 2.20 2.20 3.88 2.20 45.03 2.20
Pc NA 1228.7 808.7 414.0 91.2 51.8 0.3139 0.0153
Equations from 6.1 Code equations Temp = 260°C B = AE/2
A = K/[2(D/t)2] Pa = B[if(D/t>10, K2, K1)] E = 188200 MPa
Lc = 1.11*D√(D/t) k1 = 2.167/(D/t)–0.0833
K = IF(L>Lc,2.2,2.6√(D/t)/(L/D) k2 = 4/(3B)
Pc = KE/(D/t)³ A code = if[D/t<4, 1.1/(D/t)2, graph]
Units: N, mm B = graph, AE/2 if A is left of graph
When the value of A or t/D is more than a certain value, the failure is by elastic–
plastic buckling rather than by elastic failure. The value of A or t/D to which this
effect is relevant depends on temperature, material, and shell geometry. For C&LAS
with yield stress Y > 207 at 260°C, the value of A = 0.00065, above which the allow-
able stress B will not increase at the same rate but almost remain constant at higher
values of A > 0.03.
Calculation of allowed pressure as per the code1
Case 1: For D/t ≥ 10, Pa = (4/3)B(D/t)
Read A from graph or table in Ref. 2 for L/D (0.05–50) & D/t (4–1000).
Read B is approximate allowed stress and available from the curve or table in
Ref. 2.
B = A E/2 If the B value is left of the curves
Case 2: For D/t < 10, Pa is calculated as follows:
If D/t < 4, A is calculated from Eq. 6.9 with k = 1.1
Pa = smaller of Pa1 or Pa 2 (6.10)

where
2.167
Pa1 B 0.0833
D / t
2 Sb
Pa 2 (1 t /D)
( D /t )
Sb Min (2S, 0.9 yield)
Pa allowed pressure calculated from the code may be compared with Eq. 6.7 using the
factor of safety in example Table 6.1.
Refer Appendix 3 in Ref. 2 for basis of establishing charts for A and B. The tan-
gent modulus is used for buckling stresses above the proportional limit.
6.1.6 Design of a Circumferential Stiffener Ring

Because thickness to resist external pressure increases with effective length (Le), stiff-
eners are provided to reduce L. Stiffeners can be given inside or outside and of any
section. The stiffener ring will resist external load for a length (L) equal to sum of half
the length on either side of stiffener. The pressure per unit length on the ring at col-
lapse is equal to the product of Pt and L, which is equal to Pc in Eq. 6.2. Therefore,
Pt L = 24 EI /D 3
where Pt = theoretical collapse pressure per unit length
I = MI per unit length
For the stiffener, Pt and I are considered as external pressure P and Is = MI of the
stiffener ring required; the above equation can be written as P L = 24E IS/D³.
Rewriting, moment of inertia of ring IS required is given by Eq. 6.11
P D3L (6.11)
Is =
24 E
PD
Using the hoop stress equation ( f = ), P = 2f t/D and E = f/A
2t
2f t f
P /E / 2 t A /D
D A
Substituting, 2t A/D for P/E in Eq. 6.11
A (6.12)
I s = D2 L t
12
Moment of inertia of the ring and shell will act together to resist collapse. This com-
bined M.I. required (IC) may be considered as equivalent to that of a thicker shell
with thickness (tY) given by
ty t As a /L
where AS = cross-sectional area of the stiffener ring

Substituting tY for t in Eq. 6.12
A A
IC D 2 L t S (6.13)
L 12
Code1 equations for comparison are
IC D 2 L (t A S /L ) A /10.9
I D 2 L (t A S /L ) A /14
which are almost the same as Eqs. 6.12 and 6.13

For allowed pressure (B), the code gives equation
B 3/ 4[ PD /(t A S /L )
Strain A coincident to B can be read from the graph or table in Ref. 2 for the value
of B.
For compiling the effective length of the shell for calculating provided MI (IC),
expression 1.1 ( D t ) is used.
Design philosophy of stiffeners: Because required combined MI of the stiffener
plus shell is about 28% higher than that of the stiffener alone, and the actual combined
MI is couple of times more than that of the stiffener alone; select a suitable bar
stiffener to the required IS which is simple. Select thickness of bar ≤ shell thickness,
and depth ≤ 10 times thickness. In the case of depth limitation, use a channel with
required IS.
6.2 HEMISPHERICAL HEAD
Theoretical collapsing external pressure over the spherical shell of outside radius R
is derived similar to the cylindrical shell in 6.1.2.2

Pc 2 E / ( R /t )2 [3 (1 v 2 )]
with v = 0.3 for steels,
Pc = 1.21E (t /R)2 (6.14)
Applying the factor of safety Pa can be calculated.

The code1 gives equations for calculating Pa below.
Strain at critical pressure A = 0.125(t/R)
Read max allowable stress B for A and yield stress from the graph or table in
Ref. 2.
Allowable pressure is given by the equation combining B and hoop stress and
given by
B = PR /t
Substituting Pa for P
Pa = B(t /R)
If A is to left of the curve Pa = 0.0625E(t/R)²

The difference of code equation and Eq. 6.14 is due to tangent modulus used in
code.
6.3 ELLIPSOIDAL AND TORISPHERICAL HEADS

Pa is min at crown point and more in the knuckle region unless buckling governs. Pc
is the same as Eq. 6.14 with R as the crown radius for torispherical and KD as the
radius for ellipse.
The code1 allows two procedures.
First: Allowed pressure on the convex side is 1.67 times that of pressure on the
concave side.
Second: The same procedure as the spherical head except crown outside radius in
place of R. In the case of elliptical head whose radius varies from maximum at center
to minimum at end, the equivalent radius K D depends on D/2h, where h is the
outside height of dish and d is the diameter of the head.
For 2:1 semiellipsoidal D/2h = 2, k = 0.9, for other values of D/2h, k is given below.
k = {0.5, 0.57, 0.65, 0.73, 0.81, 0.9, 0.99, 1.08, 1.18, 1.27, 1.36}
For {D/2h = (1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3)}
6.4 CONICAL PARTS
For half cone angle α ≤ 60°, analysis is the same as the equivalent cylinder with te =
t cosα, and Le equivalent length (as defined in 6.1) = (L/2)[1 + (RL/Rs)], and L/2 for
the head (Figure UG 33.1 of the code1 shows the details of Le). For α > 60°, the cone
is analyzed as a flat plate with diameter equal to the large diameter of the cone. An
eccentric cone is analyzed with large or small α.
As described in 5.3 and Figure 5.1, an additional force component in vertical
direction (F = P R tan α/2) induces discontinuity stresses for external pressure also.
Forces F, T, and N in case of external pressure are opposite to those shown in Figure
5.1. The stresses are compressive at the small end and also compressive if F < P R,
that is, if α is more than about 63°. The compensation procedure is similar to that
described in calculations in Table 5.1. The difference is mainly the area required.
The analysis is illustrated by calculations in Table 6.2. Because the stresses are
TABLE 6.2
Compensation calculations due to external pressure at the cone to shell
junction
Data: P = 0.5, S = 138, E = 190000 in Mpa, units: mm, N UOS Large.L Small.s
Outside Radius of cone, material SA-516 70, temp = 234° Rc 760 510
Thickness of cone (half cone angle α=39°) Tc 10 10
Thickness of cylindrical shells T 10 8
Outside radius of the shell, material SA-516 70 R 760 508
Length of the cylindrical shell L 300 160
Calculations:
Required thickness of the cone for pressure as per code tc 8 5.8
Required thickness of shells for pressure as per code t 8 5.8
Reinforcement is not required for large end if α < Δ, where Δ = f(P/S),
not applicable to small end. P/S 0.00362
S*E/(Sr*Er) for the large end, E and S are the same for all parts k 1
Angle in degrees for large end depends on P/S given below Δ 6.082
Δ = {5, 7, 10, 15, 21, 29, 33, 37, 40, 47, 52, 57, 60} for
P/S = (0.2, 0.5,1,2, 4, 8, 10, 12.5, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35)/100, (note 1)
Compensation check: Fe and Me are external axial force and moment and zero
Limits of compensation for shells, large = 2√(R T), and small=1.4√(R T) h 174.4 89.2
Force/unit circ = P R/2 + Fe/(2πR) + Me/(πR2), N/mm F 190 127
because L > h, Ar = Rc k F tanα/S Ar 814.3 379
Aa = Area available in shell and cone: if L < h, shell area is ineffective and Aa = Eq.1 for
large end and Eq. 2 for small end, else Aa = Eq. 3 for large end and Eq. 4 for small end.
Eq. 1 = 0.55(Tc/cosα)√(2Rc Tc), Eq. 2 = 0.55√(2Rc Tc)(Tc - tc)/cosα
Eq. 3 = 0.55(T+Tc/cosα)√(2Rc T), Eq. 4 = 0.55[(T-t)+(Tc-tc)/cosα]√(2R T)
since L > h, eq. (3) & (4) are applicable Aa 1555 378
Aa < Ar for small end. Reinforcing ring external bar 50 x10 is provided.
Note 1: Reprinted from ASME 2019 BPVC, Section VIII-Division 1, by permission of The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
compressive for external pressure, the required compensation is provided by a ring

instead of pad.
Reinforcement ring moment of inertia calculation for small end: units N, mm,
MPa
LC = 311 = Length of cone = (RL − Rs)/tanα
Le = 400 = Length of the cone between stiffeners, max = L2C ( RL RS )2
AS = 50*10 = 500 = Area of the stiffener ring
At = 3140 = Effective area of (shell + cone) + As = (L T + Le Tc)/2 + As
M = 79.27 = Lc/2 − R∙ tan α/2 + (RL2 − Rs2)/(C R tan α), C = 6 (3 for the large end)
f = 39.64 = P M + Fe tan α, if < 0, NA and FEA may be carried out. Fe = 0
B = 9.66 = Allowable stress = 1.5f Rc/At
A = 0.000104 = From curve (Ref. 2) depends on B and Y, if B is left of graph, A
= 2B/E
IS = 23801 = Required MI of the stiffener ring = A 4RC2 At /14
IS = 30571 = Required combined MI of shell/cone/ring = A 4Rc2 At/10.9
I = 104167 = MI of the stiffener ring provided
I = 319640 = Combined MI of shell/cone/ring provided [shell length ≤ 1.5 R T ]
Ring shall be placed on shell within a distance ( R T = 64) and its centroid within
distance (0.25 R T ) from junction and on cone if L < h.
REFERENCES
1. Code: ASME S VIII D-1, 2019.
2. ASME S IID, 2019.
3. Process Equipment Design, L. E. Brownell & E. H. Young, 1959.
7 Discontinuity Stresses
Notation UOS: S: basic allowed stress, P: internal pressure, σ: stress, v: Poisson’s

ratio, E: elastic modulus, y: radial deflection, θ: rotation, R: mean radius, t: thickness,
Q: edge shear force, and M: edge moment.
Suffixes: c: circumferential and L: longitudinal.
7.1 GENERAL
The pressure vessel consists of axially symmetrical elements of different geometries,
thicknesses, and physical properties, and dissimilar materials with different expan-
sion coefficients. Individual shell elements are allowed to expand (deform) freely as
separate sections under any variation mentioned above; each such shell element
would have an edge radial displacement and rotation of the meridian tangent that
would differ from that of the adjacent shell element or component. Because both are
to deflect and rotate together, the difference in such deflection and rotation results in
local shell deformations and stresses to preserve the physical continuity of the shell.
Stresses induced by such interaction of two shell elements at their junction are called
discontinuity stresses. Some examples are junctions between the cylindrical shell
and hemispherical, ellipsoidal, torispherical, and conical heads; crown to knuckle
joint of the torispherical head, butt joint in shells of dissimilar thickness and proper-
ties, and shell to nozzle or other attachments.
Discontinuity stresses are usually not serious under static loads such as internal
pressure with ductile materials if the degree of discontinuity is kept low by design,
but they become important in cyclic loading. Under steady loading, they are self-
limiting, meaning that a small plastic relaxation will reduce the acting force. The
discontinuity stresses combine with longitudinal (meridian) stresses, and their effect
in the circumferential direction is limited. However, the combined stress in the lon-
gitudinal direction will generally (except spherical shells) may not exceed allowed,
because the longitudinal membrane stress due to pressure is less than half of that
allowed. In average application, they will not lead to failure but fail after several
cycles of operation. These stresses will become important factors in fatigue design
where cyclic loading is a consideration. Design of the juncture of the two parts is a
major consideration in reducing these stresses. Codes specify design rules in restrict-
ing the degree of discontinuity. Few tips are listed in 7.9.
Discontinuity stresses at the junction of cylindrical shells with other shells and
heads under internal pressure load are covered in this chapter, and discontinuity
stresses at the junction of shells with attachments such as nozzles, supports, etc., due
to pressure and external forces are covered in Chapter 8.
73
7.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE
Step 1: Radial deflection y due to internal pressure: Calculate local radial deflection
at discontinuity of both adjacent components as free parts (not connected) due to
pressure load as given below by membrane and elastic theories. Rotation is zero as
membrane shells do not rotate due to pressure. Radial deflection is equal to radial
strain multiplied by radius.
Using equations: Radial strain = σc/E-v σL/E, σc = P R/t, and σL = P R/2t
y P R 2 (1 v / 2) /(E t )
Or y per unit P
y /P R 2 (1 v / 2) /(E t ) (7.1)

Similarly, y per unit P can be derived for other shells and heads.
Step 2: y and θ due to Q and M: Due to the difference in y in edges of both shells
under internal pressure, edge shear forces equal and opposite are induced. Due to Q,
both edges deform and rotate. Rotation may be different for both, due to which equal
and opposite edge moments are induced. y and θ due to Q and M above as well as due
to external and thermal loads are added. The vector total y is equal and that of θ will
be equal and opposite on both edges forming two equations, and by solving two
unknowns, Q and M are obtained.
y and θ due to Q and M are calculated by elastic theory and can be expressed in
matrix Eq. 7.2.
[y, ] [K] [Q, M] (7.2)

where K = flexibility matrix 2 × 2.

Sign convention: outward displacements are positive, and anticlockwise rotations
are positive. To rotate together, signs of both rotations are opposite unlike displace-
ments both of which have the same sign. Because it is not easy to feel the direction
of movements without knowing the directions of Q and M, the direction of Q and M
is assumed so that they are equal and opposite as shown in Figure 7.1. Even if they
Q
1 M M
2
R Q R
FIGURE 7.1 Cylinder to hemispherical head.

Discontinuity Stresses 75
TABLE 7.1
Elements of [K] for Discontinuity Stresses
y/θ P/Q/M Cylinder Sphere Cone
yp P R(σc–v σL)/E R(σc–v σL)/E R(σc–v σL)/E cos α

yq/Q Q 1/(2β3D) = d (2R2β)/(E t) d cos2 α/(k n)2
ym/M M 1/(2β2D) (2R2β2)/(E.t) d β cos α/(k2 n3)
θq/Q Q 1/(2β2D) (2R2β2)/(E.t) d β2 cos α/(k2n3)
θm/M M 1/(β D) (4R2β3)/(E t) 2d β2/(k n3)
are wrong, it will correct giving the negative sign in the calculated values of Q and
M. In the calculation, correct signs as per the above convention shall be given for y
& θ while forming Eq. 7.2
Refer Table 7.1 for elements of flexibility matrix [K] for cylindrical, spherical,
and conical shells/heads for calculating deflection and rotation due to pressure, shear
force, and moment loads, which are calculated as per membrane and elastic theory.
The stiffness is valid for continuity of diameter and thickness for a length more than
a limit called the bending boundary zone of the shells.
Step 3: Calculation of radial deflection and rotation due to thermal loads: Radial
deflection due to temperature (T) is equal to α R T, where α = coefficient of thermal
expansion. No rotation is induced due to temperature. Generally, the temperature is
the same for both and has no effect. In the case of dissimilar materials with a differ-
ence in α, radial deflection is effective. α for C&LAS is the same, but it is different
for high alloys and stainless steels.
Step 4: Calculation of Q and M: Add y and θ due to all loads calculated above for
both shells and form two equations with two unknowns Q and M, and by solving,
values of Q and M are obtained.
Step 5: Calculation of combined longitudinal and tangential stresses: Combined
longitudinal σLC and circumferential σCC (tangential stresses σtC) due to pressure and
Q and M are given by Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4.
LC p 6M/t 2 (7.3)

tC p m +b (7.4)

where
σp = pressure stress (long or tangential)
σm = membrane stress due to Q & M = E × strain = E(Q yq + M ym)/R
σb = bending stress due to Poisson’s ratio effect of M = 6v M/t²
Allowed stress for σp + σm is 1.5 times basic allowed stress (S) as σm is local mem-
brane stress and 3S for membrane + bending stress σp + σm + σb as σb is secondary
bending stress. The discontinuity stresses for cylindrical shell closures with formed
heads are less compared to higher allowed stresses and are overlooked.
7.3 CYLINDRICAL TO HEMISPHERICAL HEAD

The discontinuity stresses at the cylindrical to hemispherical head junction for inter-
nal pressure and other loads can be calculated using the procedure given in section 7.2
and using equations in Table 7.1. Detailed calculations are illustrated by example in
Table 7.2. Figure 7.1 shows the notation and forces at the junction. Discontinuity
stresses at the junction are marginal. σLc of both will increase marginally and σcc of the
cylinder will reduce and reverse for the head as it resists the free movement of cylin-
ders due to pressure. Therefore, cylinders at the joint are safer than away from the
TABLE 7.2
Calculation of Discontinuity Stresses at the Junction of the Cylindrical Shell
to Hemispherical Head Under Internal Pressure
Defection = y, rotation = θ Sym Units 1-cyl 2-HShead
Mean radius R mm 2500 2500
Thickness t mm 10 5
Pressure P Mpa 0.5 0.5
Temperature T °C 130 130
Elastic modulus for mat. SA516 70 at T = 130° E MPa 200000 200000
Poisson’s ratio for the material v 0.3 0.3
Coefficient of thermal exp. for mat. at T α 1.2E–07 1.2E–07
Local MI per unit circumference = t3/12 I mm3 83.33 10.42
Shell constant = [3(1–v2)/(R t)2]0.25 β 1/mm 8.13E-03 0.01150
Shell constant E I(1–v2) D Nmm 1.52E + 07 1.90E + 06
y due to pressure P, θ = 0
Circ. Stress (1) = P R/t, (2) = P R/2t σc Mpa 125 125
Long. stress (1) = P R/2t, (2) = P R/2t σL Mpa 62.5 125
Radial y = R(σc–v σL)/E yp mm 1.33 1.09
y, θ due to Q - unit shear force per unit circumference
Radial y in (1) = −1/(2β3D), (2) = (2R2β)/(E t) yq/Q mm −0.061 0.144
Radial θ in(1) = −1/(2β2D), (2) = –(2R2β2)/(E t) θq/Q rad −5E-04 −1.6E-03
y, θ due to M - unit moment per unit circumference
Radial y in (1) = −1/(2β2D), (2) = –(2R2β2)/(E ∙ t) ym/M mm −5.0E-04 −1.7E-03
Radial θ in (1) = −1/(β D), (2) = (4R2β3)/(E t) θm/M rad −8.1E-06 3.8E-05
y due to temperature, θ = 0
Radial y = α R T, NA if temp. & mat. is same yt mm 0.040 0.04
y, θ due to external forces ye, θe 0 0
Total y = yp + Q yq/Q + M ym/M + yt + ye, and y1 = y2 – Eq. 7.1 1.230 1.230
Total θ = Q θq/Q + M θm/M + θe, and θ1 = θ2 – Eq. 7.2 −9.3E-04 −9.3E-04
Solving Eqs. 7.1 and 7.2 Q N/mm 1.330 1.330
M N 33.3 33.3
Combined longitudinal stress = σL ± 6M/t2 σLc MPa 64.5 133.0
Displacement due to Q & M = Q yq/Q + M ym/M yqm mm −0.098 0.136
Comb. circ. stress = E yqm/R + σc ± 6v M/t2 σcc MPa 117.7 138.3
joint, but head combined stress σcc may exceed basic allowable stress but is generally
less than yield stress. The effect of this discontinuity due to pressure can be ignored.
7.4 CYLINDER TO OTHER END CLOSURES

7.4.1 Semiellipsoidal Head
Analysis of discontinuity stresses at the junction of the cylinder to semiellipsoidal head
is very complicated due to continuous variation of radius. However, discontinuity
stresses are not of concern due to stress at tan point where discontinuity exists which is
much less than at the center due to a smaller radius. Therefore, combined stress includ-
ing discontinuity stresses is normally less than allowed. Max stress in 2:1 semiellipsoi-
dal head (k = diameter/height = D/h = 2) at the junction is almost the same as shell hoop
stress under internal pressure load. Therefore, it is popularly used. For a higher value of
k, stresses are considerable, and these heads with k > 2 are generally not used.
7.4.2 Torispherical Head
There are two junctions of discontinuities, knuckle-crown and head-shell. Both are
close together and affect each other. Total combined stresses in the knuckle region
are several times higher than 2:1 semiellipsoidal. Torispherical heads are, therefore,
not suitable for high pressures.
7.4.3 Flat Plate
The relevant element of flexibility matrix Eq. 7.2 for the flat plate to be used in dis-
continuity stresses at its joint with any shell can be computed from flat plate funda-
mentals as follows:
Ref. 1 Table 11.2 case 10a; rotation θ for the free plate under pressure is given by
Eq. 7.5
P R3
(7.5)
8 D(1 v)

Case 10b, M-edge moment for fixed edge under pressure is given by Eq. 7.6,
M = P R 2 /8 (7.6)

By dividing Eq. 7.5 by 7.6, free radial rotation of edge of flat plate θm is given by
1
m
R D(1 v)
Other three elements are very less and taken as zero. D is the plate constant the same
as the shell constant and R outside radius of the plate.
For a rigid flat plate (encased in concrete or plate of large thickness), y and θ due
to Q and M are zero.
Rest of the analysis is the same as section 7.2. Discontinuity stress in the flat
plate = M/Z = 6M/t²
7.5 CYLINDER TO CONE
Analysis of discontinuity stresses at the cyl–cone junction is as per 7.2 and similar
to the cyl–spherical head described in Table 7.2. The difference is that the disconti-
nuity is not due to the difference in radial displacement but due to cone inclination
(α). Higher the inclination higher the discontinuity stresses, and for α<30°, the dis-
continuity stresses are marginal and generally verified by the compensation method
(Table 5.1).
Step 1: there will be no deformation at the cyl–cone junction due to pressure.
Step 2: y and θ due to Q and M.
The equations for cylinders are shown in Table 7.1 and used for example in
Table 7.2. y and θ can be derived for the cone by the equivalent cylinder method. The
equivalent cylinder replaces the cone on inclined axis with a larger radius cylinder
than the connected cylinder as shown in Figure 7.2. The radius is obtained by divid-
ing the connected cylinder radius by cosα. The force and displacements Q and y used
are normal to the cylinder axis, which are components of the same normal to cone
axis.
Equivalent cylinder method
Notation: also refer Figure 7.2 and Table 7.2
α = half cone angle
n = ratio = thickness of cone/thickness of the connecting cylinder
R and t = mean radius and thickness of the cylinder
D and β = shell constants of the cylinder defined in Table 7.2
f
2
1 M T M
F Q
α
R Q F
M
f = 0.5PR tan q
Q
Q Qe
1
3
ye y
R
Re
CL
Eq.Cylinder of Cone
FIGURE 7.2 Cylinder to cone junction.

For condensing expressions below, displacement of the cylinder due to unit Q is

denoted by d.
yq 1
3 d (7.7)
Q 2 D
Dimensions of the equivalent cylinder of the cone

te = Thickness = n t
Re = Mean radius = R/cos α
y e y/cos (7.8)

Q e Q cos (7.9)
De E I (1 v 2 ) E (1 v 2 )te3 /12 E (1 v 2 )n3t 3 /12 D n3 (7.10)

0.25
3(1 v 2 )
e 2
(7.11)
( Re te )
Substituting (n t R/cos α) for Re te in Eq. 7.11
0.25 0.25
3(1 v 2 ) 3(1 v 2 )
e 2
(cos /n) 2
k (7.12)
(n t R /cos ) (R t)
where
k (cos /n)
y and θ are for pressure and Q and M of the equivalent cylinder of the cone are cal-
culated by using the equations of the cylinder in Table 7.1 and equivalent parameters
computed in Eqs. 7.7 to 7.12 as given below.
Qe
yqe
23e De
Substituting k β for βe, D n3 for De and d for 1/(2 β3D) from Eqs. 7.7, 7.10, and 7.12
yqe 1 1 1 d
3 3 3 3
Qe 2k n D 2 D (k n)3 (k n)3
Substituting yq for yqe and Q for Qe from notation

yq d cos2
(7.13)
Q (k n)3

Similarly, ym/M, θq/Q, and θm/M can be derived and tabulated in Table 7.1
Step 3: refer step 3 of 7.2 and Table 7.2.
Step 4: calculation of Q, F, and M
Shear force will not be the same for the cone to cylinder like the cylinder to sphere at
the discontinuity point due to the additional radial force P R tan α/2. Therefore,
denote radial force F, deflection yf, and rotation θf for the equivalent cylinder of the
cone in the place of Q, yq, and θq of the cylinder at the edge of cone. By equilibrium
of forces at junction
Q F PR( tan )/2 (7.14)

Radial displacement due to pressure is almost the same for both and hence omitted,
and rotation is assumed as the same although it is not theoretically true. By equating
y and θ due to all loads at the shell–cone junction for the cylinder and eq. cylinder of
cone, two more equations are formed as given below.
[Qy q /Q My m /M]cyl [Fy f /F My m /M]cone (7.15)

[Qq /(Q,F) Mm /M]cyl [Qf /F Mm /M]cone (7.16)

Unknowns (Q, F, and M) can be solved with these three equations Eqs. 7.14 to 7.16
Step 5: combined longitudinal and tangential stresses
Combined long and tangential stresses due to pressure and Q, F, and M can be
calculated using membrane theory and the above equations and are given below.
Cylinder:
P R 6M
L 2
2t t
σt = P R/t + E × strain = E(y due to Q & M)/R
E ( yq Q ym M )
t c 6vM /t 2
R
Cone:
P R cos 6 M
L 2
2t t
σt = P R/t cosα + E × strain = E(y due to F & M)/R
t E ( y f F ym M )/R c 6vM /t 2
7.6 ANALYSIS IN THE CYLINDER FOR EDGE FORCES AT ANY

DISTANCE FROM THE EDGE
Deflections and rotations and shear force and moments at any distance (x) from the
edge reduce as the distance increases and become insignificant at a distance L.
The following equations can be used to calculate for the cylindrical shell for Q
and M (Ref. 2)
M x Q C sin (x)/ M C[cos(x) M sin (x)]

Fx Q C[cos(x) sin(x)] 2M C sin (x)
Q C cos( x ) M C[cos( x ) sin ( x )]

yx
2 3 D 2 2 D
Q C[cos( x ) sin ( x )] M C cos( x )
x
2 2 D D
where
C = e–ß x
L is the bending boundary zone and approximately = 4 R t for the cylindrical shell.
7.7 DESIGN TIPS
1. Different thicknesses at the junction will induce additional stresses and can be
reduced by taper 1:3 minimum.
2. Eccentricity of the mean radius will induce additional stresses and can be
reduced by matching the mean radius.
REFERENCES
1. Formulas for stress and strain, Raymond J. Roark and Warren C. Young, 5th edition
2. Pressure vessel design handbook, H.H. Bednar, 1986.
8 Local Stresses
The process requires several types of attachments to the shell such as reducers,
expanders, branch pipes, end closures, bends, expansion bellows, supports, guides,
stiffeners, flanges, local reinforcements, etc. Local stresses are induced due to dis-
continuity and stress concentration in shells due to the openings and above attach-
ments under pressure and external loads.
For spherical shells, the effect is the same all around the opening. In cylindrical
shells, the effect is maximum in the circumferential plane and reduces gradually as
rotated and minimum at 90° in the longitudinal plane as the pressure stress is half that
in the circumferential plane. In rectangular shells, the effect of openings is generally
less due to negligible membrane stress compared to bending stress. Unless the thick-
ness of the attachment nozzle local to the junction is sufficiently higher than that
required for pressure load, the shell requires local reinforcement by a pad and/or
margin in its thickness.
Supports other than saddles and skirts are generally over a limited portion of shell.
The reaction loads are similar to external loads through attachments and covered in
this chapter. Local stresses due to the reaction of saddle and skirt supports are cov-
ered separately in Chapter 11.
8.1 OPENINGS UNDER PRESSURE

Openings are mainly due to nozzles. The required resisting area in the cylindrical
shell for pressure load in any plane (circumferential to longitudinal) will reduce due
to openings, and membrane stress will increase locally at the shell to nozzle joint. In
addition, bending stress is induced due to stress concentration and shell bulges lon-
gitudinally local to opening and cracks by fatigue after reaching its life cycles.
8.1.1 Analysis
Analysis is carried out by two methods: stress analysis and compensation.
(a) Stress analysis method: This method is carried out by calculating discontinuity
(membrane and bending) stresses local to junction. Membrane (circumferential)
stress is derived based on static equilibrium over a length of shell local to opening.
Mathematical solution for bending moment can be derived by certain assumptions. It
is complicated and involves errors due to assumptions. Specific finite element analy-
ses are available one of which is Nozzlepro.
(b) Compensation method: The compensation method is based on the basics that
the area required to resist pressure in the shell in any plane removed due to opening
is to be compensated from the area available in the shell and nozzle in excess of the
area required to resist pressure, within a limited distance from the opening and by
83
intentionally reinforcing (adding pad on shell) around the nozzle. This method has
the following limitations.
1. It is not logical for small openings.

2. Conservative up to a certain size.
3. For sizes nearer to the shell diameter, the stresses may exceed there by the need
of addition check by the stress analysis method.
The following factors are considered in design.
1. Width of pad > 16 times thickness may buckle.

2. Adding more pad area than required creates a too hard spot on the vessels, and
large secondary stresses due to the shell restraint can be produced in
consequence.
3. Providing a larger radius of corners and fillet welds will reduce stress concentration.
Openings are categorized as small, single, multiple, continuous, and large bore for
the purpose of the compensation method. The compensation method for the above
openings is explained in the following sections.
8.1.2 Small Openings
For isolated (single, defined in 8.1.3) openings up to certain size, no analysis is
required as the opening length in the plane of maximum membrane stress is less than
the minimum length for the thickness of the shell for consideration of membrane
stress calculation. Openings less than this size (diameter) are called small openings.
Different sizes or equations are provided in different references. The code1 defines
small openings in vessels (not subjected to rapid fluctuations in pressure which
induce fatigue) as the opening diameter (d) is less than or equal to
89 mm for t 10 mm or 60 mm for t 10 mm
Provided for two isolated openings with pitch, not less than the sum of their diame-
ters, and in a cluster of more than two openings not less than 1+1.5cosα times the
sum of their diameters. Where t = shell thickness and d = size of openings, α = angle,
openings axis makes with cylinder long axis (α = 0, for doubly curved shells and
formed or flat heads)
Small openings may not satisfy the compensation rules for all inputs. However,
this rule is valid because the hoop stress in the shell is valid for a length (L) propor-
tional to its thickness.
8.1.3 Single Opening
Single opening is one which is neither multiple nor continuous. The compensation
method for different arrangements is explained in the following sections for the cylindri-
cal shell under internal pressure. Analysis is the same for other shells and heads except
the required thickness (tr) for pressure load. For calculating tr, the diameter of the cone is
taken as the diameter at the axis of nozzle. For partially spherical heads, the radius at the
Local Stresses 85
do
D1 tn d
trn
A2
A5 W
ho L A41
A42
W2 W1
te
b
t a A'
tr
he
A1 W3
h
A3
A43
FIGURE 8.1 Cylindrical shell with an insert nozzle.
axis is considered. For ellipsoidal, the equivalent diameter (K D) is relevant. K is defined

in 6.3 and equal to 0.9 for 2:1 semiellipsoidal. For flat heads, tr is half of that required as
the stress is bending for pressure and varies from zero to maximum.
The stresses (compensation) are different in planes (0° to 90°) from longitudinal
(meridian) to circumferential (tangential) except the spherical shell. The maximum
stressed plane depends on the type of shell and arrangement of nozzle, normally sec-
tion with maximum membrane stress (longitudinal section in cylindrical shells). For
cylindrical and conical shells, factor F is used for the convenience of generalizing
equations as indicated in example 8.1.
For external pressure, analysis is the same as internal pressure except that the
required area is half that for internal pressure because stresses are not membrane and
not uniform. Furthermore, the F factor is not relevant as the thickness required to
withstand pressure is the same in all planes.
8.1.3.1 Set through (Insert) Radial Nozzle

The analysis is by simple geometry for calculation of areas and explained by illustra-
tive example 8.1. The example is for the cylindrical shell and insert radial nozzle with
a pad for internal pressure as shown in Figure 8.1, followed by notes on analysis.
Example 8.1: Compensation calculations for openings in the

cylindrical shell
Units: N, mm, mm2, MPa

P = design pressure = 3
D = inside diameter of the shell = 2000
t = thickness of the shell = 28
SV = allowed stress at design temperature of the shell = 138
dO = outside diameter of the nozzle = 500
tn = thickness of the nozzle = 10

Sn = allowed stress at design temperature of the nozzle = 136
L = nozzle projection from the shell outside = 150
h = nozzle projection from the shell inside = 50
W1 = W2 = W3 = 10, Weld fillet nozzle to Pad, shell to pad, shell to nozzle inside
DP = pad diameter, effective up to D1 only = 750
te = pad thickness = 28
SP = allowed stress at design temperature of pad = 138
E = weld efficiency = 1
F = 1 for the longitudinal section
tr = required thickness of shell for pressure = (P D/2)/(SV E–0.6P) = 22
d = diameter of circular opening = dO–2tn = 480
trn = required thickness of nozzle = P(dO/2–tn)/(Sn E–0.6P) = 5.365
f1 = stress ratio of the material nozzle to shell = Sn/SY = 0.986
f2 = stress ratio of the material pad to shell = SP/SY = 1
D1 = shell diameter limit parallel to the vessel wall = max(2d, d + 2t + 2tn) = 960
hO = outside projection limit normal to the vessel = min(2.5t, 2.5tn + te) = 53
he = inside projection limit normal to the vessel = min(2.5t, 2.5tn) = 25
A1 = area available in the shell = {D1–d–2tn(1–fr1)}(E t–F tr) = 2865
A2 = area available in the nozzle projecting outward = 2min(hO L)(tn – trn)f1 = 484
A3 = area available in the nozzle projecting inward = 2f1 tn min(h, he) = 493
A4 = total weld area available = A41 + A42 + A43 = W12 f1 + W22 f2 + W32 f1 = 297
A5 = area available in the pad = (DP –d–2tn)te f2 = 7000
At = total area available = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 = 11139
A = area required for compensation = d tr F + 2tn tr F(1–f1) = 10578
Because At > A, design is safe.

Notes on example 8.1
1. All sizes are net after deducting negative tolerances and in corroded
condition.
2. L – length shall be straight up to 2.5tn from shell/pad outside.
3. F = 1 for the long section, (other sections F = 1 to 0.5, 0.5 for the circ
section).
4. Weld between the shell and nozzle is full strength. Pad to shell weld
strength shall be checked (refer section 8.1.7).
5. If any rigid element either side is at a distance less than its opening from
centre, it will offer resistance.
6. tr = thickness of the shell required to withstand circumferential stress due
to pressure. For the longitudinal section, tr is half. Therefore, factor F (F
= 0.5) is used in equations A1 and A with for tr. Because A is reduced by
about half and A1 increases higher than reduction in A, the compensa-
tion calculation in any plane other than longitudinal plane is irrelevant.
Only in hill side nozzles with large offset, it is to be checked.
Local Stresses 87
7. Stress ratios f1 and f2 are used in equations for A2, A3, and A4 to reduce
the actual compensating areas of nozzle and welds if the nozzle mate-
rial strength is less than that of the shell (SY > Sn).
8. In case of the shell and nozzle not having the same material strength, the
area (a = 2tr tn) of the nozzle between the inside and outside shell does
not have the same strength as the shell and may require more compen-
sating area over d tr. Note that the actual shell material removed for
inserting the nozzle is not d, but d + 2tn. Furthermore, the A1 area
includes a small portion of this nozzle area [b = (t – tr)tn], and the rest of
the area will resist internal pressure as the shell. Areas a and b are shown
in the figure. To simplify all these effects in the calculation, the compen-
sating area is increased by adding 2tn tr F(1 – f1) to d tr in equation for A.
It is zero, if the nozzle and shell materials are the same (f1 = 1).
9. The shell will resist local stresses up to a limit parallel to the shell wall
depending on the opening size and thickness of the shell and nozzle.
The code specifies the limit each side from the nozzle outside equal to
max of d/2 or sum of the shell and nozzle thicknesses.
10. The length limit of the nozzle outside the shell normal to shell wall
which will resist local stresses is given in the code equal to 2.5 times the
thickness of the shell or 2.5 times the thickness of the nozzle plus pad
thickness, whichever is less outside or as well as inside of the shell. If
projection is less than the above limit, only available projection is con-
sidered for compensation. Normally, the inside projection is less than
the limit or no projection due to process consideration. It is to be noted
that inside projection normally is not subjected to pressure and total
thickness contributes in the compensating area. If corrosion is applica-
ble due to inside fluid, it affects both sides.
11. The nozzle may be subjected to internal and external pressure on the por-
tion inside the shell and no pressure on outside the shell like in the sleeved
part of nozzle when added in case of temperature difference between the
fluid in the pipe and that in the shell. Depending on the pressure condi-
tion, the value of trn may be zero or as required to external pressure. Also
trn = 0 if the projected length is less than its thickness [refer 6.1.1a]
8.1.3.2 Set on Nozzle
The arrangement is shown in Figure 8.2. The nozzle is profile cut to suit shell OD and
placed over the shell outside the surface, and the shell is opened normally with the
diameter equal to nozzle ID. Opening may be provided less intentionally to reduce
the area required to obtain more advantages than the increase in pressure drop.
Compensation analysis is the same as example 8.1 except A1 and A equations are
different for set on type nozzles and W3 = A43 = A3 = 0 (no inside projection)
A and A1 equations are different as the factor explained in note 8 of example 8.1 is
not relevant and given by
A1 ( D1 d )( E t F tr )
A d tr F
For the data of example 8.1, values of areas for the set on nozzle in mm2 are A =
10560, A1 = 2880, and At = 10563. At > A; hence, design is safe.
do
D1 tn d
trn
A2
A42 ho L A41
A5 wi
A1
t tr A
FIGURE 8.2 Cylindrical shell with the set on nozzle.
8.1.3.3 Taper Nozzle
Most of the nozzles are not entirely straight. Due to higher local stresses at the joint
than those at the end, the thickness of the nozzle is provided higher at the joint and
tapered down to match the mating flange or a thinner pipe usually outside to keep
inside straight for smooth flow of fluid.
With the straight local effect limit being about 2.5 times, the nozzle is provided
with uniform thickness up to this limit. However, for thick nozzles particularly
greater than the shell thickness, the thickness is tapered down with a straight thick
portion < 2.5tn due to the restriction of length and/or to reduce weight. Such a nozzle
as shown in Figure 8.3 is termed taper nozzle. For the purpose of analysis, the portion
with a reduced thickness is considered as the nozzle and the rest of the nozzle portion
hub as a pad and may not contribute fully. Only the portion up to the height te (equiv-
alent thickness of pad) is effective and acts like a pad. The value of te is the difference
of thicknesses divided by tan30°.
The analysis is similar to example 8.1 except the variations which are given in
example 8.2. The calculations in example 8.2 are with the same data of example 8.1
covering only variations.
ho
te
d
tn
30
45°
°
Tx
w
A5
SHELL
hp
h>hi
b
t
FIGURE 8.3 Taper nozzle.

Local Stresses 89
8.1.3.4 Pad Type Nozzles

Hand holes are generally provided with a forged pad type flange welded over the
shell with inside and outside fillet welds covered by a blind flange for closing the
hand hole as shown in Figure 8.4. Compensation analysis is similar to set on type
nozzle given in 8.1.3.2 with a flanged pad instead of a regular pad and no nozzle. The
following example 8.3 gives variations.
Example 8.2: Remove the pad, increase the nozzle neck thickness tX
to 40mm up to a length of 45mm, and then taper down by 1:1 (45°) in
arrangement of example 8.1.
New parameters in mm:
tX = nozzle thickness at the shell juncture = 40

hP = hub straight height = 45.
Add the following equations:
w = width of the equivalent pad = tX –tn = 30

te = w/tan 30° = 52
hL = hub or pad (includes bevel) area limit = min of hP + b or te = 52
b = bevel height = w = 30
Except the equation for the A5 pad area for applicable equations, there is no
change in other equations. The affected parameters are given below in mm,
mm2:
hO = min(2.5t, 2.5tn + te) = 70

hi = min(2.5t, 2.5tX), inside thick is tX, not tn = 70
A1 = {D1–d–2tX(1–fr1)}(E t–F tr) = 2860 (tX for tn)
A2 = 597
A3 = 2f1 tX min(hi, he) = 3944 (tX for tn)
A4 = W12 f1 + W22 f2 + W32 f1, (W1 = 0) = 197
A5 (see note 3 below) = 3026
At = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 = 10624
A = d tr F + 2tX tr F(1–f1) = 10597 (tX for tn)
At > A design is safe
Notes:
1. If hP > hL, A5 is up to limit hL, A5 = 2w hL
2. If hL > hP + b, A5 is up to hP + b, A5 = total hub area including bevel
3. Else A5 = 2w hP + part of bevel (hL–hP)2 as shown in Figure 8.3
For effectiveness of the complete hub area including bevel, reduce straight length
hP so that te = hP + b
Wo dp
di
te A5
A1
Wi
tr
d
D1
FIGURE 8.4 Cylindrical shell with a pad type nozzle.
Example 8.3: (units: N, mm) pad size 150 DN class 600, dP = OD =

355, di = ID = 150, te = pad thick = 50, WO = outside weld fillet = 16,
and Wi = inside weld fillet = 20
f = Sp/Sv = 136/138 = 0.986

w = pad width = (dO–di)/2 = 102.5
d = di + 2Wi = 190, d shall be as min as possible and > 150
D1 = 2d = 380
A1 = 1135
A4 = (WO2 + Wi 2 ) f = 394
A5 = 2w te f = 10107
At = A1 + A4 + A5 = 9392
A = 4184
FO = outside fillet weld strength in shear = 0.5π WO(dO + WO) 0.49 SP =
621618
Fi = inside fillet weld strength in shear = 0.5π WO(d + Wi) 0.49 Sp = 356048
Total fillet weld strength in shear = FO + Fi = 977666
Required minimum strength in the welds = SP(A–A1) = 414664
Inside fillet weld required = min(tr,19) = 19 < 20
Outside fillet weld required = 0.7 min(tr,19) = 13.3 <16
Stud 1” (M24), S = 172, min thread depth required = min[1.5, max(1,0.75S/
SP)]24 = 24, and min depth of the pad undrilled shall be 6mm
8.1.3.5 Non-radial Nozzles
The nozzle attachments are not always radial. They may be tilted in any direction,
mostly laterally (hill side nozzle) or axially (angular).
8.1.3.5.1 Hill Side Nozzle

It is also called offset nozzle. Move the radial nozzle by distance B parallel to its axis
in the circumferential plane or rotate the point (C) of intersection of nozzle axis with
Local Stresses 91
shell mean radius (Rm) by angle α (sin α = B/Rm) as shown in Figure 8.5a and 8.5b,
Figure 8.5a being tangential nozzle. Unlike the radial nozzle, opening diameter d is
not constant and will be increasing at sections from longitudinal to circumferential.
The equation for nozzle areas A2 and A3 is complicated as the section does not pass
through the longitudinal plane of the nozzle except in the circumferential plane. At
the circumferential plane, also the nozzle length within limit is higher than the radial
nozzle. It may be assumed as the area within the limits hO and hi as shown in
Figure 8.5 (as considered in ASME PTB-42013 4.5.2).
B
Rn
L
ho
d C
L
ho
k
hi
h
y2
C
x2
y1
x1
B Rn
B Rm
(a) TANGENTIAL (b) HILL SIDE
d
ho
L
t
SHELL
Rm
R
n
hi
h
(C) ANGULAR
FIGURE 8.5 Non-radial nozzles.

The calculation is the same as example 8.1 except the changes explained above
and given in Example 8.4 below.
Example 8.4: α = 10°, There is no change in the longitudinal section

(F = 1), except L and h will be different in both sides. Because L and h
are much higher than limits hO and hi, there is no effect on the values
of A2 and A3.
In the circumferential section (F = 0.5), d will increase, the L and h effect the same
as above, and A2 and A3 values may change (no effect if L and h are higher by k than
hO and hi). It is observed that the value of (At–A) for all sections other than longitu-
dinal is higher; hence checking in other sections may not be required normally.
Increased d and new parameter k required in new equations for A2 and A3 for
the circumferential section are calculated as follows (units: mm, mm2):
Rm = mean radius of the shell = (2000 + 28)/2 = 1014, effective is = (D + tn)/2

= 1011
Rn = inside radius of the nozzle = 500/2 – 10 = 240
B = distance between the nozzle axis and shell axis = Rm sin 10° = 176
x1 = B + Rn = 416, x2 = B − Rn = 64
y1 Rm2 x12 924.7 , y 2 Rm2 x22 1012
d = chord opening at mean radius = ( x1 x2 )2 (y 2 y1)2 487.9
k = axial difference of two sides of the nozzle from axis = Rn tan 10° = 42.3
Changes in D1, A1, and A due to the change of d and F with (E = 1, F = 0.5) are:
D1 = max(2d, d + 2t + 2tn) = 975.8

A1 = {D1 – d – 2tn(1 – f1)}(E t – F tr) = 8287
A = d tr F + 2tn tr F(1 – f1) = 487.9*22*0.5 + 2*10*22*0.5*(1 – 0.9) = 5393
A2 = [min(L + k, hO) + min(L – k, hO)](tn – trn)f1 = 180
A3 = f1 tn – [min(h + k, hi) + min(h – k, hi)] = 294.3
Note that there is no change in A2 because ho < h – k, but A3 decreases as h – k < hi
8.1.3.5.2 Angular Nozzle
Rotate the radial nozzle axis in the long plane of the shell at its intersection with the
mean radius of the shell by angle as shown in Figure 8.5c.
There is no change in calculation for the circ section (F = 0.5). In the longitudinal
section, d will increase by 1/cosα. Other considerations are the same as hill side and
radial nozzles.
8.1.4 Multiple Openings
Whenever the distance between two openings (other than continuous openings) is
less than half of the sum of the limits of each in the shell (D1 in example 8.1 above)
as shown in Figure 8.6, the opening pair is called multiple opening. In such case, the
Local Stresses 93
D1/2 D1
d a1 a2 d
1
2
FIGURE 8.6 Multiple openings.
limits are to be reduced in proportion to their openings. Pitch less than 4/3 of average
diameter of multiple openings (d) is considered as continuous openings and may lead
to ligament failure. For circumferential multiple openings, the limiting angle between
openings can be calculated as D1/Rm radians and Rm = shell mean radius.
Local stresses due to openings under internal pressure are maximum at the shell–
nozzle longitudinal juncture points either side of opening and gradually reduce away
and can be considered as insignificant after certain limit (D1/2) from its center. In
multiple openings (1 and 2), the distance between adjacent openings (D) is less than
the limit D1, due to which the local stresses at a1 from opening-2 and at a2 from open-
ing-1 are not insignificant. Therefore, stresses are at max point (junction) of each open-
ing (a1 or a2), stresses are added from other side openings, and ligament failure may
result even though compensation can be satisfied by providing the major area from
nozzles. To strengthen the ligament portion, the code prescribes at least 50% of area
required shall be provided by the shell only. Furthermore, it is also possible to comply
this with much lesser ligament, but if stress at a1 and a2 has already reached the allowed
limit, the additional stresses from other sides are significant; thereby stresses at these
two points may exceed the allowed limit. Therefore, minimum ligament is required so
that the addition of stresses at each juncture point from other sides is insignificant.
The code prescribes a minimum pitch of 1.33 times the average of both openings.
8.1.5 Continuous Openings (Ligaments)

Continuous openings (more than two unreinforced or two with pitch less than 1.33
times of their average diameter) in long or circ or any direction as shown in Figure 8.7
are analyzed by ligament method illustrated below. The stresses may exceed allow-
able even if the size of openings is small as defined in 8.1.2. Example 8.5 will explain
the above and define and calculate the ligament efficiency.
p = longitudinal pitch
d = diameter of opening in the shell
Net resisting length per one pitch = p–d
Pressure width per one pitch = p
D = mean diameter of the shell
t = shell thickness
FIGURE 8.7 Continuous openings.
Using membrane theory force in the circumferential direction
P D p S 2t(p d)
Rewriting, t = P D/[2S(p–d)/p] = P D/(2S E)
Example 8.5: Calculate ligament efficiency for various tube layouts

(Figure 8.6):
1. single row: E = (p – d)/p
2. single row unequal pitch: E = (p – n d)/p (Figure 8.6b)
3. more than one row: E can be computed as explained in example below.
D = mean diameter of shell = 1000 mm
p = long pitch = 100 mm
pC = circumferential pitch = π D(α/360) = 70 (α = 8°)
d = diameter of opening (ID of nozzle) = 50 mm
Local Stresses 95
pd = diagonal pitch = √(p2/4 + pC2) = 86 mm

Long EL = (p – d)/p = 0.5 (used in hoop stress)
Circ EC = (2pC – d)/2pC = 0.666 (used in long stress)
Because long stress is half of circ stress, when EC = EL/2, both long and circ stresses
will be equal. Therefore, equivalent long efficiency Ece is given by
Ece = 2 EC = 2*0.666 = 1.332

Diagonal Ed = (pd − d)/pd = 0.42
Ede = Equivalent diagonal efficiency for Ed is, nearer to 2Ed when pd is nearer
to pc, and nearer to Ed when pd is nearer to p/2. That is, Ede varies from Ed
to 2Ed and is given by empirical formula (Ref. 1)
Ede = 0.01[J + 0.25–(1–E.long)√(0.75 + J)]/(0.00375 + 0.005J) = 0.5
Where J = (pd/p)2 = 0.74
E minimum equivalent ligament efficiency = min(El, Ece, Ede) = 0.5

Considering pressure P = 1 MPa, all. Stress = 100 MPa, t = 8 mm
Required thickness for unpierced shell = P D/2S = 1*1000/200 = 5 mm and
safe.
Required thickness in the above example = P D/(2S E) = 1*1000/(2*100*0.5)
= 10 mm and not safe.
As per 8.1.2, it is small opening and required t = 5 mm and safe.

The conclusion is that the small opening is applicable only for a single isolated
opening but not to continuous openings.
8.1.6 Large Bore
The size of large opening (ID of nozzle d) is limited depending on inside diam-
eter (D) of the shell, beyond which local stresses higher than allowable may set
up even after the compensation rule is satisfied. Because the required compensa-
tion area can be provided by the increasing nozzle thickness local to junction
with the thickness of the shell just sufficient to resist pressure, the discontinuity
stresses and stress concentration in the shell may be large enough to exceed
allowed. Therefore, for the d/D ratio beyond a limit, it is required to provide part
of compensation required in the shell within closer limits. Furthermore, it is safer
to calculate local membrane and membrane plus bending stresses. Appendix 1.7
of code1 gives two different limits of compensation and equations for membrane
and bending stresses in both limits and is explained below with examples. Some
codes give rules for margin in shell thickness for local stresses in all single
openings.
The equation for d/D is given as
d If D 1500 mm, Min(D/3, 1000), else Min(D/2, 500)

The following analyses 1 and 2 are to be satisfied for shell and large bore nozzle
arrangement to be safe under internal pressure. If [D > 1020, and d > 1020 and
3.4√(0.5D t), and d/D ≤ 0.7], analysis 3 is to be satisfied.
1. Compensation method used in example 8.1

2. A min compensation area is required in both the shell and nozzle to resist dis-
continuity stress. 0.75A1 and A2 shall be at least equal to 2/3A, where A, A1, and
A2 are as calculated in example 8.1.
3. Pm ≤ S and Pm + Pb ≤ 1.5S computed with illustrative example 8.6 below.
Rn b
tf
L(te+16tn max)
NA NA
te+ Rntn
W H
e1 te e2
t
Rmt tn d 16t
B
Rm
D
half section a half section b
FIGURE 8.8 Large openings.
Example 8.6: Notation as in example 8.1 and Figure 8.8, units:

N, mm, MPa
The shell is the same as in example 8.1, pressure is less P = 1 MPa, and nozzle is
1080 OD and 28 thick and 200 long and has 125 × 28 pad
D = 2000, dO = 1080, w = 125, t = tn = te = 28, L = 200, b = 100, Rm = (2000

+ 28)/2 = 1014, Rn = (1080–28)/2 = 526, d = dO −2tn = 1024, S = 138
For Figure 8.8a:
Pm = membrane stress = P AP/Ar

Pb = bending stress M/Z
Ar and AP are half of resisting and pressure areas as only the half section is con-
sidered for convenience; the boundaries for areas are
Local Stresses 97
Normal to shell from shell OD: te + Rn tn = 28 + 121.4 = 149.4

Parallel to shell: Rm t from nozzle OD = 168.5
B 0.5dO Rm t 0.5*1080 168.5 708.5
H t te Rn tn 28 28 121.4 177.4
AP = D B + d H = 2000*708.5 + 1024*177.4 = 1598658
Ar = 2t(B–dO/2) + 2tn H + 2te min[w, Rm t ]
= 2*28(708.5–1080/2) + 2*28*177.4 + 2*28*125 = 26370.4
Pm = PAP/Ar = 1*1598658/26370.4 = 60.6 < S
Za = 218916.7, e = 47.58, Z of area Ar and NA from shell mean as shown
in Figure 8.8a
Ma = P(d³/48 + 0.25D d e1)] (ref code) = 1(1024³/48 + 0.25*2000*1024*47.58)
= 46730581
Pb1 = bending stress Ma/Za = 46730581/218916.7 = 213
For Figure 8.8b: flange dimensions are b × tf = 100 × 28 and boundaries are:
Normal to shell: te + min(L,16tn) from shell OD = 28 + 16*28 = 476, limited

to L = 200
Parallel to shell: 16t from nozzle OD = 16*28 = 448
Zb = 866181, e2 = 65.4, and Z of area Ar and NA from the shell mean as
shown in Figure 8.8b
Mb = P(d3/48 + 0.25D d e2)] (ref code) = 1(1024^3/48 + 0.25*2000*1024*65.4)
= 23780962
Pbb = bending stress Mb/Zb = 23780962/866181 = 27.5
Pm + Pb = Pm + max(Pba + Pbb) = 60.6 + 213 = 273.6
Stress exceeds allowable 1.5S, and by increasing the pad width to its limit 168.5,
the stresses can be reduced. If it still exceeds, the thickness of the pad and/or
nozzle can be increased. Increasing the shell thickness is more effective but not
economic as increase cannot be limited to required length.
Reinforced (compensated) openings in formed head can be any size, but advis-
able to be less than half of the diameter.
8.1.7 Weld Strength
The shell, nozzle, and pad (if provided) shall be integral so that the compensation is
effective. Shell to nozzle and pad to nozzle can be considered as integral with defect-
free full weld, but pad to shell weld cannot be full welded and only fillet weld is
practical. A fundamental requirement is that there shall be no relative displacement
between these three parts. Hence, partial welds can be used provided welds are suf-
ficient to give required strength. Therefore, pad to shell weld and nozzle to shell and
nozzle to pad if not full welded needs to be checked. Analysis is by structural basics
except the weld factor is taken from the code.
There are three paths of failure as shown in Figure 8.9 for set through nozzle joint
with the pad dealt in example 8.1. The elements of failure path are
a. pad to shell fillet weld (A42)

b. pad to nozzle fillet weld outside (A41)
c. pad to nozzle groove weld outside
d. shell to nozzle groove weld in the opening
e. shell to nozzle fillet weld inside (A43)
f. nozzle wall
The failure paths are
1. shell axial path: a + f

2. nozzle axial path: b + c + d + e
3. pad to shell: a + d + e
If the pad is not provided, the third path is not applicable, and in other two paths,
pad weld is not applicable. The same logic is taken for any type of weld joints.
Load is the same as in the calculation of hoop stress. The element a through f will
transfer the load to shell. In other words, all the compensating areas except that of the
shell multiplied by their allowable stress are loads. Strength of elements shall be
adequate to resist the loads and due to the cross section area each side of compensa-
tion plane.
do
A2 tn
2 A2
W
2
A42 A41 A41
A5 A5 A42
1 3
Go
1 1
1
t 2 A1
A1 tr t
Gi
A43
A3
3
2 Dp
INSERT NOZZLE SET ON NOZZLE
FIGURE 8.9 Weld strength in the shell nozzle joint.

Local Stresses 99
The effects of pressure and resistance of welds for the insert nozzle are illustrated
in example 8.7.
Example 8.7: The data are the same as the example in Table 8.1
except the full weld between the shell and nozzle replaced with
groove welds outside (GO = 11 mm) and inside (Gi = 9 mm) and pad to
nozzle (Gp = 0).
Notation as per example 8.1 and Figure 8.1

Weld loads on element welds or nozzle wall in N:
Load carried by any element in the path = (compensating areas transferring

load to that element) × SV
W11 = load on Weld in Path1 = (A2 + A5 + A41 + A42)SV = (484 + 7000 + 98.6
+ 100)138 = 1060198 N
2tn t f1 = 2*10*28*0.986 = 552
W22 = load on Weld in Path2 = (A2 + A3 + A41 + A43 + 2tn t f1) SV = (484 +
493 + 98.6 + 100 + 552)138 = 238430, (A2 + A41)SV for set on
W33 = load on Weld in Path3 = (A2 + A3 + A5 + A4 + 2tn t fr1) SV = (484 + 493
+ 7000 + 297 + 552)138 = 1220770, (A2 + A4)SV for set on
W = total load on Welds = [A – A1 + 2tn fr1(E1t – Ftr)]SV = [10578 – 2865 +
2*10*0.986(1*28 – 1*22)]138 = 1080651, (A – A1)SV for set on
Strength of elements of failure path analysis in N:

Strength (resistance) of element in N is the product of the following three
parameters.
1. Area of element each side = half of perimeter × effective thickness of

weld or nozzle (0.7W for fillet, G for groove, and tn for nozzle)
2. Allowed stress of element minimum of connecting elements
3. Weld factor = 0.74 for tension and = 0.7 for shear (ref code)
The following are element resistances in N:
Sa shear in shell to nozzle outside fillet (A41) = [(π/2)dO 0.7W1] Sn 0.7 = 523391
Sb shear in shell to pad fillet (A42) = [(π/2)DP 0.7W2] Sp 0.7 = 796631
SC shear in shell to nozzle inside fillet (A43) = [(π/2)dO 0.7W3] Sn 0.7 =
523391
Sd shear in the nozzle wall = [(π/2)(dO – tn)tn] Sn 0.7 = 732747
Ta tension in the shell outside groove = [(π/2)dO GO] Sn 0.74 = 962467
Tb tension in pad groove = [(π/2)dO GP]SP 0.74 = 0
TC tension in the shell inside groove = [(π/2)dO Gi]Sn 0.74 = 721845
Total strength of combination of elements in each path:
S1 = Path11 = Sb + Sd = 1529378 N
S2 = Path22 = Sa + Te + Tf + Tg + SC) = 3613344 N

S3 = Path33 = Sb + Tf + Tg + SC) = 2650883 N
Summary of failure Path Calculations
S1 > W1-1 or W, 1529378 > 1060198 or 1080651

S1 > W2-2 or W, 2650883 >213784 or 1080651
S1 > W3-3 or W, 2924123 >1220770 or 1080681
8.1.8 Local Stresses due to Opening in Other Shells and Heads

The basics are the same as explained for the cylindrical shell above. The common
change in calculations in sub-sections of 8.1 is the equation for tr, which is as per type
of shell. For formed heads with varying radius, the average radius of cut out opening
is relevant. For 2:1 semiellipsoidal, 0.9D is used.
Changes with respect to the type of shell are:
1. Cone, the same as cylinder converting its parameters into the equivalent cylin-
der as explained in 7.6.1.1.
2. Spherical including elliptical or partially spherical F is not applicable as all
planes are identical. Remove F or F = 1. Limit large bore diameter to D/2.
3. Flat closure: F is not applicable as all planes are identical. Remove F or F = 1.
Because tr is due to bending stress and varies depending on the location of
opening, tr in equation A is taken as tr/2. Limit opening to D/2. Compensation
calculation given above is not applicable when the flat plate is strengthened by
stiffeners or by staying for pressure load.
8.1.9 Opening in Shells Subjected to External Pressure

The compensation method is the same as explained for internal pressure except the
following.
1. The reinforcement area required for openings in shells subjected to external

pressure needs only 50% that of internal pressure as the stress is bending (not
membrane).
2. Min required thickness of the shell and nozzle is under external pressure.
3. The value of F shall be 1.0 as stress is the same in any plane.
4. There is no change for the flat head with respect to the required area.
8.2 LOCAL STRESSES AT THE JUNCTION IN THE SHELL DUE TO

EXTERNAL FORCES THROUGH ATTACHMENTS INCLUDING
NOZZLES
External force tensor consists of three forces P, VC, and VL and three moments M with
suffix t, L, and c. Suffixes of forces and moments are based on their effect.
Local Stresses 101
where
c = circumferential (circ), L = longitudinal (long), and t = torsion
Force tensor in the order of right hand thumb rule = {VC, VL, P; ML, MC, Mt} simi-
lar to {FX, FY, FZ; MX, MY, MZ}, convention in this section is as used in WRC bulle-
tins. P is + if force is towards the shell and – outwards. Stresses are tensile + and –
compression.
On the perimeter of joint, max combined stress due to force tensor and pressure
can be at longitudinal or circumferential section, and can be at inside or outside of
thickness. Stresses at other points on perimeter will be less than maximum.
Therefore, stress is to be calculated at eight points in each shell and nozzle as shown
in Figure 8.10.
Eight points are denoted by Ao, Ai, Bo, and Bi (long); Co, Ci, Do, and Di (circ)
Where suffix i = inside and o = outside.
P P
Mc My
Vx Mx
ML
t t
A0 C0 C0
A0
Rm Ai
r0 Ci Ai Ci
r0
T Rm T
LONG CIRC x y
CYLINDRICAL SHELL SPHERICAL SHELL
D D
VL A B A B
Mt Mt
C1
C C
VC C2
FIGURE 8.10 Local stresses in the shell.

At each point shear, membrane and bending (±) stresses in both circ and long
planes are induced due to external force tensor apart from general membrane stress
due to pressure.
P induces the same negative membrane (m) at all eight points and bending stress
(b) inside + & outside – at A and B, and similar at C (as A) and D (as B) in each of
long and circ directions.
VC induces the same shear stress (τ1) at A and B but + at A and – at B

VL induces the same shear stress (τ2) at C and D but + at D and – at C
Mt induces the same torsional shear stress (τ3) – sign at all eight points
MC induces the same membrane (m) – at D & + at C and bending (b) stresses
+ at CO and Di and – at Ci and DO.
ML induces the same membrane (m) – at A and + at B and bending (b) stresses
+ at BO and Ai and – at Bi and AO.
Except P and Mt (axial force and moment), the direction of other four will not influ-
ence combined stress. Normally, the stress due to Mt is insignificant compared to
others, and the direction of force P has large influence in combined stress. Because
pressure stress is tensile and positive at all eight points, combined stress will be
higher if stress due to P is also positive (stress is + for –P).
Shear stress τ and pressure stress σC and σL are calculated using simple equations
explained in previous chapters. Other stresses are computed using the following
steps
Step 1: Computation of local stress membrane (m) and bending (b)
m and b can be expressed by basic equations m = N/T and b = M/Z = 6M/T2
These stresses are expressed by Eqs. 8.1 and 8.2 for the purpose of using graphs
in WRC bulletins.
= = (N/Cn )(Cn /T)

m N/T (8.1)

=b 6=
M/T 2 (M/Cb )(6Cb /T 2 ) (8.2)

Membrane bending stress m b K n N/T K b 6M/T 2
where
T = thickness of the shell

Kn and Kb are stress intensification factors, normally Kn > Kb, and both are
neglected in this book. Kn and Kb values depend on the ratio of thickness to
fillet radius. With a large fillet radius, Kn and Kb can be limited to 1.1.
N and M are force and moment per unit circumference.
N/Cn and M/Cb are dimensionless coefficients for P, Mc, and ML and plotted
against shell and attachment parameters from Bijlaard’s data (WRC 107)
Local Stresses 103
and Steele’s data (WRC 297) and can be taken from WRC107(537) & 297
bulletins.
Cn and Cb are functions of P or Mc or ML and geometrical parameters used for
the purpose of graphs. Cn and Cb are computed for various arrangements in
respective sections.
Suffix ø for circ stress and r for long stress are used with N and M in the above
stress equations.
Step 2: Compilation of combined membrane (Pm + PL) and membrane + bending

(Pm + PL + Q) stresses.
All the stresses compiled in step 1 are added, (Pm + PL) and (Pm + PL + Q) are
calculated at all eight points, and max of each is limited to allowed. Allowed stresses
are1.5S and 3S as the stresses are local and secondary stress category (refer section
4.4.1.2)
Cm = sum of all circ membrane stresses + hoop stress

Lm = sum of all long membrane stresses + long stress
C = sum of all circ membrane + bending stresses + hoop stress
L = sum of all long membrane + bending stresses + long stress
τm = shear stress due to VC and VL
τ = shear stress due to Mt, VC, and VL
Using basics (section 3.7.3.4) of combining stresses C, L, τ combined stress is

given by
0.5{abs(C L) (C L )2 42 }
Considering the effect of sign of each stress and the following equations are com-
piled to derive max stress with all combinations.
m1 (Cm Lm )2 42m (8.3)

P1 if[Cm /L m 0, m1, else 0.5{abs(Cm L m ) m1}] (8.4)

pm p L if m 0, max{Cm , L m , abs(Cm L m )}, else P1 1.5S (8.5)

b1 (C L )2 42 (8.6)

P2 if [C/L 0, b1, else 0.5 {abs(C L) b1}] (8.7)

pm p L Q if 0, max{C, L, abs(C L)}, else P2 3S (8.8)

C/L < 0 means that the sign of C and L is not the same. It may be observed that the shell
may withstand loads up to a certain limit irrespective of meeting its hoop stress and
compensation requirement due to pressure. Therefore, resisting combined load of pres-
sure and external loads by the above local load analysis does not guarantee that the shell
is safe for pressure. It shall have sufficient thickness to withstand hoop stress as well as
additional primary membrane and bending stresses due to opening under pressure.
8.2.1 Cylindrical Shell
Difference with WRC107: suffixes: o, i, and r are used in place of u, L, and x of WRC
8.2.1.1 Cylindrical Attachment or Nozzle

Local stresses are calculated using the procedure explained in 8.2. Equations for Cn
and Cb are given below
Cn P/R m , M C /(R m 2 ) and M L /(R m 2 )

Cb P, MC /(R m) and M L /(R m)
The dimensionless parameters (NØ or Nr)/Cn, (MØ or Mr)/Cb in both long and circ
planes can be read from graphs or tables against shell parameter γ = Rm T and attach-
ment parameter β = 0.875rO/Rm from graphs in WRC107/537.
The detailed calculations are illustrated by examples in Table 8.1. If the pad is
provided, it is taken as an attachment and analyzed separately.
The attachment or nozzle is assumed as rigid compared to the shell. Hence, there
are no local stresses in the attachment. When nozzle is not rigid, stresses in shell
increase and nozzle stresses are considerable and covered in 8.3.
8.2.1.2 Square/Rectangular Attachment
Analysis is the same as that for the cylindrical attachment except the attachment
parameter β which is evaluated by
Square attachment β = c/Rm, where c = width of square
Rectangular attachment with half width C1 = in circ direction and C2 = in long
direction. β varies and is given below for each load:
a. For radial load P:
If C1 C2 , [1 – (C1 /C2 – 1)(1 – K1 )/3] (C1C2 /Rm 2 )

If C1 C2 , [1 – 4(1 – C1 /C2 )(1 – K 2 )/3] (C1C2 /R m 2 )
K1 and K2 are given in Table 6 of WRC 107

b. For circumferential moment MC:
1. For membrane stress β = {(C12 C2)}1/3/Rm, and the value obtained from the
relevant graph is to be multiplied by correction factor CC (CC from Table 7
of WRC 107)
2. For bending stress β = KC{(C12C2)}1/3/Rm, and KC is given in Table 7 of
WRC 107
Local Stresses 105
TABLE 8.1
Calculation of Local Stresses in the Cylindrical Shell Due to External Force
Tensor on the Attachment (cyl. nozzle) Under Internal Pressure
Shell material SA516 70, units: N, mm, MPa
1) Input data 2) External loads
Rm = mean radius of cylindrical shell 1014 P = radial(axial) load = 100000
T = thickness of shell 28 VL = longitudinal load = 100000
rO = outside radius of attachment 250 VC = circumferential load = 100000
p = internal pressure 3 Mt = torsional moment = 1E + 07
S = allowable stress at temp 250°C 138 MC = circ. moment = 1E + 07
Kn & Kb stress intensification factors ML = longitudinal moment 1E + 07
not considered
4) Cn, Cb to calculate stresses due
3) Stresses due to pressure to Fa, MC, ML
σc-circ stress = p Rm/ T = 108.6 Can Cba CnC CbC CnL CbL
σL-longl stress = σC/ 2 = 54.3 P/Rm P MC Mc ML ML
Rm2 β Rmβ Rm2 β Rmβ
98.619 100000 45.03 45657 45.03 45657

5) Geometrical shell & nozzle parameters for input to graphs
γ = Rm/T = 1014/28 Min 5, max 300 36.21

β = 0.875rO/Rm = 0.875 × 250/1014 Min 0.01, max 0.5 0.216
6) Output dimensionless constants from graphs [Ref. WRC-537(107)]2
Circumferential stress in long Circ. stress in circ.

Plane Plane
Fig Value Fig Value
Nø/Cn = Nø/(P/Rm) 4C 4.937 Nø/Cn = Nø/(P/Rm),(at C,D) 3C 3.076
Mø/Cb = Mø/P), (A,B) 2C1 0.032 Mø/Cb = MøP,[C,D(max 0.5)] 1C 0.063
Nø/Cn = Nø/[ML/(Rm²β)] 3B 3.570 Nø/Cn = Nø/[Mc/(Rm²β)] 3A 1.486
Mø/Cb = Mø/[ML/(Rmβ)] 1B1 0.024 Mø/Cb = Mø/[Mc/(Rmβ)] 1A 0.076
Longitudinal stress in long For long. stress in circ.
Plane Plane
Fig Value Fig Value
Nr/Cn = Nr/(P/Rm) 3C 3.076 Nr/Cn = Nr/(P/Rm),(at C, D) 4C 4.937
Mr/Cb = Mr/P (at A, B) 1C1 0.064 Mr/Cb = Mr/P [at C, D(max 0.3)] 2C 0.033
Nr/Cn = Nr/[ML/(Rm² β)] 4B 1.483 Nr/Cn = Nr/[MC/(Rm²β)] 4A 2.894
Mr/Cb = Mr/[ML/(Rm β)] 2B1 0.040 Mr/Cb = Mr/[MC/(Rmβ)] 2A 0.036
(Continued)
TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Calculation of Local Stresses in the Cylindrical Shell Due to External Force
Tensor on the Attachment (cyl. nozzle) Under Internal Pressure
7) Stress tables due to P, Mc, and ML
m-membrane stress = Eq. 8.1, b-bending stress = Eq. 8.2, Cm-total circumferential membrane
stress, C-total circ. bending stress, Lm-total longitudinal membrane stress, L-total longitudinal
bending stress
Circumferential stress in the longitudinal Plane Circ. stress in circ. Plane
At points Ao Ai Bo Bi Co Ci Do Di
1. m(P) = eq. 8.1 −17.39 −17.39 −17.39 −17.39 −10.83 −10.83 −10.83 −10.83
2. b(P) = eq. 8.2 −24.49 24.49 −24.49 24.49 −48.21 48.21 −48.21 48.21
3. m(Mc) = eq. 8.1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 −2.39 −2.39 2.39 2.39
4. b(Mc) = eq. 8.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 −26.56 26.56 26.56 −26.56
5. m(ML) = eq. 8.1 −5.74 −5.74 5.74 5.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6. b(ML) = eq. 8.2 −8.39 8.39 8.39 −8.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Cm = 1 + 3 + 5 + σc 85.51 85.51 97.00 97.00 95.42 95.42 100.20 100.20
C = Σ(1to 6) + σc 52.64 118.39 80.89 113.10 20.65 170.19 78.54 121.86
Longitudinal stress in long. Plane Long. stress in circ. Plane
1. m(P) = eq. 8.1 −10.83 −10.83 −10.83 −10.83 −17.39 −17.39 −17.39 −17.39
2. b(P) = eq. 8.2 −48.98 48.98 −48.98 48.98 −25.26 25.26 −25.26 25.26
3. m(Mc) = eq. 8.1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 −4.65 −4.65 4.65 4.65
4. b(Mc) = eq. 8.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 −12.58 12.58 12.58 −12.58
5. m(ML) = eq. 8.1 −2.38 −2.38 2.38 2.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6. b(ML) = eq. 8.2 −13.98 13.98 13.98 −13.98 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Lm = 1 + 3 + 5 + σL 41.10 41.10 45.87 45.87 32.28 32.28 41.59 41.59
L = Σ(1 to 6) + σL −21.85 104.06 10.87 80.88 −5.56 70.11 28.91 54.26
8) Shear stress due to Vc, VL, and Mt
τ – total shear, τm – shear membrane, τ1 = Vc/(πrO T), τ2 = VL/(πrO T), τ3 = Mt/(2πrO² T)
Normal to longitudinal plane for τ Normal to circ plane for τ
τ1 due toVc 4.55 4.55 −4.55 −4.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
τ2 due to VL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 −4.55 −4.55 4.55 4.55
τ3 Mt 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91
τ = τ1 + τ2 + τ3 5.46 5.46 −3.64 −3.64 −3.64 −3.64 5.46 5.46
τm = τ1 + τ2 4.55 4.55 −4.55 −4.55 −4.55 −4.55 4.55 4.55
9) Combined membrane stress = Pm + PL = max(eight points)
Cm – Lm 44.41 44.41 51.12 51.12 63.14 63.14 58.61 58.61
Cm + Lm 126.62 126.62 142.87 142.87 127.70 127.70 141.79 141.79
m1 = eq. 8.3 45.33 45.33 51.93 51.93 63.79 63.79 59.31 59.31
P1 = eq. 8.4 85.97 85.97 97.40 97.40 95.74 95.74 100.55 100.55
Pm + pl = eq. 8.5 86.0 86.0 97.4 97.4 95.7 95.7 100.5 100.5
10) Combined membrane + bending stress = Pm + PL + Q = max(eight points)
C–L 74.49 14.33 70.02 32.22 26.20 100.08 49.63 67.59
C+L 30.78 222.45 91.76 193.97 15.09 240.30 107.45 176.12
b1 = eq. 8.6 75.29 18.01 70.40 33.04 27.20 100.34 50.81 68.47
P2 = eq. 8.7 75.29 120.23 81.08 113.50 27.20 170.32 79.13 122.29
Pm + pL + Q = eq. 8.8 75.29 120.23 81.08 113.50 27.20 170.32 79.13 122.29
Max stresses pm + pL 100.549 <all = 207 pm + pL + Q 170.32 <all = 414 Result Safe
Local Stresses 107
c. For longitudinal moment ML:

1. For membrane stress β = {(C1C22)}1/3/Rm and the value obtained from the
relevant graph is to be multiplied by correction factor CL (CL from Table 8
of WRC 107)
2. For bending stress β = KL{(C1 C22)}1/3/Rm and KL is given in Table 8 of
WRC 107
CC, KC, CL, and KL depend on the C1/C2 ratio and γ.
Pressure stresses and shear stresses due to VC, VL, and Mt are calculated by basics.
Resisting areas for forces VC and VL are 4T(C1 and C2) and torsion (polar) modulus
J = C1 C2(C12 + C22)4/3 for Mt.
8.2.1.3 Limitations and Effects
1. β: 0.01 to 0.5 except for curves 1C, 2C: using 0.5 for higher values is conser-
vative, Using 0.01 for lessor values will give less stresses and they are not
advised
2. γ: 5 to 300, extended to 1200 in WRC 537
3. d/D√(D/T) > 2 results in unconservative error
4. The graphs are based on support at a distance of 8Rm each side. For L/Rm < 8,
long plane resists deformation in circ plane at C and D; as a result, the stresses
at C and D are less at more at A and B. L/Rm = 3 results in 10% error.
5. Radial force away from the shell results in higher stresses than it is towards
the shell.
6. Rigid attachment consideration suppresses circ stresses and reverse is with
long stresses
7. The stresses in thick shells are generally conservative and reverse in thin shells
8. More details are given in Appendix A2 and A3 on limitations of curves and
Appendix B on Kn and Kb of WRC 107.
9. When the nozzle is relatively thin due to compensation provided in the shell,
max stresses may come in the nozzle, and stresses in the nozzle shall be com-
puted as given in 8.3.
8.2.2 Spherical Shell
Difference with WRC107: suffixes: o, i, x, and y are used in place of u, L, 2, and
1 of WRC.
Analysis for the spherical shell is as given in 8.2 and similar as for the cylindrical
shell except the graphs and the following. The same analysis can be applied for ellip-
tical heads by replacing Rm by its mean radius at junction in the applicable
formulas.
1. Shell parameter U (<2.25): for round = rO / Rm /Ts , for square = c/[0.875

Rm /Ts ]
2. Attachment parameters T’ & ρ: for rigid, no parameters are required. For noz-
zles T’ = rm/t and ρ = T/t, for hollow square T’ = rm/0.875t, ρ = T/t, rm is equiva-
lent radius with the same moment of inertia.
3. Circ and long are not relevant for the spherical shell; however, the same con-
vention of cylinder is used to relate suffixes of forces and moments including
for stresses.
Where Rm and TS are the mean radius and thickness of the shell and rm and t are
of the nozzle.
8.2.2.1 Rigid Attachment
The resultant moment M = MC2 + M L2 is equivalent to separate moment for the spheri-
cal shell.
1. A simplified procedure is used for stresses due to P and M.

Stress due to P, σp = (σP Cp)(1/Cp), where Cp = T2/P
Stress due to M, σm = (σm Cm)(1/Cm), where Cm = T2 RmT /M
Shear stress τ can be calculated as illustrated in Table 8.1
Total stress due to pressure, P & M, σ = σc + σp + σm
Combined stress = Pm + PL + Q = 4 < 3S
2 2
Where
σc = max stress due to pressure = p Rm/T
The dimensionless stress parameters which can be obtained from Figure
SR-1 of WRC 107 are given below.
σpCp = {2.6, 0.63, 0.27, 0.15, 0.093, 0.083} For U = {0.05, 0.05, 0.1,
0.15, 0.2, 0.215}
σmCm = {18, 1.6, 0.5, 0.205, 0.1, 0.084} For U = {0.05, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15,
0.2, 0.215}
It is observed that axial (radial) stresses are always higher than tangential stresses.
2. Detailed Procedure
Stresses in radial – Ø & tangential – r directions
Membrane stress m = N/T = (N/Cn)(Cn/T)
Bending stress b = M/Z = 6M/T2 = (M/Cb)(6Cb/T2)
Membrane + bending stress = Kn N/T ± Kb 6M/T2
1/Cn = T/P, T RmT /M
1/Cb = 1/P, RmT /M
The dimensionless parameters (NØ or Nyr)/Cn, (MØ or Mr)/Cb in both x and y

directions can be read from graphs or tables against shell parameter U from Figure
SR 2 and 3 of WRC 107/537.
Calculate m & b at all eight points and then Pm + PL & Pm + PL + Q are calculated
as per step 2 of 8.2.
8.2.2.2 Hollow Attachment
Stresses in radial – Ø and tangential – r directions
Membrane stress = N/T = (N/Cn)(Cn/T)
Bending stress = M/Z = 6M/T2 = (M/Cb)(6Cb/T2)
Local Stresses 109
Membrane + bending stress = Kn N/T ± Kb 6M/T2

1/Cn = T/P, T RmT /M C and T RmT /M L
1/Cb = 1/P, RmT /MC and RmT /(M L cosθ)
The dimensionless parameters (NØ or Nr)/Cn, (MØ or Mr)/Cb in both x and y
directions can be read from graphs or tables against shell parameter U, T,
and ρ from Figure SP 1-10, SM 1-10 of WRC 107/537.
Limitations: For shells with D/t ≥ 10, d/D < 10; and with D/t ≥ 55 d/D < 1/3.
Refer Example 8.8 for spherical shell with nozzle for clarity and comparison with
example in Table 8.1.
Example 8.8: For the design data of the example for the cylindrical
shell in Table 8.1 calculate stresses in the spherical shell with an inside
diameter of 2000mm (same as cylinder) and a thickness of 14 mm (half
of cylinder) and same nozzle thickness of 10mm.
Dimensionless parameters U, T’, and ρ are
Rm = mean radius of the shell = (2000 + 14)/2 = 1007

rm = mean radius of the nozzle = (500–10)/2 = 245
U = ro/√(Rm T) = 250/√(1007*14) =2.1 T’ = rm/t = 245/10 = 24.5
ρ = T/t = 14/10 = 1.4
Pm = Stress due to pressure is the same at all eight points and in both directions
Pm = p Rm/2T = 108 MPa
Dimensionless values from graphs SP-7 for P and SM-7 for MC and ML are
For load P: NØ/Cn = 0.01928, MØ/Cb = 0.00279, Nr/Cn = 0.5423, and Mr/
Cb = 0.0051
For load MC: NØ/Cn = 0.01751, MØ/Cb = 0.00248, Nr/Cn = 0.04886, and
Mr/Cb = 0.00474
For load ML: NØ/Cn = 0.01751, MØ/Cb = 0.00248, Nr/Cn = 0.04886, and
Mr/Cb = 0.00474
Stresses in MPa at eight points
PL at A, B = (Nr/Cn)(Cn/T) = 0.01928 P/T² ± 0.01751 ML/[T2√(RmT)] = −27.7

± 21
Q at A, B = (Mr/Cb)(6Cb/T2) = 0.00279(6P/T²) ± 0.00248(6 ML)/[T2√(RmT)] =
±1 5.6 ± 12.3
PL at C, D = (Nr/Cn)(Cn/T) = 0.01928 P/T² ± 0.01751 MC/[T2√(RmT)] = −27.7
± 21
Q at C, D = (Mr/Cb)(6Cb/T2) = 0.00279(6P/T²) ± 0.00248(6 MC)/[T2√(RmT)]
= ±15.6 ± 12.3
Shear stress τm = VC/(πrm T) = ±9.1 MPa, VL/(πrm T) = ±9.1 MPa
Torsional shear τ2 = Mt/(2πro2T) = −1.8 MPa, τ = τm + τ2 = ±9.1−1.8 = 7.3, −10.9
Further steps are the same as example in Table 8.2 and the stresses in the
shell are given below
Pm + PL = 92.2, 92.2, 112, 112, 112, 112, 92.2, 92.2, MPa, max in italics at
B and C
Pm + PL + Q = 76, 107.3, 111.2, 116.4, 111.2, 116.4, 76, 107.3 MPa, max
in italics at Bi and Ci
8.3 LOCAL STRESSES IN THE CYLINDRICAL IN SHELL AND

NOZZLE AT THEIR JUNCTURE DUE TO EXTERNAL FORCE
TENSOR ON THE NOZZLE
Local stresses in the shell are as per 8.2, similar to 8.2.1, and calculations in Table 8.1
except Cn and Cb values and geometrical constants for graphs and are given below.
Cn = Cna, Cnc, CnL = P/T, MC/(T d), and ML/(T d)

Cb = Cba, Cbc, VbL = P, MC/d, and ML/d
The dimensionless parameters (nØ or nr) = (NØ or Nr)/Cn and (mØ or mr) = (MØ or
Mr)/Cb in both long and circ planes can be read from graphs or tables in WRC297
against the following geometrical constants of the shell and nozzle from graphs in
WRC297.
T/t (<10)
d/t(10 to 100)
λ = (d/D)√(D/T) (0.01 to 7).
Other limitations: nozzle inside projection and set on nozzles are not applicable.
However, set on nozzles can be considered as insert nozzles without inside projection
provided the shell nozzle joint is fully welded.
The detailed calculations are similar to examples in Table 8.1.
Local stresses in the shell: computation of stresses is the same as in 8.2.1 and
Table 8.1 except graphs. The example in Table 8.2 gives calculations up to step 6.
Step 7 is similar to the example in Table 8.1, and detailed calculations are omitted.
Only the summary of stresses is shown.
Local stresses in the nozzle: circumferential membrane stresses due to P, MC, and
ML are the same as in the shell, and bending stresses are negligible. Stresses in other
directions can be better termed axial and derived below.
σa = membrane stress due to P = P/A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the

nozzle at all eight points
σb = bending stress due to P = (P/t2)(6mr–3nr) at all eight points
σa = membrane stress due to MC = MC/Z at C and D
σb = bending stress due to MC = MC/(t2 d)(6mr–3nr) at C and D
Local Stresses 111
TABLE 8.2
Calculated Local Stresses in the Cyl Shell and Nozzle Due to Ext Loads on
the Nozzle
1) Input data: temp = 250°C 2) External loads 3) Input for stresses N and M
D = mean dia of the shell 1972 P-radial load KN 100 πdT/2 21991
T = thickness of the shell 28 VL-long load KN 100 A = π[d² − di²]/4 15394
d = Nozzle OD 500 Vc-circ load KN 100 π/2Xd²T 1.1E + 07
t = thickness of the nozzle 10 Mt-torsion moment 1E + 07 Z = π[d4–di4]/(32d) 1.8E + 06
p = design pressure 3 Mc-circ moment 1E + 07 4) Stresses due to pressure
S = all stress of the shell 138 ML-long moment 1E + 07 σc-stress = p D/2T 106
Sn = all stress of the nozzle 135 di = ID of nozzle 480 σL-stress = p D/4T 53
5) Input parameters for graphs, Cn, and Cb required to calculate stresses due to P, MC, and ML
λ = d/√(D.T) 2.128 Cna Cba Cnc Cbc CnL CbL
T/t 2.8 P/T P Mc/(T d) Mc/d ML/(T d) ML/d
d/t 50 3571 100000 714 20000 714 20000
6) Dimensionless constants from graphs, [Ref WRC-297]
mr fig.no. value nr fig.no value mØ fig.no value nØ fig.no value
N/Cn, M/Cb for P 3 to 7 0.068 8 to 12 0.04 13 to 17 0.048 18 to 22 0.17
N/Cn, M/Cb for Mc 23 to 26 0.153 27 to 31 0.083 32 to 35 0.135 36 to 40 0.27
N/Cn, M/Cb for ML 41 to 44 0.082 45 to 49 0.05 50 to 53 0.062 54 to 58 0.36
A) Vessel stresses: calculations similar to 7 to 10 of Table 8.1. Results are listed below.
7) Stresses due to Fa, MC, and ML; σØ = circumferential, σr = longitudinal stress
a) σØ circ direction Longitudinal plane Circumferential plane

Au AL Bu BL Cu CL Du DL
Cm 74.16 74.16 92.73 92.73 98.42 98.42 102.7 102
C = σØ 27.94 120.4 65.49 120 22.96 173.9 74.04 131
b) σr long direction Longitudinal plane Circumferential plane
Lm 46.44 46.44 48.99 48.99 23.61 23.61 37.64 37.6
L −18.15 111 9.5 88.48 −33.79 81.01 21.57 53.7
τ due to VC, VL, and Mt Longitudinal plane Circumferential plane
Total shear = τ 5.46 5.46 −3.64 −3.64 −3.64 −3.64 5.46 5.46
τm = mem.shear 4.55 4.55 −4.55 −4.55 −4.55 −4.55 4.55 4.55
pm + pL 74.9 74.9 93.2 93.2 98.7 98.7 103 103
pm + pL + Q 47.4 123 65.7 120.4 57.2 174 74.6 131
Max of eight points pm + pL 103 All = pm + 174 all 405 result OK
202 pL + Q
B) Nozzle stresses
a) σØ = hoop direction Longitudinal plane for σØ Circumferential plane for σØ

1. m(P) = shell −22.19 −22.2 −22.19 −22.19 −22.19 −22.2 −22.19 −22.2
2. m(Mc) = shell 0 0 0 0 −7 −7 7 7
3. m(ML) = shell −9.286 −9.3 9.286 9.286 0 0 0 0
4. σP = p(d-t)/2t 73.5 73.5 73.5 73.5 73.5 73.5 73.5 73.5
σØ = sum(1 to 4) 42.02 42.02 60.59 60.59 44.29 44.29 58.32 58.3
(Continued)
TABLE 8.2 (Continued)

Calculated Local Stresses in the Cyl Shell and Nozzle Due to Ext Loads on
the Nozzle
b) σa – axial stresses Normal to pipe X sec, long plane Normal to pipe X sec, circ plane
1. membrane = P/A −6.496 −6.5 −6.496 −6.496 −6.496 −6.5 −6.496 −6.5
2. ben = P/t²(6mr–3nr) −288 288 −288 288 −288 288 −288 288
3. membrane = Mc/Z 0 0 0 0 −5.41 −5.41 5.41 5.41
4. b = [Mc/(t²d)]
(6mr–3nr) 0 0 0 0 −133.8 133.8 133.8 −134
5. membrane = Ml/Z −5.4 −5.4 5.4 5.4 0 0 0 0
6. b = [Ml/(t²d)]
(6mr–3nr) −68.4 68.4 68.4 −68.4 0 0 0 0
7. σL = p(d − t)/4t 36.75 36.75 36.75 36.75 36.75 36.75 36.75 36.8
σm = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 24.85 24.85 35.66 35.66 24.85 24.85 35.66 35.7
σa = sum(1 to 7) −331.6 381.2 −183.9 255.3 −397 446.6 −118.5 190
c) Shear stresses Longitudinal plane for τ Circumferential plane for τ
τ1 due to Vc = 2Vc/A 13 13 −13 −13 0 0 0 0
τ2 due to Vl = 2Vl/A 0 0 0 0 −13 −13 13 13
τ3 due to Mt = Mt/(2Z) 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
τ = sh = (τ1 + τ2 + τ3) 15.7 15.7 −10.3 −10.3 −10.3 −10.3 15.7 15.7
τm = m.sh = τ1 + τ2 13 13 −13 −13 −13 −13 13 13
m1 = σm + σø 66.87 66.87 96.25 96.25 69.14 69.14 93.98 94
P1 = √[(σa − σø)² + 4τm²] 31.15 31.15 36.01 36.01 32.45 32.45 34.48 34.5
pm + pL 49.01 49.01 66.13 66.13 50.8 50.8 64.23 64.2
b1 = σa + σø −290 423 −123 316 −353 491 −60 248
P2 = √[(σa − σø)² + 4τ²] 375 341 245 196 442 403 180 135
Pm + PL + Q 375 382 245 256 442 447 180 192
Max: pm + pl = 66, allowed = 202, pm + pl + Q = 447, allowed = 405, result = unsafe

Pm + PL = MAX(P1, ABS{m1 ± P1}/2), allowed = 1.5S: Pm + PL + Q = MAX(P2, ABS{b1 ± P2}/2),
all. = 3S
σa = membrane stress due to ML = ML/Z at A and B

σb = bending stress due to ML = ML/(t2 d)(6mr – 3nr) at A and B
The term with nr is introduced to correct the moment applied to the nozzle by
subtracting NrT/2 from the radial moment on the shell side of the junction.
The detailed calculations for stresses in the nozzle are illustrated by the example
in Table 8.2 using the same data from Table 8.1.
REFERENCES
1. Code ASME S VIII D 1, 2019.
2. Welding Research council bulletin 107(537) & 297.
9 Thermal Stresses and
Piping Flexibility
The introduction to thermal stresses is given in 4.4.4. Thermal stresses are of two
types: one due to differential movement and other due to restriction of free move-
ment (expansion and contraction) under temperature in operation. Fatigue life is the
brittle failure on reaching maximum cycles of operation during which the element
experiences bending stress from one extreme direction to the other due to repeated
expansion and contraction.
In general, pressure vessels are straight between supports and rigid. Therefore,
only one support is fixed and the rest are free in all directions. Even if the vessel is L
shaped between fixed supports, thermal stresses will be large due to its higher
diameter to length ratio (D/L) of each straight portion, and the arrangement is not
practical. There can be several arrangements internal or external for pressure vessels
with tubes with lower D/L, ducting, structural elements, and piping requiring
restriction of free movement for process needs or to restrict vibration problems, etc.,
requiring flexibility analysis.
9.1 DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT
In boilers, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers, process requirement will force cer-
tain components to operate at different temperatures or components of different
materials having different expansion coefficients are provided with a common
boundary resulting in differential movement in operation. Some of the examples of
different temperatures are,
• Tubes and shell of a fixed tube shell and tube boiler or heat exchanger welded
to the tube sheet on both ends.
• Shell and jacket of a jacketed vessel.
An example of a component with differential materials is the butt welding of car-

bon and stainless steel cylindrical parts. Thermal membrane and bending stresses are
induced due to the differential radial expansion and proportion to the diameter and
temperature. Therefore, this arrangement is used only when the combination of size
and temperature is the optimum lower limit. The stresses are solved as described in
Chapter 7.
The differential temperature between the shell and tubes of a shell and tube type
heat exchanger will induce stresses in the shell, tubes, and tube sheet. In boilers, the
tubes containing hot gasses are immersed in water inside the shell. Due to the wetting
of tubes by water, their metal temperature is marginally higher than the water
113
temperature, while the shell is at the water temperature neglecting the heat flow to the
outside. Therefore, the differential movement is marginal and absorbed mainly by
deflection of the tube sheet unless the length of tubes is >6 m. In the case of other heat
exchangers, if the tube sheet is rigid like the shell or the tube length is large or the
shell side fluid is gas, an expansion bellow is provided in the shell to take large tube
expansion. In a jacketed vessel, the jacket-closing plate ring can provide flexibility.
9.2 BASICS OF THERMAL STRESSES

Thermal stresses are direct (compression or tensile) and bending. Direct stresses in
one, two, and three directions for a temperature difference (T–T1) and α thermal
coefficient are
1 E (T T1 )
2 E (T T1 )(1 v)
3 E (T T1 )(1 v 2 )
For carbon steel, at about a temperature of 100°C, direct stress σ1 = 12.1E–
6*198000*(100–21) = 189 MPa.
The above calculation indicates restriction of direct free movement, similar to the
case where fixing both saddles of a horizontal pressure vessel is not safe unless the
vessel operates under ambient conditions. The following arrangements of restricted
free thermal movement induce bending stresses and analysis method.
• The shell or beam element is fixed at one end and the other guided end, as
shown in Figure 9.1, which moves perpendicular to its axis will be in bending.
Structurally, it is called a guided cantilever.
w
A
u
c
B
L
(a) BENDING & DEFLECTION DIAGRAM

w
Mb
Ma
w B
A
(b) FREE BODY DIAGRAM
-WL -
WL/2 +
(c) BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
FIGURE 9.1 Guided cantilever.

Thermal Stresses and Piping Flexibility 115
• Two-element system: Elements perpendicular to each other with fixed ends

deform as shown in Figure 9.2, and bending stress is induced in each element.
• Plate elements such as tube sheets and end closing plates can be analyzed by
plate theory.
• 3D elements such as piping systems can be analyzed taking axisymmetric shell
elements by various methods.
For any other arrangement with such thermal stresses, the components involved in
the equipment or piping system between two fixed supports are stressed and gener-
ally, the most flexible is stressed the maximum. The stresses are calculated from its
free body diagram which is reverse of the free body diagram in the case of loads. In
this case, deflection is known instead of loads. The analysis is first to calculate forces
due to deflection from the beam or relevant theory, and then stresses are calculated
due to these forces by a relevant design method. The shell elements stressed due to
these loads can be divided into two types, rigid elements (less flexibility or higher
stiffness), which have high resistance to loads and will transfer forces and displace-
ments without being deformed, and others that are reverse and flexible. Therefore,
for calculating stresses, the general equation in a matrix form between the force and
displacement is given by Eq. 9.1.
[F] [S] [D] (9.1)
Because equations for deflection can be conveniently derived, instead of calculating

the force directly using the stiffness matrix [S], the flexibility matrix [K] is used and
given by Eq. 9.2.
[D] [K] [F] (9.2)
After all elements of [K] are calculated by duly summing the flexibility of all com-
ponents, it is inversed to convert [K] to [S] by the Excel matrix function
[=MINVERSE(range)].
[F] can be solved by multiplying [D] and [S] by function [MMULT(range)]. [F]
can be transferred to various points (nodes) of interest by the transformation matrix
derived in 3.1.5. From forces and moments, the stresses can be compiled.
The above procedure is a basic finite element analysis for axisymmetric elements
such as beam or shell elements. This procedure can be used in analysis where deflec-
tion is a factor.
9.3 GUIDED CANTILEVER
It is a beam or shell element with one end fixed (no translation and rotation) and the
other end guided (no rotation and translation free), as shown in Figure 9.1. A load is
applied at the guided end to give a slope or rotation of 1°. Then a moment is applied
at the same point to give the same 1° rotation in the reverse direction. The net effect
of the force and moment is deflection in the direction of force and no rotation. It is
nothing but a pipe with one end anchored and the other end guided which moves
perpendicular to its length (L) as shown in figure. To derive the equation for stress
due to the expansion movement (u), two methods are given below.
(1) Divide the element (depth or pipe OD = d) into two halves; each is a cantilever
with a span L/2 under concentrated load (W) at the free end. The equations for M and
deflection (y) are:
M = W L / 2,
=y W=
( L / 2)3 / (3EI ) or W 3EI y /(L / 2)3
Using basic relations Z = I/(d/2) = 2I/d and bending stress σ = M/Z
d d
WL 3EI y /(L / 2)3 L 6 E d y /L2 (9.3)
4I 4I
where E is the elastic modulus and I and Z are the moment of inertia and the section
modulus, respectively.
Substituting y = u/2 in Eq. 9.3, the stress for the guided cantilever is expressed
using Eq. 9.4.
6 E d (u / 2) /L2 3E d u /L2 (9.4)

(2) Moment area method: The free body and its moment diagrams are drawn for
the above pipe with W at the guided end as shown in Figure 9.1. At equilibrium
Ma = –Mb and taking the moment at A fixed end,
Mb Ma W L
Because Ma = –Mb, Mb = W L/2

Deflection at the guided end = moment of area of the moment diagram at the
guided end and is given by

EI u Mb L L / 2 W L2 / 2 2 L / 3 W L / 2 L2 / 2 W L3 / 3 W L3 /12
or W 12 EI u /L3

M /Z W L / 2 d / 2 I 12 EI u /L3 L d / 4 I d u / 2 / L2 / 2 3E d u /L2
which is the same as Eq. 9.4,
Example 9.1: Stress using Eq. 9.4 and Figure 9.1, d = 200 mm, u = 2 mm,
E = 200000 MPa, L = 1000 mm
σ = 3*200000*200*2/10002 = 240 MPa > allowed 138 does not satisfy.
9.4 SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS
This analysis is mostly used for piping systems and can be used for beam and other
shell elements. For beam elements, the difference is the moment of inertia.
9.4.1 3D Piping with Elements in Orthogonal Axes

General equations for stress are derived from Eq. 9.4 for three directions using the
fact that the directions of u and L are perpendicular to each other. When u is in the
x- direction, L direction in the 3D system is y and z. Replacing u with uX and L2 by
L2Y + L2Z [for multiple elements Σ(Ly)2 + Σ(Lz)2],
3E d u x
x
L2y L2z
3E d u y
y
L2z L2x
3 E d uz
z 2
L x L2y
where ux, uy, and uz are expansions of the system in three directions,
ΣL2x , ΣL2y , and ΣL2x are the sum of squares of all pipe lengths in three directions.
Because L is the length perpendicular to the expansion, L in E 9.4 is replaced by the
sum of squares of all elements in the other two axes.
Note that [Σ(Lx)]² is much greater than ΣL2x and a single length perpendicular to
expansion is more flexible than the same total length of several pipe elements.
9.4.2 3D Piping with Elements in any of the Three Axes

Instead of three equations, 9.4.1, a single equation, 9.5, can be derived as follows:
Let u be the expansion for the distance from the anchor to the anchor AB (Figure
9.2) along its length and Ln and Lm are components of each straight pipe length (La =
L1 and L2 in figure) in the direction normal and along the line AB, respectively.
L2a L2n L2m
Substituting ΣL2n , the sum of squares of normal components of lengths of all pipe
elements for L2 in Eq. 9.4
σ = 3E d u/[ΣL2n ], substituting L2a − L2m for L2n,
(3Ed u) / L2a L2m (9.5)

Example 9.2: Calculate maximum stress at A (Figure 9.2) by Eq. 9.5 and, d =
0.2 m, L = L1 = 1 m, expansion e = 0.001 m/m, E = 2e10 kg/m², and L2 = 2 m
Angle between AB and AO, α = A cos (L1/L2) = 26.6°

Expansion of AB, U e L12 L22 = 0.001*2.236 = 0.002236 mm,
L2a L12 L22 12 22 5 m2
L2m =(L1 sin )2 (L2 cos )2 0.4462 1.792 3.2 m2
σ = 3*2e11*0.2*0.002236/(5–3.2) = 14.9E7 Ng/m2 or 149 N/mm2
9.4.3 Code Comparison
Codes (B31.3 and IBR) specify simplified Eq. 9.6 for flexibility check of piping
system between anchor to anchor without any restraints.
A − B> (d u / 208) (9.6)

where A is the total developed length and B is the anchor to anchor distance in meters
and d and u are in mm. Where, d = outside diameter and u = resultant expansion of
the system.
Squaring Eq. 9.6, and converting units of A and B to mm
(A B)2 4807d u.
Converting to compare with Eq. 9.4
(A B)2 (3E/)d u
where (3E/σ) = 4807, A – B above is the same as L in Eq. 9.4
Example 9.3: For this rule with the same data used in example 9.2, A =
3 m, B = 2.2236 m, u = 2.236 mm, d = 200 mm, A − B = 0.7764 m,
d u/ 208 (200*2.236/208) 1.46 0.7764 , does not satisfy.

Code Eq. 9.6 is approximately the same as Eq. 9.4 and conservative to Eq. 9.5.
It is conservative for more and more elements.
Eq. 9.6 is mandatory for safe thermal stresses and if it satisfies, no further analy-
sis is required.
9.4.4 Allowable Stress
Higher bending stress is allowed for thermal stresses than primary bending stresses
as per the logic explained below.
Thermal movement is zero before commissioning and will become u under oper-
ating conditions. Assuming stress under operating conditions crosses its yield
strength but still in the plastic range and within the limit of tensile strength, it yields
and stress relaxation takes place and stress reduces to its yield strength. When the
plant is shutdown, the reverse movement will start and first the stress value reaches
zero and then it reverses and reaches yield again (in the case of design without mar-
gin). The maximum theoretical stress permitted is therefore up to twice the yield and
the stress range after the first cycle is from one side yield to the other side yield. Due
to this, the stress is called self-limiting. The cycle will be repeated and after reaching
certain cycles depending on stress margin and material, the pipe breaks due to fatigue.
The less the stress margin, the less the fatigue life. Therefore, allowable stress is
limited to 1.25SC + 0.25Sh in codes for piping systems and 3S in equipment. Here SC
and Sh are code allowed tensile stresses at ambient and maximum operating
temperatures.
9.5 ANALYSIS FROM BASICS

Thermal stresses can be analyzed from basics, but practical only for a simple system
without restraints. Even by using an Excel spread sheet, analysis is cumbersome for
a large system with several restraints and is prone to errors.
Software such as ceasar and staadpro is designed to perform finite element analy-
sis with axisymmetrical beam or shell elements and rigid elements (straight pipe,
bend, fitting, etc.) based on the above basics.
The basics of analysis whether manual or software are explained below for a
simple pipeline between two anchors (A and B) with a straight orthogonal pipe and
90° bend elements for thermal load only.
Anchor B is released, and the system is allowed to expand freely under tempera-
ture. The point B will move in three, X, Y, and Z, directions. Rotations are zero due
to both ends being fixed, and represented as the deformation matrix [D]. A force ten-
sor [F]= {FX, FY, FZ, MX, MY, MZ} is applied to bring back B to its original position.
First step: the unknown [F] at B is transferred to the next node and so on up to
anchor point A. All forces are the same at all nodes, but moments will be different
and include the additional moment due to the forces.
Second step: [Dn] is calculated from A at the next node for the first element con-
sidering a free body due to the [Fn] at that node calculated in the first step which
depends on its stiffness (n is the node number). For the second element onwards, the
same procedure is repeated and, in addition, rotations of the start node calculated for
previous elements are multiplied by their length to obtain additional displacements.
Third step: All [Dn] are added which contain six unknowns [F] and are equated to
known [D] at B. [F] is solved by the six equations thus obtained. [F] is obtained at all
nodes by multiplying [F] at B by the transformation matrix for each element. Stresses
at all nodes can be calculated from the max moment and section modulus Z.
This procedure is applied to solve a simple example below.
9.5.1 One-dimensional System
Consider a beam in the X-axis of length L and area A with both ends anchored. Due to
temperature, it expands by x when anchor B is freed. To bring it back, FX has to be applied.
=
Fx (=
x /L ) A E, stress compressive x E /L = e E,
where e = expansion in m/m and equal to strain. For C&LAS at 80°C e = 0.7 mm/m,
stress = 0.7*200000/1000 = 140 MPa
That is for temperatures more than 80°C, a straight pipe with both ends fixed will
buckle. If the slenderness ratio increases, it will buckle at lower temperatures.
9.5.2 Two-dimensional System
Consider one of the straight beams in X and Y axes as shown in Figure 9.2. Element
BO is plotted in the x-axis and OA in the y-axis; L1 and L2 are lengths and A1 and A2
are areas. A and B are fixed and under temperature. B expands by x and y on freeing
and to bring them back FX, FY, and MZ(or M) are applied at B.
A
2
1 L2=2m
Fx B O
y
M L1=1m
Fy x
FIGURE 9.2 Two-element layout.
Step 1: Forces at O are FX, FY, and MO = M – L1 FY

Forces at A are FX, FY, and Ma = M – L1 FY + L2 FX
Step 2: for element-2 (AO); displacements x2, y2, and θ2 at O due to FX, FY, and
M – L1 FY are:
x2 = L23/(3EI)FX+ (L22/2) (M – L1 FY)/EI,
y2 = L2/(A2 E)FY,
θ2 = (L22/2)FX/EI + L2 (M – L1 FY)/EI.
For element-1 (OB); x1, y1, and θ1 at B due to FX, FY, and M are:
x1 = L1/(A1 E)FX,
y1 = L13/(3EI)Fy – (L12/2)M /EI,
θ1 = L1 M/EI – (L12/2)FY/EI,
In addition, displacement at B due to θ2, y12 = θ2(–L1), substituting the θ2 value
y12 = –(L22/2)L1FX/EI – L1 L2(M – L1 FY)/EI
Neglecting direct force components x1 and y2 (insignificant compared to bending
components) and taking the EI factor to the left side, the resultant displacements at B
multiplied by EI are
EI(x = x1 + x2 + x12) = L23/3 FX + (L22/2)(M – L1 FY)
EI(y = y1 + y2 + y12) = L13/3 FY – (L12/2)M – (L22/2)L1 FX – L1 L2(M – L1 FY)
EI(θ = θ1 + θ2) = –(L12/2)FY + L1M + (L22/2)FX + L2 (M – L1 FY)
Rearranging
EIx (L 23 /3)FX (L1L 2 2 /2)FY (L 2 2 /2)M (9.7)

EIy (L1L 2 2 /2)FX (L13 /3 L12 L 2 )FY (L12 /2 L1L 2 )M (9.8)

EI (L 2 2 /2)FX (L12 /2 L1L 2 )FY (L1 L 2 )M (9.9)

Solving these three equations, unknowns FX, FY, and M can be solved.
Writing in the matrix form, EI[D] = [K][F]
L32 / 3 L1 L22 / 2 L22 / 2

L31
K L1 L22 / 2 L21 L2 ( L21 / 2 L1 L2 )
3
L22 / 2 ( L21 / 2 L1 L2 ) L1 L2
This matrix equation can be used to calculate deflection and rotations of axisym-
metric beam elements for force and moment loads.
Example 9.4: Calculate forces and max bending stress of 2D and two-
element systems derived above with the same data for the pipe beam used
in example 9.1 and 9.2, Figure 9.2: 200 mm OD, 7/2.2 mm thick, x-axis
pipe length L1 = 1 m, y-axis pipe length L2=2 m, expansion about 1mm/m
at 102°C, E = 2E5 MPa. Units used in calculations are: N, m Moment of
inertia, I = π*0.1³*7/2200 = 1E-5, Z = 1E-4, EI x = 2E11*1E-5*1E-3 = 2E3,
EIy = 4E3, θ = 0, [K] = [{2.667, −2,2},{−2,2.333, −2.5}, {2, −2.5,3}]
Solving Fx = 8250, FY = 27000, and M = 17000

M at other two nodes is less than that at B, max moment = 17000 Nm, bending stress =
M/Z = 1.7E4/1E-4 = 1.7E8 N/m² or 170 N/mm² compared with example 9.2 (149)
9.5.3 Three-dimensional System
Manual analysis by this procedure for three elements or with bend elements is
impractical. There are other methods (Kellogg) for solving piping systems with
straight and bend elements without restraints and branches by Excel spread sheets.
The flexibility matrix of each element for displacement at B due to the force matrix
at B is derived by the above procedure and added to form the flexibility matrix [K],
and a single equation in the matrix form is evolved.
K 66 X F16 EI D16 (9.10)

1 1
Or F K X EI D , but K S stiffness matrix and
(9.11)
F S X EI D
Matrix Eq. 9.11 is a combination of six equations with six unknowns which can be
solved easily in Excel. EI[D] is known and [K] of element depends on its geometrical
properties and is derived from beam formulas. [K] is converted to [S] by Excel matrix
function [=MINVERSE(range)].
[F] can be solved by multiplying [D] and [S] by function [MMULT(range)].
From [F] at B, [F] at each node point from B to A can be solved by the transforma-
tion matrix in Excel.
9.6 FORMATION OF FLEXIBILITY MATRIX OF SHELL (PIPE) ELEMENTS

Out of 6 × 6 = 36 coefficients, 15 are not required due to the symmetry of matrix [K],
that is, K52 = K25 and so on.
Here, 5 = row no. (r) and 2 = column no (c) in K52.
K52 = (EI × rotation in the y direction)/Fy and K25 = (EI × deflection in the y direc-
tion)/My.
Out of the remaining 21, the following three elements are null elements:
Two lateral rotations due to axial moments or their reciprocal axial rotation due to lat-
eral moments and one out of plane displacement due to axial moment or its reciprocal.
The remaining 18 elements are derived for each type of element in a 3D piping
layout (straight pipe in any direction, bend of any angle, and orientation) using beam
formulas. K for valves like elements is zero and considered as rigid. A rigid element
only transfers the force but will not deform. Other fittings can be approximated as the
equivalent straight element.
Pipes bend upon application of a bending load and deform, and their moment of
inertia is reduced by making the bend more flexible with the corresponding increase
in stress. For this effect, the flexibility factor and stress intensification factors are
added for bending elements to the [K] theoretically derived.
The elements of matrix [K] derived basically as displacements and rotations for
axial, lateral, in plane, and out plane [D] for [F] are irrespective of the plane or axis.
Actually [K] compiled for one plane can be used for the other two planes but for
different elements of [K] the following method is used.
In Krc r, c of the xy plane or (r, c)xy = (r + 1, c + 1)yz = (r + 2, c + 2)zx, in each
of the three quarters:
1st = r and c number from 1 to 3
2nd = r and c number from 4 to 6
3rd = remaining r = 4 to 6 and c = 1 to 3 or 41 to 63
Example: (3, 2) in xy = (3 + 1,2 + 1 = 4, 3 but 4 jumps into the next quarter, next
is back to 1, thus = 1, 3) yz = (5, 4 or 2, 1)zx.
Thus K32 in xy = K13 in YZ = K21 in ZX
Table 9.1 shows the elements of flexibility for a general straight pipe in three
planes for clarity. The terms used in this table are defined in Table 9.2 and Fig. 9.3.
TABLE 9.1
Elements of [K] for 3D Pipe
KXX YZ-plane ZX XY
11 a.b xx + z2b yy + z2a
22 yy + z2a a.b xx + z2b
33 xx + z2b yy + z2a a.b
21 –z.ao –z.bo –xy – z2q
32 –xy – z2q –z.ao –z.bo
13 –z.bo –xy – z2q –z.ao
41 0 x.q –z.q
52 –z.q 0 x.q
63 x.q –z.q 0
51 –bo –L.x –z.a
62 –z.a –bo –L.x
43 –L.x –z.a –bo
61 ao z.b L.y
42 L.y ao z.b
53 z.b L.y ao
44 L A b
55 B L a
66 A B L
65 Q 0 0
46 0 Q 0
54 0 0 q
EI being constant for the same size of element under consideration, suppressed in
equations hereafter.
9.6.1 Single Element in Plane Forces

For a straight pipe ab of length L with fixed a, the force tensor [F] is applied at b
(Figure 9.3), and displacement tensor [D] at b as per beam formulas is compiled
below (elements indicated are for the X direction pipe in the XY plane).
Lateral displacement due to lateral forces (K22, K33) = L3/3
Lateral rotation due to lateral force = displacement due to lateral moments (K26,
K35) = L2/2
Lateral rotation due to lateral moments (K55, K66) = L
Axial rotation due to axial moment L/(G J), K44 = 1.3L
where G = rigidity modulus = E/[2(1 + v)] = E/2.6 for steels (v = 0.3)
J = polar moment of inertia = 2I for shell elements, I = MI
Effects of direct and shear stresses like displacement due to axial force are
neglected compared to that due to lateral loads and moments.
Using the above formulas, all the elements of [K] can be computed.
For inclined pipes in any plane, the equations for elements are derived by resolv-
ing forces axial and lateral to the pipe, the [D] in the rotated angle is calculated, and
then [D] is resolved back in to orthogonal axes. The above elements are tabulated in
column one of Table 9.2.
9.6.2 3D System
For 3D piping layout, all out-of-plane forces in addition induce bending and/or tor-
sion moment. The actual layout of A to B shown in Figure 9.3 involves several ele-
ments in all planes; the method is to calculate the k that is [D] at B due to [F] at B for
each pipe element considering that all other elements are rigid. k of all elements of
each plane are added separately and thus added elements are added in different com-
bination (see ref. 1 for details of combination) to form [K].
[K] can be calculated by programming using the following procedure using matrix
equations.
The force tensor at B can be transferred to b and rotated to align with pipe element
ab (X - axis in Fig. 9.3) and the matrix K can be computed as per column one of Table
9.2 and as per 3.1.5 and 3.1.6 using T and R from Table 3.1, as follows.
[FB]61, [Fb]61, and [F]61 are the force matrix at B, b, and (b.local)
[DFB]61, [Db]61, and [D]61 are the force matrix at B, b, and (b.local)
[Tf]66 = transformation matrix for F from B to b
[Rf]66 = rotation matrix at b rotating relevant axis to align with the element (Z - axis
for Fig. 9.3) for F
F 61 R f 66 Fb 61 R f 66 Tf 66 FB 61 (9.12)

If the [R] at b is different from the one given in Table 3.1, it can be computed based
on the local direction cosines.
k is for d at b for force F, and the elements of k are given in Table 9.2 (column one
for x - axis).
Similarly, the local matrix D at b can be rotated and transferred back to B and
given by the equation.
D 61 Td 66 R d 66 D B 61 (9.13)

Substituting, [D] and [F] from Eq. 9.12 and 9.13, in equation [D] = [K] [F] at point b
in local axes
Td 66 R d 66 D B 61 K R f 66 Tf 66 FB 61

D B R f Tf / Td R d k FB K FB
(9.14)
K k R f Tf / Td R d
1 1
K Td R d k R f Tf
[K] can be derived analytically for one general straight pipe element by beam theory
or using Castigliano’s first theorem.
9.6.2.1 Beam Theory
Consider one element ab (a-fixed, b-free) in the x-axis and XY plane at a distance (X,
y, z) from b to B as shown in Figure 9.3.
Deflection y of the pipe element of length L for in plane lateral force FY (unit FY
EI) at any point B at a distance x and y from b of element connected through rigid
elements as shown in Figure 9.3 is derived as:
FY is transferred to b as FY and moment FY X
Deflection and rotation due to FY at b on ab are d1 = Fy L3/3 and θ1=FY L2/2.
Deflection and rotation due to moment FY X at b on ab are d2 = FY X L2/2 & θ2 =
FY X L
Deflection at B due to rotations θ1 and θ2 is
d3 d4 (1 2 ) X X ( L2 FY / 2 L FY X ) ( L2 X / 2 L X 2 )FY
FIGURE 9.3 3D layout of a straight pipe element.

Total deflection at B, K22 = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 = (L3/3 + L2 X/2 + L2X/2 + L X2) FY,

writing L3/3 = L3/12 + L3/4
K 22 = L ³/12 L ³/4 L ² X L X ²
K 22 = L ³/12 L L ²/4 L X X ²
(9.15)

= [ L ³/12 L L/2 X
2
Because L/2 + X = x component of the distance from B to the mid-point (C) of ab say
x as shown in Figure 9.3, and substituting in Eq. 9.15, K22 is simplified to Eq. 9.16
K 22 L x ² L ³ / 12 (9.16)

9.6.2.2 Castigliano’s First Theorem

Castigliano’s first theorem states that the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to any one of the static loads is equal to the displacement of the point of
application of that load in the direction of force. The above Eq. 9.16 can be derived
by Castigliano’s first theorem.
Take element ds at distance s from midpoint C as shown in Figure 9.3. Moment at
ds for in plane forces: Fx, Fy, and Mz at point B
M (x s) FY y FX Mz
Strain energy at dS, U = M2 ds/(2EI)

As per Castigliano’s first theorem, displacement dY at the point of force = dU/dFY
Substituting the M value for U in the dy equation, dy is expressed as
d Y d/dFY [(x s) FY y FX Mz]2 d S /(2EI)
Suppressing EI, and differentiating with respect to dFY
d Y [(x s) FY y FX Mz](x s)ds

d y ( x s)2 FY y(x s)FX M Z ( x s) ds
L /2
[( x 2 s 2 2 xs ) FY y(x s )FX M Z ( x s) ds
L /2
Integrating, and applying limits
d Y (x 2s s3 /3 2 s2 /2) FY y(x s s2 /2)FX (x s s2 /2) M Z
d Y (x 2 L L3 /12)FY y L FX x L M Z K 22 FY K 21FX K 26 M Z
Castigliano’s theorem can be applied individually to derive each element instead

of combining as above.
K22 = x2 L + L3/12 is the same as Eq. 9.16

That is deflection at B in the y direction due to FY at B is given by Eq. 9.16. If the
ab is inclined at an angle θ anticlockwise from the X axis, the component of force FY
lateral to ab = FY cos θ. The deflection L3/12 will be = cos θ L3/12 lateral to ab. To
obtain deflection in the Y direction which is the component of cosθL3/12, that is
cos2 θ L3/12 (K22) for the inclined element, is given by
K 22 L x 2 cos2 L3 /12 (9.17)
Similarly, cos θ cos θ L3/12 is added to K21. No addition to K26 as M is in the Z

axis normal to plane XY under consideration.
In a 3D layout as the FY as the out-of-plane force will induce torsion moment
(Fy z) which rotates element and additional deflection of point B and can be derived
by the above theory and given by
L z 2 (sin 2 1.3cos2 ).

(9.18)
K 22 L x cos2 L3 /12 L z 2 (sin 2 1.3cos2 )
2

Similarly, (z20.3L cos θ sin θ) is added to K21.

All elements can be derived by this theorem using the above procedure as follows:
1. Compute moments (1-axial, 2-lateral, and 3-lateral) at C due to relevant forces/

moments at B
M1 = km Mx + km My + kn Fy + kn Fz
M2 = km Mx + km My + kn Fx + kn Fz
M3 = km Mz + kn Fx + kn Fy
Km (m2) and kn are expressions each depending on x, y, z, L, and θ
2. Derive equations [D] at B using the above theorem from the above equations
each by differentiating with respect to each force forming 4+4+3
equations.
3. Compute K from each equation. Seven of the expressions (11, 22, 33, 44, 55,
45, and 53) are found in the two equations which are added to obtain total 18
elements forming the required [K].
Table 9.2 is shown with six columns with a straight pipe element in different posi-
tions with one end (a) fixed and the other end (b) applied force in the first two col-
umns, rest connected to B through assumed rigid elements and applied forces at B as
shown in Figure 9.3. Expressions in the first four columns and some in the last two
columns can be derived by beam theory. The rest are complicated and can be derived
by the above procedure. For pipe ab not in any plane formation of moments, M1,
M2, and M3 are complicated, and [K] can be derived by the matrix method explained
in 9.6.2.
For convenience to program in Excel, the load and deflection point can be taken at
any convenient point within the layout and the origin (0,0,0) of the coordinate system
TABLE 9.2
Elements of Flexibility Matrix for a Straight Pipe in the XY Plane
X, E Y, E X, P Y, P XY, P XY, A
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 0 L3/3 L.y2 L3/3 L.y + K sin θ
2 2 5 + z2a
22 L3/3 0 L3/3 L.x2 L.x2 + K cos2 θ 5 + z2b
33 L3/3 L3/3 1.3L2 1.3L2 a.b 5
44 1.3L L 1.3L L B 5
55 L 1.3L L 1.3L A 5
66 L L L L L 5
12 0 0 –L.x.y –L.x.y 4–K cos θ sin θ 5 + q.z2
13 0 0 0 0 0 –z.ao
14 0 0 0 0 0 –q.z
15 0 0 0 0 0 –z a
16 0 L2/2 L.y L.y 4 5
23 0 0 0 0 0 –z.bo
24 0 0 0 0 0 z.b
25 0 0 0 0 x.q 5
26 –L2/2 0 –L.x –L.x 4 5
34 0 –L2/2 –1.3L.y –y.L 4 5
35 L2/2 0 L.x 1.3L.x x.a – y.q 5
36 0 0 0 0 0 0
45 0 0 0 0 Q 5
46 0 0 0 0 0 0
56 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pipe oriented along (X-x axis, Y – y axis, XY – inclined); application of force and displacement at (E – end
point, P- any point in-plane, A – any point x,y,z)
C = cos θ, s = sin θ, k = L3/12, q = 0.3L.c.s, a = L(c2 + 1.3s2), b = L(c2 + 1.3s2),
ao = x.a – y.q, bo = x.a – y.q, a.b = x.ao + y.bo + k
can be considered. Forces and deflections are solved at the origin and can be trans-
ferred to any node point.
9.7 FORMATION OF FLEXIBILITY MATRIX FOR BEND ELEMENTS

Deformation and rotations of bend pipe in orthogonal planes due to external loads
as shown in Figure 9.4 are derived based on curved beam theory and Castigliano’s
first theorem below, for nonorthogonal oriented by the matrix method explained in
section 9.6.2.
Refer Figure 9.4 showing one bend element (a-b) having coordinates (x, y, and z)
at center (o) of the bend in the XY plane and orientation angle α, with any convenient
origin say B in the 3D layout (A-B) with either side elements considering rigid, under
force matrix [F] applied at origin B. For simplicity, first consider the 2D layout with
z = 0, bend angle θ = 90° and α = 0 then add effects of z, any bend angle θ, and any
orientation angle α.
FIGURE 9.4 3D layout of the bend pipe element.
Here
θ = bend angle + when rotated anticlockwise from start point b, - when rotated
clockwise.
α = angle from negative vertical axis to bend radius at start point b A’clock
wise.
Consider infinitesimal length ds (dθ) at an angle θ (not bend angle and only used
in integration) from radius o-b as shown in Figure 9.4. In plane moment at ds due to
in plane forces FX, FY, and MZ is given by
M FX (y R cos ) Fy(x R sin ) M Z
Strain energy on ds, U = M2 ds/(2EI)

By Castigliano’s first theorem, deformation in the x direction dx is given by the
equation:
dx dU/dFX , dy dU/dFY and z dU/dM Z
dx = d/dFX[M2 ds/(2EI)], suppressing EI, substituting M and ds = R dθ and

partial differentiating
dx = [FX(y + R cos θ) + FY(x + R sin θ) + MZ]R dθ
dx = [FX(y + R cos θ)2 + FY(x + R sin θ)(y + R cos θ) + MZ(y + R cos θ)]R.dθ
dx = {FX(y2 + R2 cos2 θ + 2yR cos θ)2 + FY[x y + R2 sin θ cos θ + R(x cos θ + y sin θ)]
+ MZ(y + R cos θ)}R dθ
Integrating with limits 0 to π/2
dx ={[y2Rθ + R3(θ/2 + sin θ cos θ + 2yR2 sin θ) FX + [xyRθ + R3 sin2 θ/2 + R2
(x sin θ – y cos θ)]FY + [yRθ + R2 sin θ) MZ} 0 to π/2
dx =(y2 Rπ/2 + R3 π/4 + 2yR2) FX + (x y Rπ/2 + R3/2 + R2x + R2y)
FY + (y R π/2 + R2) MZ = K11 FX + K12 FY + K16 MZ
Similarly, partial differentiating U with respect to FY and suppressing FX as it

gives K21 = K12
dy = Fy(x + R sin θ)2 + Mz(x + R sin θ)]R.dθ, integrating and applying limits

= (x2Rπ/2 + R³π/4 + 2xR2)Fy + (xRπ/2 + R2)MZ = K22.FY+K26.MZ
Similarly, partial differentiating U, integrating, and applying limits with respect to

MZ and suppressing FX and FY as it gives K61 = K16 and K62 = K26
Z R /2M Z K66.M Z
Derivation of other coefficients of matrix [K] for out-of-plane moments due to FZ,
MX, and MY at ds is calculated as follows:
There are two moments at ds, one axial (Ma) and other transverse (Mt).
Ma = FZ(x + R sin θ) cos θ + FZ(y + R cos θ) sin θ + MX cos θ + MY sin θ

Mt = FZ(x + R sin θ) sin θ + FZ(y + R cos θ) cos θ + Mx sin θ + MY cos θ
Ua= Ma2Rdθ/2, Ut = Mt2Rdθ/2
Due to Ma:
θxa = dUa/dMX = 1.3/k{FZ[(x + R sin θ)(cos2θ + sin θ cos θ)] + MX cos2 θ – MY sin

θ cos θ}Rdθ
θya = dUa/dMy = 1.3/k{FZ[(x + R sin θ)(sin2θ + sin θ cos θ)] + MX sin θ cos θ + MY
sin2 θ}Rdθ
1.3/k is due to torsion (1/GJ = 1.3/EI) and flexibility factor k is added because all
coefficients of bend are multiplied by k Q and k is not applicable for torsion.
Due to Mt:
θxt = dUt/dMX = {FZ[(x + R sin θ)(sin2θ + sin θ cos θ)] + MX sin2θ – My sin θ cos θ}

R dθ
θyt = dUt/dMY = {FZ[(x + R sin θ)(cos2θ + sin θ cos θ)] + MX sin θ cos θ + MY cos2
θ} R dθ
Omitting FZ portion (too long and complicated)
θX = θxa + θxt = (1.3/k cos2 θ + sin2 θ)MX R dθ + (sin θ cos θ – 1.3/k sin θ cos θ)MYR dθ
Integrating
θX = (1.3/k θ/2 + 1.3/k sinθ cosθ) + θ/2 – sin θ cos θ/2)R MX + (sin2 θ/2 – 1.3/k

0.5 sin2 θ)R MY
Applying limits
θX = (1.3/k π/4 + π/4)R MX + (1/2 – 2.6/k)R MY
= K44 MX + K45 MY
Similarly suppressing Mx portion as it gives K54 = K45
θY = θya + θyt = (1.3/k sin2 θ + cos2 θ)MY R dθ

Integrating θY = (1.3/k θ/2 – 1.3/k sin θ cos θ) + θ/2 + sin θ cos θ)R MY
Applying limits θY = (1.3/k π/4 + π/4)R MY = K55 MYY
Similarly, the last three coefficients K33, K34 and K35 can be derived from dU/dFZ
and Ma and Mt (derivation omitted) and are tabulated in the middle column of
Table 9.3. Remaining 6 out of 18 are zero for this data.
TABLE 9.3
Elements of Flexibility Matrix for a Pipe Bend in Various Positions in General
Piping Layout
α = angle of tangent at start point of bend from positive horizontal axis
θ = bend angle, + when rotated anticlockwise from start point, – clockwise

x, y, z are coordinates of center of bend radius with respect to the load point
Cx = cos α – cos (α + θ) L = Rθ a = (Cyy + 1.3Cxx/k)R
Cy = sin α – sin (α + θ) b = (Cxx + 1.3Cyy/k)R
Cxx = 0.5θ – 0.25[sin2(α + θ) – sin2α] ao = x.a – y.q + 1.3Cx.R2/k
Cyy = 0.5θ + 0.25[sin2(α + θ) – sin2α] bo = y.b – x.q + 1.3Cy.R2/k
Cxy = 0.25[cos2(α + θ) – cos2α] xx = Cxx.R3 + 2Cx.x.R2 + L.x2
xy = Cxy.R3 + (Cx.y + Cy.x)R2 + L.x.y yy = Cyy.R3 + 2Cy.y.R2 + L.y2
ab = 2.6(Cx.x + Cy.y + R.θ/2)R2/k + x2a + y2b + 2x.y.q q = (1 – 1.3/k)Cxy.R
3D XY 2D XY: α = 0, θ = 90°, L = πR/2 Cx = Cy = ±1, Cxx = Cyy = π/4, Cxy = 1/2
11 yy + z2a y2Rπ/2 + R3 π/4 + 2y.R2) Cyy.R3 + 2y.y.R2 + L.y2 = yy
21 –xy – z2q –(x.y Rπ/2 + R3/2 + R2x + R2y) Cxy.R3 + (Cx.y + Cy.x)R2 + L.x.y = xy
31 –z.ao 0 0
22 xx + z2b x2R.π/2 + R3π/4 + 2x.R2) Cxx.R3 + 2Cx.x.R2 + L.x2 = xx
32 –z.bo 0 0
33 a.b K44.K55 a.b
41 –z.q 0 0
51 –z.a 0 0
61 L.y + Cy.R2 y.R π/2 + R2 L.y + Cy.R2
42 z.b 0 0
52 x.q 0 for θ = 90° 0
62 –L.x – Cx.R2 –(x.Rπ/2 + R2) –(L.x + Cx.R2)
43 –bo.θ –(y.K44 – x.q ± 1.3R2) y.b – x.q ± 1.3Cy.R/k = bo
53 ao x.K55 – y.q ± 1.3R2 x.a – y.q ± 1.3Cx.R2/k = ao
63 0 0 0
44 b (1.3/k π/4 + π/4)R (Cxx + 1.3Cyy/k)R = b
54 q R/2(1 – 1.3/k) Cxy.R(1–1.3/k) = q
64 0 0 0
55 a (1.3/k π/4 + π/4)R (Cyy + 1.3Cxx/k)R = a
65 0 0 0
66 Rθ R π/2 L
All elements are multiplied by k.Q, k-flex. factor, and Q stress int. factor; k is not applicable for torsion;
hence, torsion effects are corrected by 1.3/k for 1.3
For any angle of α and bend angle, coefficients as trigonometric functions of α and
θ are added. The coefficients Cx, Cy, Cxx, Cyy, and Cxy for which 1 or π/4 or 1/2 for
θ = 90° and α = 0 are part of the above derivations. The equations for coefficients are
given in the table, and the elements of [K] are listed in the last column of table adding
the above coefficients replacing their constant values given in the middle column for
the above analysis.
For a 3D system (z ≠ 0), all additions due to the z coordinate effect are added to the
elements of the last column and listed in the first column of the table which gives
expressions for all elements of [K] for the general bend element (bent pipe) for the XY
plane. For the other two planes, the elements can be listed as per 9.6 and Table 9.1.
REFERENCE
1. Kellogg handbook.
10 Flat-Plate Components
Flat plates are extensively used in various shapes as pressure or structural parts in
pressure vessels. Pressure components using flat plates are mostly:
1. End closures of cylindrical or rectangular shells: These are either welded or

flanged. Flanges are covered in Chapter 13.
2. Rectangular air or gas ducts: These are used when the size is large and pressure
is low as an alternative to the cylindrical shape.
3. For enclosing rectangular heat exchangers and end closures of jacketed
vessels.
4. Tube sheet (TS) of the shell and tube heat exchangers.
The flat plate component is simple but requires higher thickness and more weight for
the pressure part compared to cylindrical, spherical, and other formed parts, practi-
cally economical only to small sizes and low pressures.
For larger sizes and higher pressures, thickness can be reduced by providing
stiffeners.
10.1 FLAT PLATE THEORY

Notation
a = outer radius of the circular plate or larger side of the rectangular plate
b = inner radius of the circular plate or smaller side of the rectangular plate
E = elastic modulus, Ee = plate equivalent of E due to biplane stresses = E/(1
– v2)
I = moment of inertia per unit width (circumference) = t3/12
D = plate constant = Ee I= E.t3/[12(1 – v2)], (unit-Nmm)
M = moment per unit width (circumference)
n = b/a (n ≤ 1)
P = pressure
t = thickness
y = deflection
θ = slope or rotation
v = Poisson’s ratio
SS = simply supported
Subscripts: c = center, e = edge, r = radial, t = tangential
133
Unlike the beam element (axi symmetric), the plate element is bi plane. Poisson’s
ratio v is factor in plate parameters, as in Ee indicated in notation. Stresses are largely
of bending with a small amount being membrane type. Analysis of flat plate theory
is not valid for very thick and very thin plates. Thickness should be
• Less than about one quarter of the least size. t should be <100/4 for the plate of
size 100 × 200.
• Minimum not to deflect more than about one-half the thickness.
A flat plate can be any shape, but in pressure vessels, for the purpose of analysis,
three shapes are normally found, circular solid, circular ring, and rectangular. For
economy, stiffeners are part of the design unless the size is very small.
Deflection, slope, moment, and shear force at any point can be derived by the
integration method (Ref. 2). For any load and boundary condition, two moments are
induced perpendicular to each other at any point. To understand, consider a circular
ring of uniform thickness SS at the entire outer edge and free and line load at the
inner edge. Let a radial strip of sufficient width compared to its thickness be consid-
ered, which in isolation is unstable, and rotated at the outer edge due to radial moment
without any resistance. However, the ring is stable and will not rotate freely, because
of the tangential moment induced right angle to the radial moment to resist free rota-
tion. Shear force and moment are the reactions at the cutout edges of the strip in its
free body diagram.
General equations for moments M and deflection y of a flat plate of constant thick-
ness t under pressure P can be derived and given by
M = km P a 2 (10.1)

y = k y ( P /E ) a 4 /t 3 (10.2)

where km and ky are constants that depend on Poisson’s ratio v and n and on the condi-
tion and shape of the boundary. The maximum moment as can be observed in the
following sections is generally the same as that for the beam at the edge for fixed and
at the center for SS.
10.2 CIRCULAR PLATES
A general equation for moments per unit circumference in radial and tangential
directions at any point on any radius (r) on the circular plate without the boundary
condition and outside radius can be derived by the integration method by the theory
of elasticity under pressure P as shown in Figure 10.1 which shows a radial strip of
angle dα and dr with radial and tangential moments. The general equations thus
derived are given by
MC r 2 P r4 (10.3)
y yC
2 D(1 v) 16 D
Flat-Plate Components 135
t
r dr
a
AXIS
dr
r
SUPPORT
dα
FIGURE 10.1 Circular plate.
MC r P r3 (10.4)

D 1 v 16 D
Mr MC P r 2 (3 v) / 16 (10.5)

M t D(1 v 2 ) /r v Mr (10.6)

Substituting the expression for θ and Mr from Eqs. 10.4 and 10.5 in 10.6

M t MC / (1 v) Pr 2 /16 1 v 2 v MC P 2r 2 (3 v) /16
Simplifying
P r2 (10.7)
M t MC (1 3v)
16
where Mc and yc are the moment and deflection at the center and can be derived with
known boundary conditions.
10.2.1 Simply Supported
M C can be derived by integration and given by Eq. 10.8
MC (3 v)P a 2 /16 (10.8)

Substituting Eq. 10.8 in Eqs. 10.5 and 10.7, Eqs. 10.9 and 10.10 are obtained

Mr (3 v) a 2 r 2
P

16
(10.9)
P
M t a 2 (3 v) r 2 (1 3v) (10.10)
16
Mr is similar to the beam maximum at the center and reduces to zero at the
edge.
Mt is the maximum at the center and reduces to a minimum at the edge.
Substituting, zero for r in Eqs. 10.9 and 10.10, moments at the center Mrc and Mtc
and a for r moments at the edge Mre and Mte are obtained.
Mrc M tc (3 v)P a 2 /16 (10.11)

Mre 0 and M te (1 v)P a 2 /8 (10.12)

From above Eqs. 10.9 to 10.12, the maximum moment is at the center.
Substituting v = 0.3, the maximum moment (at the center) is M = 0.2065P a² (km
in Eq. 10.1 = 0.2065)
Corresponding stress = M/z = 6M/t²
1.2 P(a /t )2 (10.13)

For (P = 1 MPa, a = 500 mm, and t = 50 mm), σ = 120 MPa.
10.2.2 Clamped (fixed)
Moment at the center can be derived as
MC (1 v)P a 2 /16 (10.14)

Substituting Eq. 10.14 in Eqs. 10.5 and 10.7, Eqs. 10.15 and 10.16 are obtained
Mr a 2 (1 v) r 2 (3 v) P /16 (10.15)

M t a 2 (1 v) r 2 (1 3v) P /16 (10.16)

Substituting, zero for r in Eqs. 10.15 and 10.16, moments at the center Mrc and Mtc
and a for r moments at the edge Mre and Mte are obtained.
Mrc M tc a 2 (1 v)P /16

Mre Pa 2 /8, Mre Mrc
M te vPa 2 /8, M tc M te
Mr and Mt reduce to zero between the center and edge and reverse and increase for
the maximum at the edge. The maximum moment from the above equations is Mre
at the edge and is given by Eq. 10.17
=M P=
a 2 /8(km 1/8) (10.17)

and
= M
Maximum stress =
/z 6 M /t 2 = 0.75P(a /t )2 (10.18)

For (P = 1 MPa, a = 500 mm, and t = 50 mm), σ = 75 MPa.
Practically boundary conditions are neither SS nor clamped. The joint between
the shell and flat-plate end closure will rotate, when the clamp is released and the
moment at the joint is redistributed between the end plate and shell depending on
their stiffness. The moment in the plate will reduce and induce a moment in the shell.
The effect of this rotation will increase the moment at the center. However, a higher
stress is allowed due to cyclic loading as relaxation takes place and stress will reduce
at the cost of fatigue. The value of ks in general Eq. 10.1, ksP(a/t)² for maximum
stress at the center of the plate, varies from 0.5 to 1.25 depending on the type of plate
joint with the connecting part. KS = 0.75 for fixed, 10/8 or 1.25 for SS with v = 0.3.
The code1 gives the equation t = D√(C.P/S) or σ = CP(D/t)2 where D = outside
diameter
The C value depends on the type of shell to plate joint and is equal to 0.3 for
flanged, 0.33 for welded (nearer to SS), and 0.17 for integral (nearer to fixed).
For (P = 1 MPa, a = D/2 = 500 mm, and t = 50), σ for SS = 132MPa and for fixed
= 68MPa almost the same as (120 by Eq. 10.13) and (75 by Eq. 10.18).
Moments and stresses in circular plates or rings for pressure and other loads can
be derived by the integration method. Ref. 2 gives formulas for almost all combina-
tions of boundary conditions and loads for circular plates and rings in Table 24.
10.3 RECTANGULAR PLATES
As stated in 10.1, moments at any point due to any load are in both perpendicular
directions, so are stresses. For symmetric loads, the moment about the plane parallel
to the larger side (Ma hereafter referred to as M) is higher than other Mb as shown in
Figure 10.2.
10.3.1 Edges SS
Resistance of support along the smaller side is negligible if larger side > 5 times the
smaller side, and stresses are calculated as the beam of span equal to the small size.
For plates within the above limits of width to length ratio, beam moments will be less
due to the basics explained below.
Consider a strip of unit length of plate thickness t, width b smaller side under pres-
sure with all edges SS.
FIGURE 10.2 Rectangular plate.
If the supports at smaller edges are freed, it is a SS plate beam with span b.
Max deflection (y) and moment (M) at center point C as per beam formulas are
y 5Pb 4 /(384EI)M Pb2 /8 0.75P(b/t )2
Actual deflection and moment at the center of the plate are less due to the fact that
the deflection of the plate from C along the length both sides reduces and is zero at
edges due to boundary conditions. Thus, support at the other edges offers resistance
and induces moment along the length which is maximum at the edge and minimum
at C, as C is proportional to n. Maximum resistance is observed for n = 1 (square) and
reduces for lower values of n. For any value of n, the maximum stress is at the
center.
The equation for maximum M at c for the rectangular plate under pressure with
SS edges with v = 0 is given by Westergaard as

M 1/ 8 1 2n 3 Pb2

Moments are induced in both directions of the plate (Ma and Mb, Ma > Mb) and
affect each other for metals with v > 0, and the relationship is given below:
M with v > 0 = [(M with v = 0) + v(M in the other direction with v = 0)]
Thus Max M = Ma –v Mb
10.3.2 Fixed Edges
A plate with n < 0.5 resistance is almost negligible due to the basics explained in
10.3.1, and the maximum moment at the middle of the longer side edge is the same
as that of the fixed beam and = P b2/12. Stresses are higher along width compared to
the length.
10.3.3 Equations for Maximum Stress for Rectangular Plates

The general equation for maximum bending stress for rectangular plates is given by
Eq. 10.19

M / t 2 / 6 k P ( b /t ) 2

(10.19)
where k = constant depends on the side ratio (n = b/a) and boundary conditions.
Values of k for SS and fixed edges under pressure are given in tables 26.1 & 2
(Ref. 2).
Values of k for SS edges of plate under pressure are
0.287, 0.337, 0.395, 0.462, 0.534, 0.61, 0.662, 0.723, and 0.75 for values of n
(b/a) of
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 ≤0.2.
The following equations can be used for calculating the k value in Eq. 10.19
k = –0.5004 + 1.4328n – 1.195n2 + 0.8156n3 – 0.31n4 + 0.047n5 for n between

0.5 and 1
k = –0.0414 + 0.5288n – 0.1197n2 + 0.0091n3 for n between 0.2 and 0.5.
Values of k for fixed edge of plates under pressure are
0.308 0.353 0.399 0.441 0.478 0.5 for values of n (b/a) of

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5
The following equations can be used for calculating the k value in Eq. 10.19
k = 0.3432 – 1.8604n + 3.9625n2 – 3.059375n3 + 1.0625n4 – 0.140625n5 for the

edge
k = 0.705 – 2.83515n + 4.546875n2 – 3.215625n3 + 1.078125n4 – 0.140625n5
for the center
Comparing Eq. 10.19 and code equations for stress: SS rectangular plate 100 ×
200 × 10 mm under pressure 1 MPa
0.61*1*(100/10)2 = 61 MPa, as per Eq. 10.19

Z C P(d/T)2 = 2.2*0.3*1*(100/10)2 = 66 MPa, as per code
where Z = 3.4 – 2.4d/D = 3.4 – 2.4*100/200 = 2.2

Eq. 10.19 is applicable for any shape, size, and different boundary conditions of
each side. k depends on all the variations and is given in various references. Refer
Table 26 of Ref. 2 for moments and stresses in rectangular plates with any load and
any boundary conditions. However, if n is less than the limiting value, the plate can
be analyzed as a beam for any load and any boundary condition. A flat rectangular
plate with a rectangular concentric opening in it can be analyzed as four rectangular
plates separately with applicable boundary conditions and loads as per the relevant
procedure explained above.
10.4 CIRCULAR RING
Equations for moments in both radial and tangential directions are derived similar to the
circular plate but more complicated due to twice the number of boundaries (inside and
outside). Equations are available in Ref. 2 (Table 24, case 1 and 2) and applicable to
unstayed TSs, end closures of jacketed vessels, flat flanges, and similar components.
The general equation for the maximum moment in circular rings from plate theory
for any load and any boundary condition is given by Eq. 10.20.
=M k=
P a 2 k W a = k Mo (10.20)
where
Loads P, W, and Mo are pressure, point, and moment
A and b are the outside and inside radius of the ring
k is a constant that depends on n = b/a and boundary conditions, available in
Table 24 of Ref. 2
Approximate equations for k values are formulated based on Ref. 2 and tabulated
for various loads and boundary conditions in Table 10.1. Maximum stress in circular
ring components used in pressure vessels is given in the following sections.
TABLE 10.1
k Equation in M = k P a² = k W a = k Mo for Flat Circular Rings, W at b
Outer Inner Load Equation for k, n = b/a = 0.1 to 0.9
fixed fixed p max M at b 0.21867 – 0.885n + 1.39313n2 – 0.79792n3 (n = 0.1 to 0.7)
fixed noz(g) p max M at a 0.1247 + 0.007579n – 0.4413n2 + 0.36208n3 – 0.053125n4
fixed free p max M at a 0.12098 + 0.064042n – 0.26088n2 – 0.20417n3 + 0.05817n4
ss fixed p max M at b 0.38015 – 1.58016n + 2.52119n2 – 1.44854n3 (n = 0.1 – 0.7)
ss noz(g) p max M at b 0.3205 – 0.0955n – 1.202n2 + 1.425n3 – 0.44922 n4
fixed1 free W max M at b(-at a) −0.68233 + 14.13n − 57.737n2 + 81.256n3 − 0.8138 n4
fixed noz(g) W max M at a −0.00277 + 0.56033n − 0.5488n2 − 0.083333n3 + 0.07552 n4
ss1 noz(g) W max M at b −0.0012375 + 6.504n − 27.1268n2 + 3793n3 − 17.5 n4
Ss free W max M at b 0.10747 + 2.69377n − 4.32323n2 + 3.923n3 − 1.41146 n4
ss2 free Mo at b, max M at b 2-16.848n + 85.4965n2 − 159.24n3 + 105.966 n4
ss2 free Mo at a, max M at b 3-16.848n + 85.4965n2 − 159.24n3 + 105.97 n4
p: pressure, W: conc. Load, Mo: moment, a: outer radius, b: inner radius, g: guided, and ss: simply
supported
Note 1: k values are valid for n = 0.1,0.3,0.5,0.7, and 0.9; note 2: k value is not valid for 0.1 < n < 0.3
10.4.1 Flat Ring under Internal Pressure with Both Edges Supported

Figure 10.3 shows an arrangement of jacketed vessel consisting two concentric cyl-
inders (radius a and b, a > b) connected by two pairs of flat circular rings (unstayed
tubesheets) at a finite distance and the enclosed space is under pressure. The loading
diagram is identical for both. AB can be considered as a plate beam of unit circumfer-
ence with A and B SS/fixed boundary. Deformation is shown in dotted lines. The
expressions for both moments available at any point of the plate are given in Ref. 2
(Table 24, case 2c, d, g, and h). The effect of difference in elongation in both shells
is neglected. Each plate is considered as supported at the point of its joint with both
shells. The boundary condition is either SS or fixed whichever is more appropriate
and depends on the stiffness of shells at the joint compared to the plate. If the shells
allow edge rotations, SS is appropriate and fixed if not allowed. Shells hardly allow
rotation. Hence, both fixed edges are nearer to the practical situation. However for
conservative design, one of the edges may be assumed as SS. However, the case
numbers in Table 24 in Refs. 2 are given below for each combination of support type:
The code gives an empirical expression as
t 0.707 P b(a b)/S
Assuming outer edges fixed due to a higher diameter, calculations provided for com-
parison with the code equation for P = 1 MPa, a = 500, b = 250, t = 20 mm, v = 0.3,
case number 2g
FIGURE 10.3 Flat circular ring pair.
Outside Support case number

inside support Km for n = 0.5
SS SS 2c 0.1223
Fixed SS 2g 0.0262
SS fixed 2d 0.0393
Fixed fixed 2h 0.0247
Max Mra = 0.0262 P a2 = 6550 N, stress= Mra/(t2/6) = 98 MPa

Stress as per code = 78 MPa
10.4.2 Flat Ring under Internal Pressure with One Edge (Outer)

Supported
Figure 10.4 shows an arrangement (similar to 1. jacketed vessel, 2. shell and channel
of boiler) of two concentric cylinders closed by a flat circular ring under pressure.
The dotted line shows the deformation of the ring. The expressions for moments in
both directions at any point of the plate are given in Ref. 2 (Table 24, case 1 and 2 b,
f, i, j). In this arrangement, the plate is subjected to concentrated load (F) through
the circumference of inner cylinder (inner edge of plate) apart from pressure over its
surface and the boundary condition is nearer to the guide. The boundary condition
of outer edge is nearer to that of the fixed edge but can be taken as SS for conserva-
tive design. The case numbers in Table 24 in Ref.2 with inner edge guided, outer
edge (OS) SS or fixed (f) for loads force (F) or pressure (P) are: 1b for (OS = SS,
load = F), 2b for (OS = SS, load = P), 1f for (OS = f, load = F), and 2f for (OS = f,
load = P).
The code gives expression for stress by
t 1.414 P b(a b) /S or 1.4142 Pb(a b) /t 2
For (P = 1 MPa, a = 500, b = 250, t = 20 mm, v = 0.3), boundary conditions: inside

guided and outside SS and F.
F b2 P/(2b) 125 N/mm

a
FIGURE 10.4 Flat circular ring.

1b and 2b-max Mrb = 0.3944F.a + 0.1223P.a2 = 24650 + 30575 = 55225 N,

stress = 6 M/t2 =828
1f and 2f-max Mra = 0.1345F.a + 0.0601 P.a2 = 8406 + 15025 = 23431
1f and 2f-max Mrb = 0.2121F.a + 0.0407 P.a2 =13256 + 10175 = 23431, stress
6M/t2 =351 MPa
Stress as per code is 312 MPa
For design programs, equations for approximate k values in Eq. 10.19 are given in
Table 10.1.
10.5 STIFFENERS
As the size of flat plate increases, the thickness increases for the same load and
boundary conditions at a much higher rate and proportion to the square of the
size.
For higher sizes, stiffeners are used to reduce the thickness and weight. Stiffeners
are arranged in such a way so that the stress in unsupported portion of the plate (area
bounded by stiffeners) as per Eq. 10.19 is within allowed limits.
Stiffeners are of three types.
1. Main stiffeners with ends connected to the support (edges of plate) which will
take load from second type stiffeners as well as directly from the plate.
2. Internal stiffeners which will take load from the plate and transfer to main
stiffeners.
3. A square pattern of small size is generally used for very low pressures to
increase resistance to vibration (to increase natural frequency).
Each stiffener loading diagram and boundary condition can be arrived by funda-
mentals and logics. When the plate size is much larger, both types of stiffeners are
used, and the optimum arrangement requires several trials due to various factors
involved. The designer requires practical expertise together with basics to avoid trials
to obtain an economic design. Stiffeners are full welded to have uniform temperature
distribution when the plate is under higher temperature. For ambient and low tem-
peratures, staggered welding can be adopted. Stiffener ends are welded to a connect-
ing stiffener or any member with sufficient weld area to avoid shearing of its weld
with plate at the ends. The weld design is explained below
For the purpose of stiffener design, a flat plate is considered as supported at the
edges (E) by the plate corner welded to it and generally perpendicular to it as
shown in Figure 10.5. The edges and stiffeners are considered as structural frames
and plate portions enclosed by frames are panels. Unless stiffener ends are welded
to the connecting stiffener, the above consideration is not true. Welded thermal
stresses are induced in case the temperature difference along the depth of the
FIGURE 10.5 Stiffeners on the rectangular vessel.
stiffener exceeds a certain limit. To avoid thermal stresses, a small gap is left due to
which pure shear stress is induced in the plate as shown at edge (B) in Figure 10.5.
If the gap is more than its thickness, bending stress is also induced. The shear stress
is equal to the reaction of the beam of the combined section of the stiffener with the
effective width of the plate. For normal span (length of stiffener), the shear stress
will be within the limits, but the welding between the stiffener and the plate is sub-
jected to horizontal shear stress as shown in Figure 3.8 and described in 3.7.3.2. It
is similar to a fabricated beam. The Shear force is maximum at ends and shearing
may start from the end if the weld is inadequate. The design philosophy to over-
come this factor is to weld stiffener to stiffener or weld through the additional end
plate to get the required weld area at the stiffener end as shown in Figure 10.5. To
reduce thermal stresses in stiffeners, the welding between stiffeners shall be limited
to required depth and shall be within insulation as shown in Figure 10.5a. Rule 21
of EN13445-3:2009 gives the equation for the required weld area for a similar
arrangement.
Code provide an analytical procedure to calculate stresses for only a limited
choice of stiffeners. However, there is no limit of arrangements.
10.6 RECTANGULAR VESSELS
The design of a rectangular vessel shown in Figure 10.5 is illustrated with example 10.1
Example 10.1: Design stiffeners for a rectangular vessel of size B × D

× L = 1.5 × 1.5 × 10 m, thickness t = 3 mm, pressure P = 0.02 MPa, and
basic allowable stress s = 120 MPa.
Corners are considered as SS.

Membrane stress due to P, σm = P (b or d)/(2t) = 5 MPa
Bending stress in each of four side plates as per Eq. 10.19 = 0. 5*0.02(1500/3)2 =
2500 MPa considering fixed boundary. As per 10.3.3, k = 0.5 (n = B/L or D/L =
1.5/10 < 0.5)
Because allowed stress for membrane + bending stress is 1.5S, bending stress is
to be limited to 1.5*120–5 = 175 MPa. Therefore as per code or above theory, the
plate cannot withstand pressure. Stiffeners are to be provided at a pitch of about
300 mm or stay bars are to be provided inside. If stay bars may not be used due
to temperature and fluid, also 300 pitch is too close and codes do not have alter-
nate solution. Hence, stiffeners are designed from basics described in 10.5. Using
Eq. 10.19, the approximate size of the plate to withstand pressure is 500 × 500
mm. Therefore, a main stiffener of 100 × 6 × 1500 at 500 pitch along the length
and 2nos. of 50 × 3 × 500 between each main stiffener is selected as shown in
Figure 10.5
Calculation of moment and stress in stiffeners by structural basics with the
above data.
1. Local stiffener: as per loading diagram shown in figure

M = 0.02*500²*500/6 = 416667 Nmm
Section modulus required Zr = M/(1.5S) = 416667/180 = 2315 mm³
To calculate available combined Za, plate effective width is approx
40t or = √t(1.11E/Y) = √3(1.11*192000/200) = 103 mm as per code.
Za = 10092 plate side and 2408 mm3 on the stiffener side
Bending stress in stiffener = σb = M/Z = 416667/2408 = 173 < 180 hence safe.
Bending stress in plate = σb = M/Z = 416667/10092 = 42 MPa
Membrane + bending stress = σm + σb = 5 + 42 = 47 < 180 hence safe.
2. Main stiffener considering edges SS M = PB2p/8 = 0.02*1500²*500/8 =
2812500 Nmm
Za = 29362 plate side and 15566 mm³ on the stiffener side
Bending stress in stiffener = σb = M/Z = 2812500/15567 = 180 < 180
hence safe.
Bending stress in plate = σb = M/Z = 2812500/29362 = 96
Membrane + bending stress = σm + σb = 5 + 96 = 101 < 180 hence safe.
Stiffener design as per code with only the main stiffener is almost the same as the
theory in this section.
10.7 TUBE SHEET
10.7.1 General
TS is a perforated flat plate attached to a shell at the outside and to tubes at perfora-
tions inside the shell as shown in Figure 10.6a.
FIGURE 10.6 TS and its staying arrangements.
Normally TSs are of three types.
1. Both sides under pressure, stayed by tubes and the other arrangement against
pressure as in the shell and tube type fixed-TS exchanger or boiler.
2. Both sides under pressure as in stationary TS in a shell and tube type floating
TS or U-tube exchanger or fixed TS exchanger or boiler with tubes attached to
TS only for sealing (unstayed).
3. Both sides with same pressure for supporting tubes as in floating TS or inter-
mediate TSs in any type of heat exchanger
The second type of TS is a flat plate under pressure neglecting the resistance
offered by tubes and can be analyzed as shell end closure described in Chapter 5 and
section 10.2. The third type is only the structural part. Analysis for the first type of
TS is given in this section.
10.7.2 Attachment to Shells, Tubes, and Stays

A TS is attached to a shell by four methods
a. Directly welded, called flat TS [Figure 10.6a]

b. Flanged and butt welded, called flanged TS [Figure 10.6b]
c. Forged and butt welded, called forged TS [Figure 10.6c]
d. Extended and bolted to the shell flange, called TS extended as flange [Figure
10.6d]
A TS is attached to tubes in two functional ways
1. Sealing attachment: Assumed as no contribution from tubes to TS in resisting

pressure: Expanded and/or seal welded and called plain tubes.
2. Strength attachment: Stays the TSs (fixed TS) from bending due to pressure by
expanding with grooves and/or with belling or strength welded with or without
expanding and called stay tubes.
Tube layouts in a TS are
• TS fully (about 80%) covered by tubes mostly concentrically

• Partially covered by tubes and the rest of the area stayed by longitudinal stay
rods/pipe and/or diagonal stay rods or gussets as shown in Figures 10.6a and
10.6e.
Longitudinal rods, diagonal rods, or flat plate gussets are used by strength welding
for staying wide spaces uncovered by tubes between the outside tube limit and the
shell inside. When the gusset stay width along the TS is large, bolted link stays are
used to avoid nonuniform distribution of load in gusset stays as shown in [Figure
10.6f].
10.7.3 Analysis
Flat TS analysis can be done using flat plate theory, but is complicated due to bound-
ary conditions, perforations, varying resistance of staying arrangement, and self-
limiting plastic theory. Only finite element analysis will give accurate results. With
several assumptions listed below, analysis can be done by the procedure explained in
10.2 and 10.4.
For fixed TS analysis with staying, the following assumptions are made:
1. Tubes (usually regularly pitched) and their staying boundaries are isolated as
it is only tube in the center of its boundary in TS. Other stays are also similarly
assumed.
2. Shell contribution is only limited to the boundary of nearest staying points.
3. TS-shell joint is SS or fixed for the bending of TS. When considered as fixed,
the radial distance from the shell inside to a limit depends on the thickness of
TS and pressure and will not require any staying and called flat plate margin
(FPM ref. IBR).
4. Tubes, stays, and shell are elongated equally due to pressure for the purpose of
stress in TS. Tubes actually act as springs with a constant equal to EA/L, A =
area of cross section, L = length of tube or TS to TS distance.
5. Tubes and stays are subjected to only tension (tube at its joint with TS is actu-
ally subjected to local bending).
6. The TS is thin enough that isolation of pressure areas of each stay and TS
unsupported portions is almost true.
10.7.3.1 Pressure Areas of Stays and Stress in Stays

The total pressure area of TS (leaving FPM if considered) is divided into parts equal
to the number of stays. The guideline for dividing is that any point on the boundary
shall be equidistance from the nearest two staying points if not more. For this pur-
pose, a FPM circle if considered or a radial point on the TS edge or its commence-
ment of curvature (CC) in the case of flanged or forged TS is the support point on the
outer boundary. An extended flange-type gasket reaction circle (G) is considered as
the support point (refer Chapter 13).
FPM = C t/√P, where t is the TS thickness, P is pressure, and C is constant; C = 95
exposed to radiation else102 if t is in mm, P in MPa (111, 118.4 if t is in inch and P in psi)
Stay tubes and stays are designed for tension due to pressure on area in its bound-
ary as drawn with the above guidelines deducting the area covered by stay as shown
in Figure 10.6a. Pressure areas as shown in the figure are:
A1 = for stay tube within tube nest

A2 = for boundary stay tube
A3 = for longitudinal stay bar
A4 = for diagonal stay bar or gusset
Calculation of tensile stress in staying parts is simple and equal to the pressure force
divided by cross section of staying part. Calculation of tensile stress is simple and same
for stay tubes and longitudinal stay bars. Pressure force F = P (A1, A2, A3) as given in
example 10.2. Pressure force in diagonal or gusset or link stays is different due to the
angle (θ) between shell wall and longitudinal axis of these stays and given by
F P A 4 /cos
The cross-sectional area of the gusset is the effective normal section as calculated in
example 10.3. The optimum angle is 30°.
Example 10.2: P = 1 MPa, area of bar = 1000 mm2, gross pressure area
including stay A3 = 101000 mm2, calculate tensile stress in the longitu-
dinal stay bar.
Net area of bar = 101000–1000 = 100000

Tensile stress in bar = 1*100000/1000 = 100 MPa
If tube/pipe with 100 mm OD and 3mm thickness is used in the place of the bar
Tube area πd2/4 = 7850 mm2
Cross-sectional area = appx. 3.14d.t = 942 mm2
Tensile stress in tube = 1(101000–7850)/942 = 98.8 MPa.
Tensile stress in stay tubes is calculated in the same way as for the longitudinal
stay bar in example 10.2.
10.7.3.2 Unsupported Portions in the Tube Sheet

Several portions of TS bound by three or more staying points including the support
point of the shell or CC (circles or pitch or rectangles as the case may be) are isolated,
and bending stress is calculated as a isolated flat plate with fixed edges as per 10.2 or
10.3. For compiling the diameter d of each such portion, draw a circle (diameter d)
touching three or more staying points provided all points are not in one half of the
circle. The other method is maximum pitch (p) between any two staying points in any
direction (approximately same as d). Pitch at the boundary for the purpose = L/1.5
considering TS to the shell joint as fixed, where L = actual distance from the bound-
ary staying point to the shell as shown in figure. To derive moment and stress in each
portion, consider d or p as the span of a fixed plate beam in which conservative
moment and stresses are given by

M/Z P p2 /12 / t 2 /6 P(p/t)2 /2 P(p/t)2 /C
In codes, the same equation is used with approximately the same value of C(2).
IBR code: d is used in place of p, C = 2.5 to 3.2 depending on the degree of

fixity of staying point. d may be = √(A2 + B2) where A and B are rectangu-
lar pitches.
ASME codes: C = 2.1 for t ≤ 11, and C = 2.2 for t > 11mm. For tubes within
the tube nest where p is computed as = p2 − a , a = cross-sectional area of
the staying part, because the area of the staying part is considerable, and its
effect on the pressure area cannot be neglected.
Unsupported space called breathing space is provided between differentially
expanding parts on tube sheet of boiler as per Indian and some other country
codes for flexibility. Regulation 589 of IBR (Indian code) specify the mini-
mum space as: 40 mm between tube and shell, 100 tube and stays, 50-100
(5% of shell ID) tube/shell and furnace tube, and 150-250 stays and furnace
depending on length of furnace.
10.7.3.3 Diagonal Stay and Gussets

Longitudinal stays are not advisable where inside maintenance is required.
Furthermore, when the tube length is large, longitudinal stays are costly. An alternate
is diagonal stays. Diagonal stays can be bar or plate. They are connected to the shell
at an angle of about 30°. A gusset stay as shown in Figure 10.4e is preferred when
more diagonal stays are required in one radial line. If the gusset width is too large,
split it into 2 or 3 and provide a link type as shown in Figure 10.6f. The pressure area
for the gusset is the same as the diagonal stay.
Example 10.3: Instead of the longitudinal stay bar, 30°-diagonal stay

bar of the same area 1000 mm2 is used, and tensile stress is calculated
in the diagonal bar
Tensile force = 1*101000/cos 30 = 116628 N and

Tensile stress = 116628/1000 = 116.28 MPa
For 30° gusset stay, the procedure is the same as that for the diagonal bar. The
cross-section area applicable is not at the TS joint or at the shell joint, but mini-
mum across along the diagonal length (w × t) as shown in Figure 10.6.
10.7.3.4 Flanged and Extended as Flange Tube Sheets

Flanged knuckle portion of flanged TS will transfer the force on it to the shell and
will withstand pressure. If the thickness of TS is not less than the minimum required
for the shell, it is safe. Else, finite element analysis may be required as there is no
reasonably accurate analytical procedure available.
Stress in the flanged portion of stayed TS as shown in Figure 10.6d is due to the
flange moment W hg (refer Chapter 13) and is calculated by Eq. 13.2. [1.91 Ma/
(G t2)]
Unstayed TS extended as a flange is the same as a blind flange and the stress
induced is the sum of the stresses due to the flat circular plate with a gasket reaction
diameter as the diameter (refer section 10.2) and due to flange moment W hg (refer
Chapter 13) which is calculated by Eq. 13.3.

1.91 M a / G t 2 0.33P(G /t )2

Code in addition to the above simple analysis gives detailed analysis of flat TS with
a particular tube layout and without stays are given but result in a higher thickness.
REFERENCES
1. Code ASME S I & VIII D-1, 2019.
2. Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C. Formulas for stress and strain, 5th Edition.
11 Supports
Supports will induce local stresses in pressure vessels like any attachment.
Attachments transfer external loads, while supports will take the loads from the shell
and transfer to the foundation or structure. Local stresses are induced due to reaction
from the support. Attachments are generally of small size compared to the shell.
Calculations of stresses in some of the normal support components are by simple
structural analysis. The analysis of certain support components such as saddles for hori-
zontal vessels and skirts for vertical vessels is not simple and described in this chapter.
11.1 SADDLE
Horizontal cylindrical shells are supported by two or more supports called saddles,
one fixed rest sliding. The saddle as shown in Figure 11.1 normally covers 120°
(saddle angle) circumference of the shell, and 150–300 mm longitudinal length of the
shell. Apart from pressure and gravity loads, the structural effect of wind/seismic is
to be applied. The analysis consists of the following:
• Longitudinal membrane plus bending stresses in the shell at the saddle section
due to pressure, gravity, and wind/seismic loads.
• Transverse shear stresses at the saddle section due to gravity and wind/seismic
loads.
• Circumferential stresses at the saddle section due to the saddle reaction.
• Design of saddle parts.
The saddle being rigid compared to the shell later deforms locally due to reaction
force for gravity plus wind/seismic loads, and local stresses are induced around the saddle
FIGURE 11.1 Shell with saddles.
151
periphery. The local stresses are calculated based on linear elastic mechanics and cover
modes of failure by excessive deformation and elastic instability. The analysis is not sim-
ple and carried out by the integration method. The analysis is called Zick analysis.
The following are different arrangements influencing the calculation of stresses at
the saddle section:
1. Simple saddle
2. With stiffeners in plane of the saddle inside or outside (Figure 11.2a–c)
3. With stiffeners both sides of the saddle inside or outside (Figure 11.2d and 11.2e)
4. Shell stiffened by head (torispherical, elliptical, and flat) if a ≤ Rm/2
For the purpose of stress calculations:
Stiffeners are considered as in plane, if h ≤ y

Stiffeners are considered as both sided of saddle, if y < h ≤ Rm
Stiffeners are not effective for the saddle section, if h > Rm
where y = 1.56 ( Rm t )
h = distance of the saddle section to stiffener ring

Rm = mean radius of the shell
t = thickness of the shell.
x x
= =
x x x x
(a) INPLANE OUTSIDE (b) INPLANE INSIDE (c) INPLANE DOUBLE INSIDE
a a
= = x x x x
x x x x
(d) BOTH SIDES INSIDE (d) BOTH SIDES OUTSIDE
FIGURE 11.2 Stiffeners on the shell at the saddle section.

Supports 153
11.1.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Shear Stresses in the Shell

The following steps explain the analysis. Refer Figure 11.1 and example 11.1 for
notation.
Step 1: Calculate reaction Q, shear force T, and bending moment M1 at each saddle
section due to gravity and wind/seismic loads by beam theory. If the support distance
is abnormally large, moment M2 in between supports may be more than at supports
and to be calculated. Q, T, M1, and M2 for gravity loads are computed by simple beam
theory with the loading diagram for two saddles. For three saddles due to an abnor-
mally long shell, compute by theorem of three moments (Alapeyron’s theorem). If
saddles are more than three saddles, loads are distributed among saddles appropriately
from the loading diagram, or software such as STAAD is used for computing Q, T, M1,
and M2. For two-saddle symmetrical shells with a uniformly distributed load, the fol-
lowing equations are computed considering as overhang beam-using-beam formulas.
Q = W /2
M1 =[ W a’2 /L’]
M2 = W[ L’ /2 a’ L’ /4]
T =[W max(2a’ /L’,1 2a’//L’)]
where
L’ = L + 2L1
L1 = equivalent length of end closure for the purpose, flat = 0, dished = 2H/3
H = height of the dish
a = distance from the saddle section to dish (other than hemispherical) or flat head
W = total load
M1 = moment at the saddle section
M2 = max moment between saddles
T = shear force
a’ = a + L1
The structural effect of wind/seismic is limited to Q only as the shear and moment
are in the horizontal direction and generally neglected compared to gravity loads. For
the calculation of reaction due to wind/seismic, refer example 12.6, and transverse
force is described in 11.1.3
Step 2: Calculate bending stress (M/Z) due to M1 and M2 and add longitudinal
pressure stress to obtain membrane + bending stress and tangential shear stress T/A
due to T.
where
Z = section modulus = k πRm2 t for the thin cylinder

A = shear resistance = k πRm t for the cylinder
K = constant for the local effect of the saddle causing distortion in circularity
and depends on saddle angle θ and type of stress.
Except the portion covered by saddle angle θ plus (30°−θ/12) either side, the cir-
cumferential section at the saddle is ineffective and does not contribute in resisting
moment of inertia.
When the shell is stiffened by providing stiffener rings or stiffened by end clo-
sures other than the hemispherical head, the shell circularity is considered as unaf-
fected by the saddle reaction.
Similarly, transverse shear is unaffected with the stiffener in plane. Stiffeners on
both sides of the saddle or stiffening heads will not resist shear Force T. However,
shear stress is induced due to saddle reaction Q stiffened by heads.
K is derived by integration (Ref. 2), and its values for bending stress (σ3) at top
(K1), for (σ4) at bottom (K1’), and shear stress τ (K2) are obtained. The equations are
given below.
K1 [ sin() cos() 2 sin 2 () /]/[{sin() / cos()}] (11.1)
K1 [ sin() cos() 2 sin 2 () /]/[ {1 sin() /] (11.2)

K 2 ( sin cos ) /( sin ) (11.3)
The shear stress (τ) is due to saddle reaction Q when stiffened by heads = Q/(K3 πRm t);
K3 is given by
K 3 ( sin cos ) /[ sin ( sin cos )] (11.4)

where Δ = π/6 + (5/12)θ, α = 0.95β, and β = π − θ/2
Also longitudinal membrane and shear stresses are induced in stiffening heads.
Constant K3 is applicable for shear stress and longitudinal membrane stress (σ5) due
to Q = Q K4/Rm th, the K4 factor is similarly derived and given by Eq. 11.5, Rm th =
resisting area, and th = head thickness.
K 4 3/8(sin )2 / ( sin cos ) (11.5)
Example 11.1 gives the detailed analysis.
11.1.2 Analysis of the Saddle Reaction due to Wind/Seismic

Because both wind and seismic cannot occur, the max reaction of wind or seismic is
added to reaction due to gravity load. The analysis is simple as covered in Chapter
12, except the reaction due to transverse force. Transverse force acting at CG will
induce moment (M) at the saddle base and equal to force multiplied by the height of
CG from the base. The reaction due to this moment is not uniform along the length
of the saddle. It is max at the outer edge and zero at middle. The max reaction at the
edge is derived in 11.5.1. For the purpose of calculating Q for saddle analysis, max
reaction can be calculated by taking moment per unit width at the middle of saddle
and equated to M as shown in Figure 11.3
1 L 2 L L2 (11.6)
M 2 p p
2 2 3 2 6
Supports 155
L/2 L/2
P
FIGURE 11.3 Saddle reaction due to moment.
where p = pressure per width B and unit length and Q = p L/2, the above equation is
reduced to Q = 3M/L. That is, the maximum reaction is 3 times the average. The total
reaction is sum due to gravity and wind/seismic loads. Calculation of Q due to wind/
seismic for the shell with two saddles is illustrated in Example 12.6.
11.1.3 Circumferential Stresses at the Saddle Section due to Saddle

Reaction Q
The total reaction due to gravity and wind/seismic loads induces circumferential
membrane stress (σ6) and membrane plus bending stress in shell at the saddle section,
max at horn of saddle (σ7), or end of wear plate (σ71). The moments are derived by
the integration method and proportional to Q Rm, and membrane and bending stresses
are computed and proportional to Q/resisting area and Q Rm/Z (Z for unit width).
Constants are functions of angles α for membrane, ß (180 − θ/2) for stress at horn and
ß1 (180−θ/2−θ1) for stress at the end of the wear plate. When stiffener rings are pro-
vided, stresses are generally reduced in the shell. Membrane stress and bending
moment are the same in the shell and ring. However, bending moment induced is
opposite stress inside and outside. The equations for stresses are proportional to Q/
area and Q Rm/Z, and constants are derived by integration (Ref. 2) and are a function
of angle ß and ρ. Providing a stiffener ring inside is an advantage as the shell is in
compression. However, stress in the ring will be high for bar stiffeners and can be
reduced by providing an inverted T-section to obtain combined Z in tension and com-
pression almost equal. The detailed calculations are illustrated in example 11.1 for
the unstiffened saddle and 11.2 for the stiffened saddle. Equations for constants are
given below (Refs. 1 and 2).
K 5 (1 cos )/( sin cos ) for 6 (11.7)
K 6 [3/4Bc(Bs/B)2 5/4Bs Bc 2 /B Bc3 /2 Bs/(4B) Bc/4 B

Bs{(Bs/B)2 0.5 sin(2B)/(4B)}]/[2{(Bs/B)2 0.5 sin(2B)/(4B)}], (11.8)

Bs sin , Bc cos , B for 7
Equations for other constants are given in examples 11.1 and 11.2
Example 11.1: Calculate local stresses in the cylindrical vessel due to

the support saddle without a stiffener ring (Figure 11.1)
Design data: (units N, mm UOS) design pressure P = 1 MPa, temperature = 250°,

material for shell and wear plate SA-516 70 with allowed stress at temp = 138
D = shell inside diameter = 2300

t = shell thickness = 12
t1 = wear plate thickness = 12
b = saddle width = 250
L = 10 m length of the shell [tan to tan if dish end (hemispherical + D/6) or
flat or other end]
a = 1.5 m distance from the axis of saddle to end as defined for L, if a ≤ Rm/2
dished/flat head stiffens the shell
θ = 120° circ. angle of the contact surface of the saddle support with the
shell (normally 120°)
θ1 = 5° wear plate extension angle above the horn of saddle (min. θ/24 for
effectiveness of t1)
b1 = 450 width of wear plate [min{b + 1.56 Rmt , 2a}] for effectiveness of t1
w = 800 KN half of load of the vessel without the wind/seismic effect
Q = 900 KN max saddle reaction including the effect of wind or seismic
M 1 = 180 KNm moment at the saddle support (–)
M 2 = 2800 KNm max moment between saddles
T = 560 KN shear force at saddle
Derived data required in analysis
β = 180 − θ/2 = 120° angle from the saddle horn to top

Δ = π/6 + (5/12) θ = 80°
α = 0.95β = 114° angle from top to max shear point just above horn
Rm = D/2 + t = 1156 mean radius of the shell
Z = πRm2t = 0.05 m3 section modulus of the shell
Long stress in shell due to P, M1, M2: allowed= S, if stress is negative allowed stress
Sc = t E/(16Rm)
σ1 = P Rm/(2t) − M2/Z = −7.412 stress between supports at top

σ2 = P Rm/(2t) + M2/Z = 103.7 stress between supports at bottom
K1 = Eq. 11.1 = 0.107 for the unstiffened saddle (1 for stiffened)
K1’ = Eq. 11.2 = 0.192 for un stiffened (1 for stiffened)
σ3 = P Rm/(2t) − M1/(K1Z) = 14.653 at A and B of support (top for stiffened)
σ4 = P Rm/(2t) + M1/(K1’Z) = 66.74 at bottom of support
Supports 157
Shear stress in shell due to T, head (all = 0.8S) and membrane stress in stiffening
head (all = 1.25S)
K2 = Eq. 11.3 = 0.272 without the stiffener in plane (1 for the stiffener in
plane)
τ = T/(K2 π Rm t) = 47.26 shear stress at C and D for the stiffener in plane,
else at E and F
K3 = Eq. 11.4 = 0.362 factor if stiffened by head
τ = Q/(k3 πRm t) in the shell stiffened by head at E and F angle α from top,
else 0
τ’ = Q/(K3 π Rm th) in stiffening head at angle α from top th = head thickness)
NA
K4 = Eq. 11.5 = 3/8(sin α)²/(π − α + sin α cos α) = 0.401
σ5 = membrane stress in stiffening head = 0 for flat head, K4Q/(Rm th) + P Ri/
(2th C) for other heads, C = 1 for torispherical, h/Ri for the elliptical head,
h = depth of the elliptical head, and th = head thickness
Circumferential compressive stress due to Q (membrane-allowed = S; mem +

bending-all =1 .25S)
x2 = 0.78√(Rm t) = 91.87 effective width of the shell from the saddle towards
the center for resisting force and moment
x1 = min(a − b/2, x2) = 91.87 effective width of the shell from the saddle to
head for resisting force and moment
w = min{b + 1.56√(Rm t), 2a} = 433.7 min width of wear plate to resist σ6
K5 = Eq. 11.7 = (1+ cos α)/(π – α + sin α cos α) = 0.762
σ6 = −K5 Q k/[b2(t + f e tr)] membrane stress at the base of the saddle
f = stress ratio of shell and wear plate = 1 as the same material
e = effectiveness of the wear plate = 1 (e = 1 if b1 > w and θ1 > θ/24, else
e = 0)
b2 = b1 = 450 (= b1 if e = 1, else b2 = b + x1 + x2)
σ6 = −6.348
K6 = Eq. 11.8 = 0.053
K7 = If(a/Rm ≥ 1, K6), if(a/Rm ≤ 0.5, K6/4) else K6(1.5g − 0.5) = 0.053
σ7 = −Q/[4b2(t + f e t1)] – 12K7 Q/[(t + f e t1)2 min(8, L/Rm)] = −144.7 mem-
brane + bending stress at horn of the saddle
σ71 = memb + bend at tip of wear plate [−Q/[4t(b + x1 + x2)] − 12K71Q/[t² min
(8, L/Rm)] if e = 1 & tr > 2, else not applicable] = not applicable as tr ≤ 2t
K71 = K61 If a/Rm ≥1, = K61/4 if a/Rm ≤ 0.5, else = K61(1.5a/Rm − 0.5)
K61 = equation of K6 with β1 in place of β
β1 = 180 − (θ/2 + θ1) = 115°
Example 11.2: Calculate local stresses in the cylindrical vessel due

to the support saddle with a stiffener ring. Figure 11.2, units: N, mm,
MPa
The data are the same as example11.1: t = 12, a = 1500, b = 250, θ = 120, Q =
900000, Rm = 1156, β = 120, and K5 = 0.762
Stiffener data: Type: in-plane, inside, n = no of rings = 2
h = 150 = distance o/s to o/s of two rings, 0 for 1-ring, for in plane h <
1.56√(Rm t), max. = Rm
w = 150 = contact width of the stiffener with the shell, (w = h if n = 2 and
in plane)
ws = h + x1 + x2 = 334 = eff. width of the shell for A and Z = [if(n = 1, w +
x1 + x2), if(n = 2 & in plane, h + x1 + x2), if(both sides, w + 2x2)]
A S = area of each stiffener, (inverted T-section: web = 150 × 10, flange =
100 × 16) = 3100
A = combined area of the stiffener and shell = 14210
ZV = section modulus shell side = 1.16E6
ZS = section modulus stiffener side = 593734
ρ = −158.58 + 7.8668θ − 0.088037θ2 + 4.3011E − 4 θ3 − 8.0644E − 7 θ4 =
93.71
Circumferential compressive stress due to Q (membrane: allowed = S; mem +

bending: = 1.25S)
x2 = width of the shell from the saddle towards center allowed for strength
= 0.78 √(Rm t) = 91.87
x1 = width of the shell from saddle to tan allowed for strength = min(a − b/2,
x2)
k = 0.1 = if saddle welded to wear plate or shell k = 0.1, else k = 1
Ar = A = 14210 =resisting area for σ6 (A for stiffener ring in-plane, t(b + 2 x2)
both sides)
σ6 = membrane stress at the base of the saddle = −K5 Q k/Ar = −4.825
K8 = Bc [1 − cos(2B)/4 + 9/4Bs Bc/B − 3 (Bs/B)2]/[2π{(Bs/B)^2 − 0.5 – sin(2B)/
(4B)}]+ B Bs/2π = 0.3405, Where Bs = sin β, Bc = cos β and B = β
K9 = −0.5 + (π − β) cot β) cos ρ + ρ sin (ρ))/2π = 0.2711
K10 = [ρ sin ρ + cos ρ {1.5 + (π − β) cot β} − (π − β)/sin β]/2π, at angle ρ from
top = 0.058
Q/A = 63.34
Membrane + bending stress in MPa in the shell and stiffener due to Q, all = 1.25S
σ = Cm Q/A + Cb Q Rm/Z, max at horn for the in plane stiffener and at I and J
(Fig. 11.1) for both sides of the stiffener
Supports 159
shell stiffener σ is max at horn (inplane); at I, J (bothsides)

Q Rm/Z 893 1752
σ −69 114 stiffener inside and in-plane,
Cm = (shell = −k8, stif = –k6), Cb = (shell = k8, stif = k6)
σ1 35 −84 stiffener inside and both sides, Cm = (shell = –k9, stif = k8), Cb
= (shell = k9, stif = –k8)
σ1 26 −71 stiffener outside and in-plane, Cm = (shell = –k8, stif = k6),
Cb = (shell = k8, stif = –k6)
σ1 −69 119 stiffener outside and both sides, Cm = (shell = –k9, stif = –k10),
Cb = (shell = k9, stif = k10)
Note 1: these stresses are for reference only for clarity of signs in other types of stiffeners.
All constants (K) are taken from Refs. 1 and 2.
11.1.4 Design Philosophy
Stress at the horn of the saddle will govern in most of the pressure vessels.
1. For D/t < 160, the wear plate may not be required.
2. For L/D < 4, horn stresses will increase.
3. Locate the saddle at 0.2L with an angle of 120° for normal lengths. For extra-
long shells, locate the saddle at about 0.118L to stress closely at the saddle and
in between saddle and minimum longitudinal stress for 120° saddle angle.
4. For D/t > 160, provide the wear plate of width =b+1.56√(Rm t), extension 5°,
and thickness up to the twice shell thickness.
5. For reducing horn stresses, increase the angle to 165° and then increase the
wear plate thickness
6. For further reduction of stresses at horn, select the stiffener ring in order: 1)
inside and both sides, 2) outside and in-plane, 3) inside and in-plane, and 4)
outside and both sides.
11.1.5 Saddle Part Design

11.1.5.1 Splitting Force
The notation is as per Figure 11.1 and example 11.1. Splitting force (Fh) in the verti-
cal plane at the middle of the saddle is the horizontal component of the radial saddle
reaction over the saddle arc with the shell and acts at CG of the saddle arc from the
bottom of base plate (d). The value of d can be calculated by geometry and given by
d B Rm sin(0.5) /(0.5)
Splitting force can be derived by integration and resisted by the area of section with web,
base plate, and wear plate. The web depth is effective up to Rm/3 only. F is given by
Q(1 cos 0.5 sin 2 )

Fh
( sin cos )
Fh induce tensile stress = Fh/A and moment M = Fhd

Bending stress = M/Z
where A = resisting area of the wear plate, web, and base plate at the vertical middle
section of the saddle.
b1t1 d w t w b t b
Z = combined section modulus of the base plate, web, wear plate, and shell with
effective width b1 1.56 Rm t at the vertical middle section of the saddle.
11.1.5.2 Compressive and Bending Stress in Web and Rib

Compressive stress due to Q is uniform in web and rib, but longitudinal horizontal
base force due to wind/seismic or friction will induce bending stress and varies with
web height and is maximum at the end and minimum at middle.
For the purpose of calculation, divide the web length equal to the number of ribs,
each with length equally dividing the web between ribs. Moment is calculated at web
to wear plate joint where it is maximum. The detailed analysis is illustrated by exam-
ple 11.3.
Example 11.3: Calculate stress in web and rib. Notation is given in

Figure 11.1 and example 11.1
F = 100 KN, Q = 600 KN, Lb = 2000 mm, and b = 250,

Thickness of web and rib = tw = tr =10
Height of inner rib = hi =250
Height of outer rib = ho= 600
Effective loaded length rib + web (outer & inner) Lw= Li=Lo= 500
Compressive force due to Q = Q Lw/Lb = 150KN
Area of each part is same = Lw tw + (b − tw)tr = 7400 mm2
Comp. stress fC also same = 150*1000/7400 = 20.3 MPa
Force on each part due to F = F Lw/Lb
Moment in outer part M = (F LO/Lb)hO = 15 KNm
Z for outer part = tr b2/6 + (LO − tr)tw2/6 = 112332 mm3
Bending stress in outer part fb = M/Z = 133.5 MPa
Combined stress in the outer part = fc + fb = 153.8 MPa
Similarly, combined stress in the inner part = 76 MPa
11.1.5.3 Bending Stress in Base Plate due to Base Pressure

Depending on the arrangement (fixed or sliding), construct the loading diagram for
an unsupported portion of base plate one side of web and between each pair of ribs.
Assume three-side SS and fourth side free under base pressure as per the arrange-
ment, calculate bending stress due to pressure from pedestal using flat plate theory
Supports 161
(Table 26.10 of Ref. 3). If the base plate is subjected to uplift due to high horizontal
forces, base plate analysis is as per 11.5.1
11.2 SKIRT
Vertical vessels are normally supported by a cylindrical part called skirt shown in
Figure 11.3. When the mean diameters of the skirt and shell approximately coincide
as shown in (Figure 11.3b), the localized stresses are minimized. When the skirt is
attached to the shell below the head tangent line (Figure 11.3a), localized stresses are
induced in proportion to the component of the skirt reaction which is normal to the
head surface at the point of attachment. Instead of a cylinder, a cone is used to pro-
vide more resistance to horizontal load (Figure 11.3c), and lap welded (Figure 11.3d)
requires checking shear stress. In other cases, an investigation of local effects may be
warranted depending on the magnitude of the loading, location of skirt attachment,
etc., and an additional thickness of the vessel wall or compression rings may be nec-
essary. When the temperature of the vessel is very high, highly localized thermal
stresses are induced in the vessel and skirt at attachment, necessitating finite element
analysis or hot-box arrangement. Apart from above, the design of the skirt is simple,
calculate compressive stress and bending stress at the skirt bottom for all prevailing
loads and compare with individual allowed as well as unity check. Local stresses in
the shell can be analyzed approximately (due to oversize attachment) assuming the
head as spherical with appropriate radius and applicable loads (reaction and moment)
by WRC107 or by software Nozzlepro. Base plate and foundation bolt design is
complicated and covered in base plate section 11.5.2.
11.3 LEG AND LUG SUPPORTS

These supports are used for small vertical or horizontal vessels, and stresses in ves-
sels due to support reactions are analyzed as described in Chapter 8, and capacity of
support to transfer vessel loads to supporting structure or ground is compiled with
simple structural analysis using beam theory.
11.4 BOLTED BRACKET
Brackets with welded sections are used to support components, in which rectangular
bracket plate welded or bolted to structure is subjected to moment. The plate bottom
portion is under compression, the rest (top) portion is not in contact with structure,
and bolts in this portion will be in tension. Neutral axis will get shifted down from
the middle line. Design of the plate is covered in 11.5.1 case-4.
11.5 BASE PLATE
Base plates are rectangular shape used in saddles and a circular ring type used in the
skirt. The function of support is to take weight of large equipment and transfer it to
earth. Because the support material (metal) bearing strength is many times higher
than that of earth, the cross-sectional area of support required for the purpose is very
less compared to that of earth. Theore, the bottom most part of support requires a
DRAIN
SKIRT
(a)
THICKNESS
SHELL
SHELL SHELL
SKIRT SKIRT SKIRT
THICKNESS
(b) (C) (D)
FIGURE 11.4 Skirt support.
small area of cross section to receive load and large area to transfer the same to earth.
This is generally done in two or more stages. The first stage is by the base plate,
which is bottom most horizontal part (plate) of support, transferring the vessel load
to support base (concrete pedestal or supporting structure).
Base plates in saddles receive load through thickness of a set of plates (like rib and
web plates in saddles) and transfer to support base through:
1. Directly in case of fixed support.

2. Through anti-corrosive single liner plate and anchor plate in case of sliding
support with or without uplift.
Supports 163
3. Through low friction multiple liner plates and anchor plate in case of sliding
support without uplift.
4. Through anti corrosive rollers and anchor plate in case of sliding support with-
out uplift when a large amount of sliding in only one direction is involved.
Design of the base plate involves the calculation of thickness of base plate and
bolt size and quantity for shear due to horizontal base load and tension due to uplift.
Thickness is calculated from pressure by support base and/or from the free body
diagram of the base plate depending on arrangement. Base plate thickness calcula-
tion is based on the following assumptions:
The base plate and pedestal surface area are plane before and after applying
loads. Load received from equipment is through part of area like by web and ribs in
saddle, rest of the portion will lose contact (if base plate thickness is less) with ped-
estal and bearing pressure on pedestal is not uniform max under ribs and web where
concrete may get crushed, and no pressure where contact looses. By providing suf-
ficient thickness (not to yield and minimize deflection), non-uniformity can be
reduced.
Calculation of reaction pressure on the base plate bottom and tension in bolts is
described in 11.5.1 and 11.5.2
11.5.1 Rectangular Base Plate

Refer Figure 11.5 for notation, loadings, and pressure diagram.
B = width of the base plate.

a = distance from the compression edge to tension bolt center
A = total area of bolts in tension
Tp = pretension in bolts
P = maximum pressure at the compressive edge of base plate or reaction per
unit length or load per unit width and length
T = tension in bolts
R = total reaction from support base through the compressive pressure area.
Because the compressive load area is triangular, R acts at k/3 distance from
the compressive edge and equal to p B k/2
k = contact length
n = E ratio of steel to steel/concrete and steel to concrete = 8 to 15
There are four cases depending on direct load and moment in either direction.
Case-a: Only vertical and symmetrical load (Figure 11.5a): pressure is uniform
over entire base plate bottom and equal to load/area. Pressure without load consider-
ing pretension
P Tp / (BL); with load P (W Tp ) /(BL)

e
L
P
(a) (b1)
L/3 e
e a
k/3
k a/3
a
(c) (b2)
FIGURE 11.5 Rectangular base plate.
Tp is not considered, and B is suppressed for simplicity here after. P is given by
P = W/L
Case-b: Vertical load W moment M without uplift (Figure 11.5b): Pressure due to
M is varying max at edge and zero at middle. P due to M as per Eq. 11.6 is
P = 6 M /L2 (11.9)
Load W and moment M can be represented as W alone acting at an eccentricity (e =

M/W) from middle as shown in Figure 11.5, which will give the same analysis results
as the sum of individual analysis. Substituting M = W e in Eq. 11.9, we obtain P =
6W e/L2 and total P due to W and M is given by Eq. 11.10.
P W /L (1 6e /L ) (11.10)

Supports 165
Up to e < L/6, the pressure P varies max at the compression edge and min at other
edges. Total reaction R = W and no uplift
For e =L/6, P at the compression edge is given by Eq. 11.10, substituting e = L/6,
P =2W/L and zero at other edges as p due to W and M is equal and opposite. Uplift
is zero. That is for values of M ≤ W L/6, there is no uplift.
Even if e = a/6, the uplift is only from the bolt center to edge. P = 2W/a.
Case 3: Vertical loads and moments with uplift (Figure 11.4c): When e > L/6
(>a/6), the pressure is maximum at the compression edge and reduces to zero at a
distance k from the left edge and lifts up rest of length. The uplift can be prevented
by initial tightening of bolts to a torque or by over sizing bolts (up to a limit). The
bolts in the uplift area will be in tension to press the base plate to keep it in position.
T & P can be derived as described below
Equating vertical forces acting on the base plate
R W T (11.11)
R PB k / 2 or P 2(W T ) /(B k ) (11.12)

Taking moment at reaction point (R),
T W (k / 3 L / 2 e) / (a k / 3) (11.13)

Stress in bolt t T /A (11.14)
where A = total area of bolts in tension (assume size and number)

We have two Eqs. 11.12 and 11.13 and three unknowns R, T, and k apart from A.
Compute third Eq. 11.15 by equating the ratio of elongation of bolt (et) and compres-
sion of plate (ec), at left edge to ratio of distance of bolt and compression edge from
NA.
et /ec (a k ) /k (11.15)

Because the length relevant to elongation and compression is plate thickness and the
same. Using E = stress/strain, that is, et/ec = strain in bolt/strain in plate = (σt/Et)/
(σc/Ec), Eq. 11.15 can be expressed as
(t /c ) /(Et /Ec ) (a k ) /k (11.16)

Substituting σt = T/A and σC = P = 2(W + T)/(B k) from Eqs. 11.12 and 11.14 and Et/
Ec = n, in Eq. 11.16
T B k /[2n A(W T )] (a k ) /k
Cross multiplying T B k2 = 2n A(W + T)(a − k)

Substituting T from Eq. 11.13,
B k 2W (k / 3 L / 2 e) / (a k / 3) 2n A W [1 (k / 3 L / 2 e) /
(a k / 3)](a k )
B k 3 / 3 B k 2 ( L / 2 e) / (a k / 3) 2nA(a k )
(a k / 3 k / 3 L / 2 e) / (a k / 3)
B k 2 / 3 B k 2 ( L / 2 e) (2n A a 2n A k )(a L / 2 e)

B k 3 / 3 B k 2 ( L / 2 e) 2 n A k ( a L / 2 e)
2 n A a ( a L / 2 e) 0
k 3 3( L / 2 e)k 2 [(6n A)(a L / 2 e) /B]k a(6n A)
( a L / 2 e ) /B 0
k 3 3( L / 2 e)k 2 k1k ak1 0 (11.17)
where k1 = 6n A(a − L/2 + e)/B

Assume k, solve k from Eq. 11.17, alter k until Eq. 11.17 is true, substitute the k
value in Eq. 11.13 to obtain T. From T, calculate the number of bolts required. If the
number of bolts is more than assumed, increase size, alter A, and repeat the proce-
dure. After verifying A and k, the P value can be obtained from Eq. 11.12. The above
calculations are illustrated with examples in Table 11.3
Thickness can be calculated depending on arrangements of support parts transfer-
ring load to the base plate, and base plates can be divided into several portions
bounded by load transferring parts. Calculate the thickness of each portion using
pressure load P by flat plate theory described in Chapter 10.
Case 4: For given vertical load W, increasing moment M, e increases. When e =
L/6 uplift starts, T=0 up to e= a/6, with further increase of e, uplift, tension, and pres-
sure increase. When e approaches infinity (W = 0), theoretically uplift is 100% only
line (edge) contact exists.
Practically, the compression edge will compress until yield (Y) and form area
required to resist bolt tension. The contact area with small length reaches yield stress
and rest remains elastic as with vertical load. Neglect elastic load get T = R = Y*area
= M/L and Contact width = (M/L)/(Y B)
This type of plate and loading condition may not exist. Vertical base plate of
bracket support which carry only moment load with no perpendicular (horizontal)
force also have bolt pretension which will act as force to form a finite value of e and
analysis is the same as case 3.
If required alter B and repeat procedure
11.5.2 Circular Ring Type Base Plate

Base rings with the loading diagram and notation are shown in Figure 11.6 and
Table 11.1. The basics of analysis are the same as the rectangular type. However due
Supports 167
FIGURE 11.6 Circular base ring.
TABLE 11.1
Calculation of bolt stress and pressure on a rectangular base plate
For e > a/6, pretension in bolt = 0, units: N, mm (Figure 11.5)
W 1000 1000 1000 Axial load at center
M 150000 300000 4E6 Moment at center
e 150 300 4000 M/W > a/6, uplift
B 1 1 1 Width
L 600 600 600 Length
a 550 550 550 Tension bolt to compression edge distance
n 1 1 1 Es/Ec
A 10 10 10 Area of each bolt, 2xM20 in tension
k 460.18 221.35 101.092 Assume contact length = f(L, A, e, n, a, B)
k1 24000 33000 255000 k1=[6A.n(a – L/2 + e)/B]
k' 0.94 −0.45 −9.45 (k3 − 3(L/2 − e)k2 + k1 k − k1 a)/100,
a/6 91.66667 91.667 91.6667 Alter k until k’ is almost 0
T 8.555916 154.94 7231.61 W(k/3 − L/2 + e)/(a − k/3)
fb 0.427796 7.7469 361.58 Stress in bolts = T/2A, all. = 172MPa
If required alter A and repeat procedure
If required alter B and repeat
P 4.383311 10.435 162.854 2(W + T)/(B k) procedure
to the circular shape and not solid plate, the bearing width b and area vary along any
axis, and the resisting pressure diagram for moment load is hyperbolic max at edge
and zero at neutral axis (NA) in case of uplift. Tension in bolts also varies max in the
outer pair of bolts and min in near pair to NA. Due to the above difference in the
circular ring from rectangular plate, the equation for max compressive pressure force
at edge due to moment can be derived similar to Eq. 11.6 as
P = 4M/d
The uplift condition can be compiled by the equation
W P W 4M/d 0, or M/W e D/ 4
For e < d/4, max compressive stress = W/A + M/Z

where
A = total contact area of the base ring with concrete pedestal

Z = π(DO4 − Di4 )/(32DO) section modulus of the base ring through axis
DO and Di = OD and ID of the base ring
In the uplift condition, the integration method is used for analysis by the neutral
axis (NA) shift method. The bolt root area is considered as the concentric ring of
thickness (t1) with bolt circle d as the mean diameter for the purpose of analysis and
t1 can be computed as
t1 total area of bolts/ (d) N a/(d), where a root area of each bolt.
The location of NA, resultant points of resisting bolt tension (T), and compressive
force (R) are fractions of bolt circle diameter (d), and constant of proportions are
calculated in terms of the half angle of contact arc (α) by geometry and expressed by
equations below.
The contact axial width is expressed = k d, where k = (1 − cos α)/2 by geometry.
Location of R from center = z d

Location of T from R = j d
where
z 0.5 cos C/( sin cos ) (11.18)

j 0.5C1 /[ sin cos ( )] 0.5C /( sin cos ) (11.19)

where
C /2 1.5 sin cos cos2

Supports 169
C1 ( )(0.5 cos2 ) 1.5 sin cos
T and R are calculated by theory of equilibrium by taking moments at R as shown in

the figure
T w(e z d )/(j d ) (11.20)

And equating forces, R = T + W
The geometrical area of resistances to T is equal to t1d(π – α) and that to R is equal
to (b – t1 + n t1)d α, but effective areas are less because areas nearer to NA are less
effective and derived by integration.
Arc angles 2(π – α) & 2α in the above equations are replaced by Ct and Cc which
are functions of α. The Cc value is between α and 2α, min nearer to NA and max
nearer to edge.
Cc 2(sin ) /(1 cos ) (11.21)

Ct 2[Sin ( ) cos ]/(1 cos ) (11.22)

Using Ct and Cc, stress in bolts and concrete are expressed as
fs 2T/(t1d Ct )
fc 2R/[(t 2 n t1 )d Cc
where
t2 = width of base ring less equivalent thick of bolts area = b−t1

n = Es/Ec, where Es & Ec are Elastic modulus of steel and concrete.
Normally bolt areas required for loads with e < d/2 is less than to resist base shear.
First select bolts to resist shear, then calculate ring width b to resist the load W or
by the empirical equation.
b [W (Ct fs Cc fc n)t1 r ]/(Cc fc r )
Calculations are shown in Table 11.2 for various uplift cases (e > d/4 to max till the
bolt load is equal to allowed). Bolt quantity and width b can be increased if the
stresses are more than allowed for higher values of e.
Simplified method: Assuming NA at middle and considering full initial bolt
tension (S a), total tension in bolts and compressive stress in concrete can be com-
piled as
T 4M/d – W
fC (a S W ) /A M/Z
where S = allowable stress of bolt

TABLE 11.2
Calculation of T and R on the base ring of skirts and stresses
Data units: mm, N, bolt all stress S = 172 MPa
W 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 Load
M 2.51 4.11 5 10 70 Moment in KNm
e 251 411 500 1000 7000 M/W
n 10 10 10 10 10 Es/Ec
d 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 Bolt circle dia
Preliminary selections b, a, and k
b 150 150 150 150 150 Width of ring
16 16 16 16 16 Bolt size
N 8 8 8 8 8 No of bolts
a 139 139 139 139 139 Area/bolt
k 0.998 0.5 0.316 0.137 0.0868 Assume
Calculation of constants f(α), alter k until k = ka
Cos α –1 0 0.368 0.726 0.8264 1 – 2k
Sin α 0.092 1 0.93 0.688 0.5631
α.rad 3.05 1.571 1.194 0.758 0.5981 A cos (1 – 2k)
α.deg 174.7 90 68.41 43.45 34.269
Z 0.251 0.393 0.434 0.472 0.4825 Eq. 11.18
J 0.751 0.785 0.782 0.77 0.7647 Eq. 11.19
Cc 3.135 2 1.552 1.001 0.7927 Eq. 11.21
Ct 0.123 2 2.407 2.802 2.9183 Eq. 11.22
Calculation of T, R, fs, fc & ka; alter k till k = ka
T 0.034 233 842 6854 85229 w(e – zd)/(jd)
t1 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.354 0.3539 N a/(πd)
fs 0.002 0.658 1.977 13.82 165.04 2T/(t1 d Ct)
If required reselect a and repeat procedure
R 10000 10233 10842 16854 95229 T+W
t2 149.6 149.6 149.6 149.6 149.65 b – t1
fc 0.042 0.067 0.091 0.22 1.5685 2R/[(t2 + n t1)d Cc]
If required reselect b and repeat procedure
ka 0.996 0.504 0.316 0.137 0.0868 1/{1 + fs/(n fc)}
Simplified equations:
T 40 6440 10000 30000 270000 4M/d – W
fc 0.093 0.107 0.114 0.157 0.6665 (a S + W)/A + M/Z
A = total contact area of ring = πd b, Z = (π/4)d2b
11.5.3 Base Ring Thickness

Base ring thickness can be calculated by flat plate theory. The plain ring shown in
Figure 11.6 can be simplified by considering as the cantilever plate beam with unit
width, fixed at skirt joint, skirt joint to OD of ring (L) as span and UDL equal to pres-
sure (fc) per unit width. It is used for small vessels and short spans.
Gussets are added at pitch (p) for larger vessels as shown in Figure 11.7b to reduce
thickness. Analysis is by considering as a rectangular flat plate between gussets with
three-side supported and fourth side free and pressure load fC N/mm2. If p > 5L, it is
the same as cantilever like a plain ring. If closely pitched calculate as case 2 (SS) or
Supports 171
FIGURE 11.7 Base ring reinforcement.
10 (fixed) of Table 26 in Ref. 3. Compressive stress in gusset is calculated as the plate

column under load (fC /cos α p L). The resisting area is (L cos α tg).

Stress fC p/ t g cos2
where tg = thickness of gusset and α = angle gusset make with vertical
The chair (Figure a) or full ring type is used in tall vessels with large M/W like
chimneys to provide reverse moment at the base ring joint as shown in the figure to
ensure no rotation at bottom. Ring plate calculation is the same as the ring with
gusset. The top plate (compression ring) is ideally flat plate three-sides SS and with
central bolt load (P) over area. There can be several assumptions to use available
formulas in Table 26 of Ref. 3. To simplify assuming as SS beam between gussets
with concentrated load at middle equal to bolt tension P. Rectangular gusset is
plate under compression (neglect bending from the top plate) load P as shown in
Figure 11.7.
Reaction in the skirt due to chair: The chair produces reaction (Q) in skirt at its
joint at top ring.
Q = P a/h where P = bolt load, a and h are as shown in the figure.
The empirical equation for the thickness of the skirt due to Q is
t = K(Q/S)2 / 3 R1/ 3
where,
1
K 3 / (1 v 2 ) 6 1.76 for v 0.3
R = outside radius of skirt
where S = allowed stress

Guidelines to selection of parameters:
No of chairs = (4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24). For OD of skirt in m (<1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, >3)
Chair proportions: d = nominal diameter of bolt,
TABLE 11.3
Bolt load capacities in KN as per IS-800 and IS-1367
Bolt dia Shear capacity of bolt Tension capacity of bolt
M-series CL 4.6 CL 8.8 CL 4.6 CL 8.8

10 6.06 12.11 9.44 18.88
12 8.72 17.44 13.59 27.19
16 16.95 33.9 26.42 52.85
20 26.48 52.97 41.28 82.57
24 38.14 76.27 59.45 118.9
30 61.13 122.26 95.29 190.58
33 78.14 156.28 121.81 243.62
36 90.95 181.89 141.77 283.54
40 105.94 211.88 165.14 330.28
Distance between gussets = d + 2*100

Bolt hole in the base ring shall be higher than in the top plate = d + 25
Radial width of the ring beyond skirt = d + 2*20 or 3d min.
11.6 FOUNDATION BOLTS
Foundation bolts are subjected to shear and tensile forces. Size and quantity are cal-
culated taking shear and tensile capacity of the bolt from the relevant standards;
extracts of which from IS1137 are listed in Table 11.3.
11.7 ROLLERS FOR SLIDING SUPPORTS

To reduce friction in sliding, a saddle roller is used. The roller is situated between
the A-saddle base plate and B-anchor plate and its axis is perpendicular to the
sliding movement as shown in Figure 11.8. The roller is subjected to compressive
W A b W
3
d t d
2 4
B b
R B
R R
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 11.8 Roller supports.

Supports 173
load. Its contact with A and B is theoretically in line when there is no load as
shown in (a). As load increases, the contact width increases as shown in (b). The
deformation shall be within the elastic limit to facilitate smooth rolling.
Calculation of load carrying capacity of the roller is complicated due to deforma-
tion of A and B Ref. The load case 2, table 27 pressure on elastic bodies in Ref. 3
can be referred for calculating induced stress. A simple solution is possible
assuming that A and B are rigid by basic elastic theory. The second method is by
American Railway Engineers Association (AREA), in which an empirical for-
mula is compiled based on practical analysis. The above methods are illustrated
in example 11.4
Example 11.4: Calculate load carrying capacity of the solid roller of

diameter 50 mm and length 610mm, material AISI304 having yield
strength 205MPa and Young’s modulus 195000 MPa.
Method 1: d = 50, L = 610, Y = 205, and E =195000
Sc = allowable compressive stress = 0.6Y= 123

e = allowable strain = SC /E = 0.000631
c = compression on top or bottom = e d/2 = 0.1577 mm
b = corresponding contact width by geometry = 2 c(d − c) = 1.77 mm =
1.77 mm
W = load carrying capacity of roller = area x Sc = b L SC = 131041 N
Method 2: data is same as above d = 2”, L = 24”, Y = 29733 psi
p = allowed load lbs per inch length = A d(Y – 13000)/20000 = 988 A = if(d
< 25,600,2000) = 600
W = p L = 23342 lbs, or 104058 N
Difference in W for both methods is due to assumptions in method 1.
A pipe can be used in place of a solid roller as shown in Figure 11.6c. Analysis
depends on the d/t ratio for load per unit length W.
For thick pipes d/t less than 7, stresses (+ tensile, – compressive) are direct and
the same at points 1 & 4(+), 2 (–), but varying at point of application 3, which is (+)
and changes to (–) at d/t = 2.5. Max stress is at point-2 for values of d/t less than 3,
and at point-1 for d/t more than 3. The stress equation valid for d/t values 3 to 7 is
given by
kW
πd / 4
where k depends on d/t and is equal to 5.3 for d/t = 2.5, 6.16 for d/t = 3, and as per
Eq. 11.23.
k 0.0687 4.903d /t 0.6846(d /t )2 0.1173547(d /t )3 (11.23)

For thin pipes with d/t greater than 7, the pipe is unstable and bending stresses are
induced. Stress calculation is based on curved beam theory. Normally, a pipe is used
with d/t values 3 to 7.
Pipe analysis with the above diameter and material, and 10mm thick: d/t = 50/10 = 5,
k = 16
Stress 16(104058 /610) / (3.14 50 / 4) 34.5 MPa
11.8 HANDLING AND TRANSPORT

Attachments are required to handle the equipment and its parts during manufactur-
ing, loading and unloading for transport, erection, and maintenance. External parts
such as cranes, shackles, ropes (sling), and spreader beams are used for the purpose.
Attachments can be several to designers expertise. Normally, lifting lugs, trunnions,
and brackets are used. Attachments induce local stresses in equipment. Lifting
arrangement involving the above parts can be several to designers structural basics
and exposures to the equipment. It shall be simple, safe, and economical. The first
step is to select the arrangement. Variables are weight and geometry. The following
guidelines are useful in designing the arrangement.
1. Light weight and short (compact) vessels are lifted by welding single lug at
top passing through its CG. Heavy and longer vessels are lifted by two
cranes and four lugs. If lugs are not suitable, use trunnions. Spreader beams
are used if needed to reduce load on lugs. The Table 11.4 gives suggested
arrangements for weights and lengths of vessels. For thin vessels pads are
used below the lug or trunnion to reduce local stress. Furthermore, thin ves-
sels can be lifted without lugs by simply wrapping the rope around the
vessel.
2. Location of the lug shall be above the CG of vessel and such that the max load
is transferred to lug through min number of parts if not directly, preferably
avoiding bending in any part.
3. Lifting involves impact and factor 1.5 to 2 is used.
4. The sling inclination (θ-sling angle) with vertical shall be as less as possible to
reduce tension in sling. Lesser the angle longer the sling required. Therefore,
the angle shall be between 30 and 45°, max 60°.
5. The loads on lug shall be longitudinal (FL) preferably which induce tension in
lug, or in two directions, transverse (Ft) and normal (Fn) which induces bend-
ing. Normal load shall be avoided as bending resistance of lug is poor. Provide
stiffeners if normal load cannot be avoided.
Supports 175
TABLE 11.4
Lifting arrangement of vessels for loads and lengths
Short Medium Long
Light Single lug 1-crane, 2-lugs 1-crane, 2-lugs
Medium 1-crane, 2-lugs 1-crane, 2-lugs 2-crane, 4-lugs
Heavy 1-crane, 2-lugs 2-crane, 4-lugs 2-crane, 4-lugs
11.8.1 Analysis
The analysis involves the following
1. Similar to any attachment on vessel, lifting arrangement is the same but in

reverse direction. That is, the vessel is suspended from lugs. Loads are gravity
loads with impact. Reactions can be in three directions at lug locations. All the
parts involved in transferring the loads to lug are to be checked for its capacity
to resist the relevant forces.
2. Local stresses in equipment part to which the lug is attached. For the purpose
of analysis using WRC107, plane lug is taken as a rectangular attachment. A
lug with stiffeners is equal to rectangle enclosing lug and stiffeners. Refer
Chapter 8 for analysis.
3. Load distribution and stresses in lug: Let the tension in sling is T. Depending
on the sling direction in relation to lug long axis, T is resolved in three princi-
pal directions of lug to get FL long, Ft transverse and Fn normal loads as shown
in Figure 11.9.
FIGURE 11.9 Horizontal vessel lifting arrangement.

The analysis of lifting attachments is simple. Compilation of forces is by static

equilibrium. Stresses in attachment parts are compiled by elastic and beam theory
and simple except the stresses at hole above of lifting lug. Due to shackle pin reaction
in hole, the lug is subjected to stresses given below (ref: ASME BTH-1-2008).
Notation as per Figure 11.9.
Tensile stress = T/[t min(2b,8t)]
Double plane shear stress = max(FL, Ft)/(2t A)
Single plane fracture stress = max(FL, Ft)/(t B)
where
dp = diameter of shackle pin

b = r – d/2
A = b + dp/2{1 – cos(55dP/d)}
B = b{1.13 + 0.92/(1 + b/d)}
Compilation of forces and stresses in lifting lug for a horizontal vessel as shown in
Figure 11.9 is illustrated in example 11.5. Lug dimensions are suggested as follows:
Hole dia d = √(T/100), T in N

Radius of lug r = 7d/3
Width of lug at bottom w depends on forces, for FL straight, for Ft and Fn taper
max 30°
Height h = min 1.25d, max no limit for FL, 1.5d for Ft and Fn.
Weld strength shall be for shear or tension applicable for fillet or partial welds.
Example 11.5: Calculate stresses in lugs on horizontal vessel

Units: mm, N, and MPa
θ = Angle, lifting sling make with vertical = 45°

α = Lug longitudinal axis (radial) angle with vertical = 30°
D = Outside diameter of the vessel = 1756
C = Distance between the pair of lugs along shell long axis = 2700
L = Load of equipment on four lugs to lift = 200000 N
n = Number of lugs = 4
F = Factor of safety (impact factor) = 2
β = Angle as shown in figure =A tan [C/(D sin α)] = 72°
Calculation of forces
W = Design load per lug = L F /n = 200000*2/4 = 100000

T = Design load per lug = L F /n = 200000*2/4 = 141421
Fh = Horizontal component of T = T sin θ = 141421/sin 45 = 100000
FV = Vertical component of T = T cos θ = 141421/cos 45 = 100000
Fn = Component of Fh normal to lug = Fh sin β = 100000 sin 72 = 95097
Supports 177
F = Hor. component of Fh = Fh cos β = 100000 cos 72 = 30624

FL = Longitudinal load on lug = Fv cos α – F sin α = 100000 cos 30 –
30924.2 sin 30 = 71140
Ft = Tangential load on lug = Fv sin α – F cos α = 100000 sin 30 – 30924.2 cos 30
= 76781
Fb = Bearing load between shackle pin and lug = FL2 + Ft 2 = 104671
Lug data
d = Diameter of hole [√(T/100)] = 36

r = Radius of lug at hole center(min.7d/3) = 54
w = Width of lug at bottom = 105
h = Height of hole from bottom = 54
t = Thickness of lug = 40
Y = Yield stress of lug material (IS2062) = 240
Stresses at hole section & above
b = Ligament of lug = r – d/2 = 36

A = b + dp/2{1 – cos(55dp/d)}, (assume dp diameter of shackle pin = d/2), = 51.43
B = b{1.13 + 0.92/(1 + b/d)} = 57.24
σt = Tensile stress = FL /[t.min(2b,8t)], (all = 0.6Y = 144) = 24.7
σs = double plane shear stress max(FL, Ft)/(2t A), (all = 0.45Y = 108) = 25.93
σf = Single plane fracture stress = max(FL, Ft)/(t B), (all = 0.6Y = 144) = 17.95
σb = Bearing stress = Fb/(d t), (all = 1.25Y = 300)
Stresses at lug bottom
σt = Tensile stress = FL/(w t), (all = 0.6Y = 144) = 16.94

σbt = Bending stress = Ft h/(t w²/6), (all = 0.66Y = 158) = 56.41
σbn = Bending stress = Fn h/(w t²/6), (all = 0.66Y = 158) = 183.4
Combined stress ratio = σt/0.6y + (σbt + σbn)/0.66Y, (all = 1) = 1.632
Note: σbn & unity check is exceeding th allowed, gussets shall be provided as
shown in figure.
11.8.2 Transport
Transportation loads are called acceleration loads. Their structural effect is accelera-
tion in three directions. Vertical acceleration is due to bad roads and water waves,
longitudinal is due to acceleration, and braking and transverse are due to approaching
curves. Recommended accelerations are
For surface transport: Vertical 1.5, longitudinal 1, and transverse 0.5

For sea transport: Vertical 1.5, longitudinal 1.5, and transverse 1
Effect in vessels: Effects depends on transport arrangements made to resist move-

ments. Normally, saddle base plates are tied to vehicles but the vessel above the
saddle is not effectively prevented to transfer horizontal loadings to vehicles; as a
result, saddles are subjected to moment. If the acceleration is more than that in opera-
tion due to wind/seismic, the saddle will deflect. Therefore, the saddle shall be
checked for the above acceleration loads.
REFERENCES
2. Process equipment design, L. E. Brownell and E. H. Young, 1959.
3. Formulas for stress and strain, Reymond J. Roark and Warren C. Young, 5th edition.
12 Wind and Seismic
12.1 WIND
Wind can be described as a highly turbulent flow of air sweeping over earth’s surface
with variable velocity, in gusts rather than in a steady flow. The direction is usually hori-
zontal. It may contain vertical components when passing through hills/valleys. Velocity
increases up to a certain elevation and remains constant above that elevation.
The structural effect of wind velocity is pressure (P) equivalent of total kinetic
energy of air mass on a flat surface perpendicular to wind velocity and is given by
P V2 /2g 1.29 /(2 9.81)V2 0.66 kg/m 2 or

P V2 / 2 1.29 / 2 V2 0.645 V2 N/m 2
where
ρ = density of air under ambient conditions 1.29 kg/m3

g = gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/s2 (32 fps2)
V = basic wind speed (Velocity) in m/s for various zones of countries in their
standards
The Indian standard (IS: 875 Part 3) divides India into six zones on basic wind speed,
lowest for plains at lower elevations and highest for hill areas, and values are 33, 39,
44, 47, 50, and 55 m/s respectively.
There are three multiplying factors to obtain design wind speed.
1. Risk coefficient k1.

2. Terrain factor k2.
3. Topography factor k3,
The risk coefficient is given by the equation

A B LN (1/N )
k1
A 4B
where
A = {83.2, 84, 88, 88.8, 90.8} for six zones.

B = {9.2, 14, 18, 20.5, 22.8, 27.3} for six zones.
N - Design life (5, 25, 50, 100) years.
Terrain factor k2 depends on the category (1 to 4), class (A, B, C), and height (h)
of structure (10 to 550m). It is minimum 0.67 for (cat. 4, cl. C & h = 10 m) and maxi-
mum 1.4 for (cat.1, cl. C and h = 10 m).
179
Topography factor k3 depends on slope minimum 1 for slope < 3°and maximum
1.36 for slope > 3
Design wind speed, Vz = k1 k2 k3V

Design wind pressure, Pz = 0.6 Vz
Force on any vessel with a projected area of the vessel perpendicular to the wind
direction (A) due to Pz is given by
F = Pz A
The shape of the equipment influences the resulting force, and the cylindrical shape
reduces the force by 0.7 provided there are not many attachments and nozzles. IS 875
gives shape factors for other equipments.
This force is distributed over the vessel surface. Design (calculation of shear
force, bending moment, deflection, and bending stresses) of vessels with a uniform
cross section is the same as a beam with uniformly distributed load (UDL). If the
vessel cross-section varies over the entire length, the UDL will vary for each length.
As wind flow vibration is induced, analysis is not required if the natural frequency
of the vessel is more than 4. Up to 80m height, analysis may be carried out in only
the first mode.
12.2 EARTHQUAKE
Seismic forces on a vessel result from sudden vibratory motion with horizontal accel-
eration (Sa) of the ground, on which the vessel is supported, and vessel response to this
motion. The principal factors in the damage to structures are the intensity and duration
of the earthquake motion. The ratio of this acceleration and gravitational acceleration
is called the spectral acceleration coefficient and expressed by basic equation Sa/g.
The value of Sa varies depending on various factors including the location. Indian
standard IS-1893(1 and 4) gives the following factors and procedure for computing
horizontal seismic coefficient.
Zone factor: India is divided into four zones: II- middle, III- middle and coastal,
IV-Himalayas, and V-Kutch and certain high altitudes, and zone factors (Z) are 0.1,
0.16, 0.24, and 0.36, respectively.
Category of structure: Four categories are specified
1. Life, property, and population.

2. Fire hazard/damage in plants.
3. Expensive but not serious.
4. Others.
Analysis method: Two methods are specified.

o DBE - design basis earthquake for category 1.
o MCE - max considered earthquake for other categories.
Wind and Seismic 181
For vessels, the DBE method is used.
Other factors:
R - Response reduction factor: given in Table 9 for different structures, and two
for steel stacks.
I - Importance factor: for different structures it is given in Table 8, 1.5 for steel
stacks and silos and 1.75 for vessels.
Sa/g - spectral acceleration coefficient as per Figure 2, Annex B, damping fac-
tor (for steel = 0.02), and T time period (T = 0.085H0.75 for steel frame build-
ings). For vessels, Sa/g = 1.5.
The horizontal seismic coefficient (Ah) for the DBE method is given by
Z I Sa
Ah =
2 R g
For the MCE method, the above equation with Z/2 = 1 and Sa/g as per site specific
spectra is applicable.
The horizontal seismic forces acting on the vessel with total weight W are reduced
to the equivalent static forces. The structure is designed to withstand a certain mini-
mum horizontal base shear (Vb = Ah W) applied at the base of the vessel in any direc-
tion. The problem is how to resolve this base shear into equivalent static forces
throughout the height of the vessel in order to determine shear force and bending
moment in the structure at different elevations and overturning moment at base. The
result depends in large part on the dynamic response of the structure, which may be
assumed either rigid or flexible.
The vertical component also exists but to simplify the design procedure the verti-
cal component of the earthquake motion is usually neglected on the assumption that
the ordinary structures possess enough excess strength in the vertical direction.
12.2.1 Rigid-Structure Approach (RSA)

The rigid-structure approach is used for short heavy vertical or horizontal vessels.
Resolution of base shear is simple. The structural effect of motion on the vessel is
horizontal force (F) at its centre of gravity and equal to Ah W. For any elemental
length, F is Ah multiplied by its weight at its CG. For the vertical vessel, it is a canti-
lever beam with load along its length proportional to its weight or Ah times its self-
weight. Calculation of shear and bending moment at any section is like any cantilever
beam. However, it cannot be applied reasonably to tall, slender columns and chim-
neys regardless of their dynamic properties.
12.2.2 Flexible Tall Structure Approach

The sudden erratic shift during an earthquake of the foundation of a flexible tall cylin-
drical vessel relative to the centre of gravity causes the vessel to deflect because the
FIGURE 12.1 Triangular seismic load.
inertia of the vessel mass restrains the vessel from moving simultaneously with its
foundation. Due to this, the loading is not as in the rigid vessel but zero at base, and
increase along its height maximum at top with the same base shear as RSA. For the
vessel with uniform weight, loading is triangular as shown in Figure 12.1. Further
calculation is a simple cantilever with triangular loading. Because base shear remains
the same and is equal to area of the triangle, force at top is given by
Ft = Vb / (H/2) N/m
Shear force and bending moment at any section can be calculated from the moment
area method (Chapter 3).
Shear force = area of the loading diagram from top to the section
Moment = moment of the above area at the section = shear force x distance of the
section from CG of area.
Example 12.1: Given Ah = 0.15, W = 100 KN, H = 30 m, D = 5 m,

and calculate base moment. Fo defined in the next section is assumed
as zero.
Base shear V = 0.15*100 = 15 KN.

Force at top = 15/(H/2) =1KN/m.
Base moment = 15 × 2H/3 = 300 KNm.
If the vessel is non-uniform, resolving base shear is based on the ratio of ele-
mental weight moment at the base to sum of all weight moments at the base. It is
given by,
Fn = Force at the bottom of the nth section from top = (V – Fo)wn hn/Σ(w h)
Fo = 0.004V(H/D)2, maximum 0.15V, is a portion of V assumed concen-
trated at the top of the structure to approximate the influence of higher
modes.
wn = weight of the nth section.
hn = height of CG of the nth section from the base.
The loading diagram can be built up by applying these loads at all sections.
Once the loading is resolved, shear force and bending moment at any section can
be calculated like any cantilever beam.
Shear force at any point = sum of loading from top to that point.
Moment at bottom of any section = moment at its top + shear force at top x
height of section + Ah x section weight x height of its CG from bottom.
12.3 OTHER STANDARDS
Structural effects of wind and seismic forces are explained in 12.1 and 12.2 including
the computation of wind pressure and seismic base shear as per the Indian standard.
In this section, computations of wind pressure and seismic base shear are explained
as per UBC, Australian/New Zeeland, and American standards.
12.3.1 UBC-1997
12.3.1.1 Wind Pressure Calculations
V = basic wind speed.
Ce = comb height, exposure and gust factor coefficient (Tab.16-G), 0.62 to
2.34.
Cq = pressure coefficient for the type and geometry of equipment. Tab.16-H,
0.8 to 4, 0.8 for Round/elliptical.
Iw = importance factor Tab.16-K
qs = wind stagnation pressure at 33ʼ (Tab.16-F) = 0.615V2/g, (g in m/s2).
P = design wind pressure = Ce Cq qs Iw.
12.3.1.2 Seismic Base Shear Calculation

Static analysis:
Z = Zone factor (T.16-I) = (0.075, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4) for zones (1, 2A, 2B, 3, 4)
I = Importance factor (Tab. 16-K): = 1 for Occupancy Cat 3–5 (std) and 1.25
for occ. cat 1, 2 (hazard/essential)
Soil profile type (SA - SF) (Tab.16-J)
Seismic source Type (A, B, C) (Tab.16-U), for zone-4 only
Nv = Seismic source factor (tab. 16-T), for zone-4 only
R = Structural system Coefficient (tab. 16-N) = 2.9 for stacks/vertical vessels
on skirt/all other self supporting structures and = 2.2 for vessels
Cv = Seismic coefficient (tab.16-R)
Ca = Seismic coefficient (tab.16-Q)
T = Fundamental time period
W = weight of equipment
Base shear
a. UTS design & rigid

Base shear Vʼ = 0.7Ca I.W for T < 0.06, = Cv I W/(R T) for T ≥ 0.06
min = 0.11Ca I W, max = 2.5Ca I W/R
For zone-4 min = 0.8Z Nv I W/R
b. Allowable stress design
Base shear V V/1.4
Static analysis: all in zone-1, occupancy categories 4 and 5 in zone-2, regular

< 240ʼ, irregular ≤ 65ʼ.
Dynamic analysis is required for structure height ≥ 240ʼ or time period > 0.7
12.3.2 Australian and New Zeeland Standard AS/NZS 1170

Example 12.2: Calculation of Design Wind pressure: AS/NZS
1170.2:2011
Vr = Regional gust wind speed (Tab-3.1), V500 & Region A11 = 45 m/s
Md = Wind directional multiplier (Tab-3.2), Region A11 & any direction = 1
Mzcat = Terrain/height multiplier Tab-4.1, height 20 m and Terrain category
21 = 1.08
Ms = Shielding multiplier Tab-4.3, Assumed = 1
Mt = Topographic multiplier CL-4.4, Assumed = 1
Vdes = Design Wind speed as per CL 2.2 = Vr Md Mz Ms Mt = 48.6 m/s
ρ = Density of air as per CL 2.4.1 = 1.2 kg/m3
Cpe = External pressure coefficient as per Tab-5.2 (A) = 0.7
Ka = Area reduction factor as per CL 5.4.2 = 1
Kce = Combination factor applied to ext press As per Tab-5.5 = 0.9
Kt = Local pressure factor as per CL 5.4.4 =1
Kp = Porous cladding reduction factor as per CL 5.4.4 = 1
Cfig = Aerodynamic shape factor = Cpe Ka Kce Kt Kp as per Cl 5.2 = 0.63
Cdyn = Dynamic response factor As per CL 2.4.1 = 1
P = Design Wind Pressure P = 0.5 ρ (Vdes)2 Cfig Cdyn = 893 N/m²
Example 12.3: Calculation of the horizontal design earthquake

coefficient: AS 1170.4:2007
hx = Height of the component from the base = 15.8m

hn = Height of the structure from the base = 0.6m
I = Importance level as per section F2 & Table F1 AS/NZS 1170.0 = 2
P = Annual probability of exceedance as per Table F2 AS/NZS 1170.0 = 1/500

Kp = Probability factor = f(P), Table 3.1, as per site the data sheet = 1
Z = Hazard factor Table 3.2 = 0.09
Site sub-soil class = Ce
EDC = Earthquake design category as per Table 2.1, f(soil, kp, z, hn) = cat. II
Ic = Component importance factor as per CL-8.2 = 1.5
ac = Component amplification factor as per CL-8.2 = 1
Rc = Component ductility factor as per CL-8.2 = 2.5
Ch(o) = Bracketed value of the spectral shape factor for the period of zero
seconds f(soil), Table 6.4 = 1.3
kc = Factor (= 2/hn for hn≥12; else = 0.17) = 0.17
ax = Height amplification factor at hx as per CL-8.2 = 1.102
a(floor) as per CL,8.2 = kp.z.Ch(0) = 0.117
Coefficient, simple method Cl 8.3 = a(floor).ax[Ic ac /Rc] = 0.0774
Coefficient, design acceleration method Cl 8.2 = a(floor) ax[Ic ac /Rc] = 0.0702
12.3.3 American Standard ASCE

Example 12.4: Wind Pressure Calculation in conformity to ASCE
7-10: C-30
V = Basic wind speed from Figure 6.1 = 45 m/s.

Surface category, smooth (B, C, D) = smooth C.
D = Diameter of the equipment = 1.93 m.
hc = Centroidal height of equipment = 1.61 m.
Z = Height of CG of equipment from the ground level = 1.91 m.
Zg as per Table 26.9–1 (B-365.76, C-274.32, D-213.36) for category C =
274.32.
α = as per Table 26.9–1 (B-7, C-9.5, D-11.5) for category C = 9.5.
KZt = Topographic as per 26.8.1 = (1 + k1 k2 k3)2 but = 1 if site conditions
and location of the structure do not meet all conditions specified.
Kd = Wind directionality factor as per Table 26.6–1 (0.95 for round tanks) =
0.95.
I = Importance factor as per Table 6.1, for area category #3 and V > 100mph
= 1.15.
Cf = Force coefficient as per Figure 29.5–1, 2, 3 (0.52 for the round cross
section, moderately smooth surface and for a value of hC/D = 0.83) =
0.52.
Zbar = Equivalent height of structure = 0.6Z = 1.15 m.
C = Constant as per Table 26.9-1 (B-0.3, C-0.2, D-0.15) for category C = 0.2.
L = Constant as per Table 26.9-1 (B-97.54, C-152.4, D-198.12) for category
C = 152.4.
∈bar = Constant as per Table 26.9-1 (C-1/3, C-1/5, D-1/8) for category C = 0.2.
gQ = Peak factor as per Cl.26.9.4 = 3.4.
gV = Peak factor as per Cl.26.9.4 = 3.4.
β = Horizontal dimension measured normal to wind direction = 0.9 m.
n = Natural frequency of the equipment = 33 cps.
Kz = Velocity pressure coefficient as per Table 30.3-1 = 2.01(15/zg)2/α If z <
4.6m, else Kz = 2.01(z/zg)2/α = 0.85.
qz = Velocity pressure as per 29.3 – 1= 0.613 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I = 1153 N/m2.
Lzbar = Intensity of turbulence Eq. 26.9-4 = c(10/Zbar)1/6 = 0.29.
Lzbar = Integral length scale of turbulence Eq. 26.9-9 = L(0.1 Zbar)∈bar = 98.81.
Z
0.63
Q = Background response factor Eq. 26.9-8 = 1/ 1 0.63 0.97

Lzbar
0.925(1+ 1.7 gq Izbar Q
G = Gust factor (for a rigid structure) Eq. 26.9-6 = ,
max 0.8 = 0.85 1+ 1.7 gV Izbar
Wind pressure P = qz G Cf as per 29.5-1 = 510N/m2
Example 12.5: Seismic base shear as per ASCE7-10.13
ap = Component amplification factor = 1 to 2.5, Tab-13.5-1 or 6-1, 1 for

boilers etc = 1
Rp = Comp. response modification factor = 1 to 12, Tab-13.5-1 or 6-2, 2.5
for boilers etc = 2.5
Ip = Importance factor = 1 or 1.5, 1.5 for life safety, hazardous material,
occupancy cat-IV = 1.25
Ss = MCE spectrum response acceleration Figure 22 = 0.202
Site class (A–F) for soil properties (Chapter 20), D if not known = D
Fa = Site coefficient = 0.8 to 2.5, Tab.11.4-1 f (site class, Ss) = 1.6
Z = Height of the structure of comp attachment = 5m
h = Average roof height of the structure from the base = 5m
Sms = Fa Ss = 0.3232
Sds = 2Sms/3 = 0.2155
Ah = Horizontal seismic coefficient = 0.4ap Sds(1+2z/h)Ip/Rp, (min = 0.3Sds Ip)
(max =1.6Sds Ip) = 0.4*1*0.2155*(1+2*5/5)*1.25/2.5 = 0.129
12.4 APPLICATION OF WIND/SEISMIC LOAD

Wind and seismic will not occur at the same time. Because the structural effect is
different for both, it is compiled separately, and the maximum effect is considered for
analysis. Because this load is occasional, allowable stress is higher than for sustained
loads, and the Indian standard specifies 1.33 times that for dead loads. The structural
effect (saddle reaction of wind/seismic load on the horizontal vessel) is illustrated by
example 12.6.
Example 12.6: Calculate the saddle reaction (Q) due to wind/seismic

on the horizontal cylindrical vessel
Design data: Wind pressure (P) = 1.5KN/m2, horizontal seismic coefficient (Ah) =
0.294, weight of the vessel with contents (W) = 500 KN, vessel OD (D) = 2m,
equivalent exposed length (L) = 10m, two saddles and distance between saddles
(B) = 6 m, height of CG of the vessel from the base (h) = 1.2 m, insulation thick-
ness (T) = 100 mm, and saddle bearing angle (θ) = 120°
Calculations:
Lb = D sin60° = 1.75 m saddle length (reaction moment arm).

At = L(D+2T) = 22 m2 transversal projected area to wind.
AL = π/4(D+2T)2 = 3.8 m2 longitudinal projected area to wind.
Ftw = At P = 22*1.5 =33 KN transverse wind load (shape factor 0.7 neglected).
FLW =AL P = 3.8*1.5 = 5.702 KN longitudinal wind.
Fts = FLS= W Ah = 500*0.294 = 147 KN seismic load.
Mtw = Ftw h = 33*1.2 = 39.6 KNm moment due to Ftw.
MLW = FLW h = 5.702*1.2 = 6.842 KNm moment due to FLW.
Mts = MLS = Fs h = 147*1.2 = 176.4 KNm moment due to FS.
Qt = 3/2max(Mtw, Mts)/L = 1.5*176.4/1.75 = 151.2 KN max reaction (three
times the average, refer section 11.1.3) at the edge on each saddle due
to Mt.
QL = max(MLW, MLS)/B = 176.4/6 = 29.4 KN.
Q = max(Qt, QL) = 151.2 KN max Q to be considered in saddle analysis.
13 Flanges
A flange (loose without a hub) is a special type of flat plate circular ring with several
loads derived from pressure to facilitate removing components such as part of the
pipe from the piping system and opening of end cover (blind flange) for process
requirements. A blind flange is a removable type of flat end closure to the cylindrical
part (called pipe in this section). Flanges can be classified as
• Integral and loose flanges

• Raised face and full face flanges
• Ring type gasket flanges
• Special flanges
Integral flanges consist of a hub as shown in Fig. 13.1 and 13.2 and are equal to
cast or forged integrally with the pipe or welded thereto by such a nature that there is
no relative deformation or rotation between both the flange and pipe at their joint,
whereas loose flanges with or without a hub have no rigid connection to the pipe, and
the method of attachment is not considered to give mechanical strength sufficient to
resist relative movement or rotation. A flange without a hub can also be considered
as an integral flange by providing required weld equivalent to the hub in integral
flanges.
13.1 BASICS OF FLANGE ANALYSIS

A loose flange without a hub can be analyzed as a flat plate ring as shown in the
loading diagram as shown in Figure 13.2a by equations from case (1f) and (1L) in
Table 24 of Ref. 3 with certain conservative assumptions. Resistance to bending and
deflection of the portion of flange outside the bolt circle is not covered in the operat-
ing condition and inside the gasket reaction is not covered in the seating condition.
The integral flange as shown in Figure 13.1 is a combination of three elements: a
flat plate (same as loose flange), a hub, and a shell. Analysis by the integration
method is by assuming the longitudinal strip of unit width of the shell and hub as the
beam on elastic foundation, shell uniform thick, and hub varying thick. Due to dis-
continuity between elements, discontinuity stresses are induced in the hub in addi-
tion to longitudinal stress. Radial and tangential stresses are induced in the flat plate
element as described in flat plate theory. Ref. 2 gives the equations for stresses by the
integration method. In addition, Appendix A2 of the code1 gives equations and flange
constants. Figure 13.1 shows discontinuity forces and moments in integral flanges.
Furthermore, the flange rotates at the gasket reaction diameter due to operating forces
and is prone to leak. Hence, a flange shall be rigid enough to resist rotation apart from
withstanding operational and seating forces.
189
Ring
Q Hub
Q Q
shell
Q
g0 Hd
m h m
A C B
FIGURE 13.1 Discontinuity forces and moments in the integral flange.
Standards are available in most of the countries to select for pressure and tempera-
ture up to certain size. Most popular is the American standard covering up to 60”
NPS, which is described in B16.5 and 16.47. For higher sizes or for non-standard
sizes, flanges not covered are designed as per the theory given above.
13.2 SELECTION OF PARAMETERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON

FLANGE DESIGN
The parameters for optimum design, leak proof, safe, and convenient maintenance
are bolt size and its circ pitch, flange width, and gasket location and its parameters.
13.2.1 Circumferential Pitch of Bolts (Pc)

For analysis in the operating condition, the bolt circle diameter is considered as a sup-
port on the entire perimeter for pressure loads, which is not true. The support is only
at as many as the number of bolts and at its center points. Consider the free body
diagram of the sector between two adjacent bolts under the operating load whose
analysis will show that the stresses are not uniform at all points on any radius. It is
max in the middle. To maintain it almost uniform, the circ ligament at the bolt circle
shall not be more than six times the thickness. Adding the effect of the gasket factor
and bolt holding width, the equation for maximum PC is given in various references as
PC 2a 6t (m 0.5)
where a = nominal size of bolts
t = flange thickness
m = gasket property in the operating condition
Furthermore, Pc shall be sufficient for tightening bolts with tools without obstruction
from adjacent nuts. Minimum pitch to be provided is equal to twice the bolt nominal
Flanges 191
diameter plus 6 mm (2a + 6) considering standard tools. Apart from the above min
and max limits, pitch depends geometrically on the quantity of bolts. Bolts shall be
sufficient to withstand operating and seating loads. In case the geometrical pitch is
not within max and min limits, limits can be altered primarily by the size of the bolt
or by the quantity of the bolt or by the thickness of the flange or by increasing BCD
in the order.
13.2.2 Flange Width
Flange width shall be minimum to reduce weight and cost. To facilitate bolt tighten-
ing, distances from the bolt circle to hub and outer edge (R and E) shall be minimum
to reduce the flange width. The minimum values of R and E depend on the bolt nomi-
nal size and are given in various literature studies and TEMA against the bolt size
(see extracts in Table 13.1). Larger the bolt size, larger the flange width. Therefore,
the bolt size shall be minimum.
13.2.3 Gasket
For leak proof, a gasket is required between two mating flanges. The gasket shall be
softer (hardness ≤ 25 BHN) than the flange material and consists of soft metal or
non-metal or combination, elastically pressed between flanges when tightened by
bolts to prevent leakage. Softness and material selection depend on the pressure and
temperature. Higher the pressure, higher shall be the compressive strength (y) of the
gasket to prevent leakage due to deformation under pressure force in the radial direc-
tion. Gaskets are procured with known properties m and y. m is a factor in residual
stress in the gasket in the operating condition, and residual stress shall be at least two
TABLE 13.1
Values of R, E, and Ao Units: mm, mm2
Nom-dia Pitch R.radial E.edge Pc min.pitch Ao.bolt area
16 2 28.6 20.6 38 138
20 2.5 31.8 23.8 46 217
24 3 36.51 28.58 54 313
27 3 38.1 29 60 414
30 3.5 46.1 33.34 66 503
36 4 54 39.7 78 738
42 4.5 61.9 49.2 90 1018
48 5 69 56 102 1343
56 5.5 77 64 118 1863
64 6 85 67 134 2469
72 6 90 70 150 3222
80 6 94 75 166 4077
90 6 108 85 186 5287
100 6 119 93.66 206 6652
Ao is min including negative tolerances

to three times the pressure to prevent leakage. The gasket width (N) provided is not
fully effective for analysis due to the type of gasket, raised face width, and practical
accuracy of alignment. The code gives the following rule for effective width (b).
For flat and raised faces, effectiveness is half of the actual width up to 12.5 mm
and is less than half for higher widths and is equal to 2.5 times square root of the
above reduced width. The effective width is expressed by the equation
N N
b min ,2.5
2 2

Table 2.5.2 of the code1 gives the values of effective width for other arrangements.
Higher the width of gasket and its properties m and y, higher the gasket reaction
force and bolt area required. Therefore, non-metallic gaskets are used for low pres-
sures and for full faced. Metallic gaskets (not used for full face) filled with a material
such as graphite are used for medium and high pressures normally with a narrow
width from (¼” for ½” NPS to 25 mm for 36” NPS). Oval and octagonal ring type
metal gaskets are used for high pressures. m and y values are very high for ring gas-
kets. m and y values for normally used gaskets are given in Table 13.2, which specifies
the same. Spiral or concentric grooves of depth 40 microns and spacing 80 microns are
used for raised face flanges. The edges of grooves will deform and hold the gasket.
The gasket location between the bolt and inside is sensitive. The moment lever
arm for forces varies due to the location. Locating nearer to the bolt will increase the
lever arm for operating forces and decrease for seating forces. Locating nearer to the
inside diameter (B) will have a reverse effect. m and y values for commonly used
gaskets are given in Table 13.2.
TABLE 13.2
m and y Values for Flange Gaskets
Type of gasket m y.MPa
Rubber 0.5 0
Rubber with fabric or asbestos fiber 1 1.5
Garlock 5.2 10
Non asbestos ferrolite 2.5 20
Compressed asbestos fiber 3 25
Camprofile 2.25 27.5
Thermoculite 3.2 34.5
Unreinforced graphite laminated Klingersil 4.5 45
Reinforced graphite laminated Klingersil 2-5 50
Flat metallic (Al) double gasketed graphite filled 3.25 38
Flat metallic (SS) double gasketed graphite filled 3.75 62
Spiral wound metal (CS) mineral fiber filled 2.5 69
Spiral wound metal (SS) mineral fiber filled 3 69
Solid flat metal or O ring, soft Aluminum 4 60
Solid flat metal O ring, soft carbon steel 5.5 120
Solid flat metal O ring, soft stainless steel 6.5 175
Kammprofile 2 18
Flanges 193
13.2.4 Philosophy of the Selection of Flange Parameters

The following guidelines can be used to select parameters based on the above basics
and code rules for given design data.
1. Select the gasket type and width based on pressure, temperature, and avail-
ability in the market.
2. Select the bolt material depending on the flange/pipe material. Assume the
preliminary lowest size limiting quantity for ease of maintenance.
3. Calculate flange dimensions C, GO, and G using R and E values for the bolt
size required to calculate the bolt forces in the operating and seating condition
(W0, Wa) and required thickness (t) of flange including limits of PC as illus-
trated in examples in Tables 13.3 and 13.4.
4. Calculate the number (n) of bolts required to withstand the above forces,
increase to nearest integer multiple of four, and calculate pitch of bolts (PC).
5. If PC is less (normally due to high pressure), increase the bolt size which will
increase both but Pc at a higher rate than the min limit as the area of bolt
increases with square of size increase. If the increase up to max available size
(100 mm) is not adequate, increase BCD.
6. If PC is more, increase the number of bolts or reduce the size
13.3 FLANGE ANALYSIS
For a given diameter of pipe, pressure, temperature, and material, first select the bolt
size and compute dimensions of the flange as explained in 13.2. The flange is then
analyzed in both operating and seating conditions. Refer Figure 13.2 and Tables 13.3
and 13.4 for notation and forces.
13.3.1 Seating Condition
The gasket (except full faced) when tightened before operating develops a reaction
force due to its elasticity and induces moment Ma at the gasket reaction circle (diameter
G) due to bolt load (W) which depends on the operator. Normally maximum torque for
tightening bolts is given in operating instructions of equipment. The minimum value of
W is equal to maximum bolt load Wma to compress gasket to obtain pressure y or Wmo
in operation to overcome the forces H + Hp due to pressure and gasket loads, and the
maximum value is equal to the bolt stress reaching its allowed stress. The optimum
value is the average of both minimum and maximum considered.
Also the flange will rotate at gasket reaction diameter G due to the moment at G
due to force W by tightening bolts. Due to this rotation, the circle at point G which
without tightening is the midpoint of the gasket width will shift toward C, and gasket
pressure will be triangular and leak in operation. Therefore, rotation shall be kept
under limit. However, G is taken as the mid-point of the gasket if the width is <12.5
mm; otherwise G is equal to gasket OD minus twice effective gasket width. The load-
ing diagram is force at the bolt circle and support at gasket reaction circle G on a cir-
cular ring. Forces and details of loose and integral flanges are shown in Figure 13.3.
t
t
E E
hg hg
ht R
ht
R
hd Hg
Hg
hd
Ht
Hd
Ht
g0
Hd g1
B g0
A D
A C G h
G C B
(a) LOOSE (b) INTEGRAL
FIGURE 13.2 Details and forces of loose and integral flanges.
FIGURE 13.3 O ring type joints.
13.3.2 Operating Condition
• Fd = Due to pressure on the internal area of the pipe acting on the pipe wall
thickness or at B.
• Fg = Due to the gasket reaction acting at about midpoint (gasket reaction diam-
eter) of gasket width. Fg shall be m times the gasket reaction due to y on the
area of the gasket contact surface with effective width b (including pass parti-
san gasket if any) to keep sufficient force for leak proof.
• Ft = Due to the pressure on the annular portion between the gasket reaction and
pipe inside diameter acting at the midpoint of annular portion.
All these loads induce moment Mo at the bolt circle diameter and rotation at G.
Point G will shift outwards as explained above and leak. Hence, rotation shall be lim-
ited to keep the gasket pressure almost uniform. Rigidity of the flange is calculated
apart from longitudinal stress in hub and radial and tangential stresses in the flange.
Flanges 195
The rigidity equation is based on limiting rotation to about 1/3 to ½°. The code gives
an equation for rigidity in both conditions and for both loose and integral flanges.
Flange stresses: radial, tangential, and longitudinal in hub in operating and seating
conditions are derived by integration using the loading diagram shown in Figure 13.1
as (constant x M/B)/Z. where
Z = the section modulus per unit width (Z = t2/6) for the flange and (g12/6) for
the hub
M = MO for the operating condition and Ma for the seating condition.
Constants depend on k =A/B and hub dimensions and are given in Ref. 2 and code.
13.4 COMPUTATION OF STRESSES IN FLANGES

13.4.1 Loose and Integral Flange
Integral flanges require forging and are generally selected for high pressures. Loose
flanges can be cut from plate for low pressures. For higher pressures, it is advised to
roll a plate and weld to form a ring. Rolling will give the required metallurgical struc-
ture similar to forging. The thickness required for the integral flange is less than that
for the loose flange. Because the thickness of the pipe reduces the flange thickness,
the integral type is selected for thicker pipes. Hub dimensions have large influence on
constants of proportions thereby in flange thickness. An increase in the hub length
and reducing taper angle will reduce the flange thickness as the hub will offer more
resistance. See Figure 13.2 with loading for the loose flange with a raised face and
integral flange.
A loose flange without a hub is a flat circular ring assumed as isolated with forces
shown in Figure 13.2a and reaction force and moments at G and C for seating and
operating conditions. Basic analysis is covered in Chapter 10. Tangential and radial
stresses are induced due to forces. Stresses can be calculated with certain assump-
tions from equations given in Table 24 of Ref. 3. By integration, stresses can be
derived for all the forces shown in Figure 13.2a. It is found that max moment is tan-
gential and at bolt circle (C) for the operating condition, and tangential at gasket
reaction dia (G) for the seating condition. Ref. 2 gives integration analysis, and the
tangential stress is given as

YM/ B t 2
where M is Mo and Ma for operating and seating conditions
Y is constant depending on K = A/B and code gives the equation for Y as
5.7169K 2 log K
Y 0.66845 /(K 1) (13.1)
K 2 1

Table 13.3 illustrates the detailed calculations of stresses and rigidity check for the
loose flange.
TABLE 13.3
Calculation of Stresses in the Loose Flange without Hub Figure 13.2
Data: units: N, mm, MPa; pressure = 1, temp. = 225°C, mat. SA-226,
Bolt data Bolt spacing
a 24 Nominal diameter of bolt R 36.51 ID to BCD, (C-B)/2
n 72 Number of bolts E 28.58 BCD to OD, (A-C)/2
AO 312.75 Min root area of bolt PC 91.8 Bolt pitch min = 2a + 6 = 54,
Gasket data: type - flat metallic graphite filled max = 2a + 6t(m + 0.5) = 316
m 3.75 S-allowed stresses, E-Young’s modulus
y 62 Gasket seating load operating.o Ambient.a, f-flange, b-bolt
N 19 Gasket contact width Sf 137 138
b 7.71 Eff. Gasket seating width Sb 172 172
= min(N/2,2.5√[N/2] E 185000 202000
Flange data
D 2000 Pipe inside diameter C 2106 BCD = B + 2R +10
T 10 Pipe thickness A 2163 Flange OD = C + 2E
t 190 Flange minimum thick Rf 2070 Raised face OD = C – a – 12
B 2023 Flange ID = D + 2T + 3 GO 2067 gasket OD = Rf – 3
Bolt load, bolt area, Forces and moments
G 2052 Gasket reaction diameter = Go – 2b
HP 372481 Contact load on gasket surface = π G 2b P m
H 3305762 Total. hydrostatic end force = π/4 G2 P
Wmo 3079178 minimum operating bolt load = H + Hp
Wma 3678243 Minimum gasket seating bolt load = π G b y
Am 21385 Total required area of bolts, max(Wma/Sb, WmO/Sa)
Ab 22518 Total provided area of bolts = AO n
W 3873071 flange design bolt load, seating, 0.5(Ab + Am) Sa, for max Ab Sa
Hg 372481 gasket seating load, Wma – H
Hd 3214272 hydro static end force on area inside of flange, π/4 B2 P
Ht 91490 Pressure force on flange face, H – Hd
hg 27.2 Radial distance from BCD to the circle on which load Hg act = (C − G)/2
hd 41.5 Radial distance from BCD to the circle on which load Hd act = (C – B)/2
ht 34.4 Radial distance from BCD to the circle on which load Ht act = {hd + hg)/2
MO 146 KNm Total moment in operation = Mg + Md + Mt = Hg hg + Hd hd + Ht ht
Ma 105 KNm Total moment for gasket seating, W hg
[0.668 + 5.72{K2LOG(K)} – 1]/(K – 1)
K 1.0692 K = A/B Flange constant Y 28.83
Operating Seating Stresses induced in loose flange w/o hub
St 57.9 41.6 Tangential flange = Y(MO, Ma)/(B t2), allowed = Sf
BS 163 136 Bolt stress = {Wmo, Wma}/Ab, allowed = {SbO, Sba}
J 0.945 0.679 Rigidity = 109.4(MO, Ma)/[E t3 0.2LN(K)] < 1
Analysis of the integral flange is more complicated due to the discontinuity at pipe
to hub, hub to flange ring, and resistance of pipe size and thickness. However, the
compilation procedure is the same as that for the loose flange except the constants
depend on B, go, and g1 in addition to K. Furthermore, max stress may be radial or
tangential in the flange, and longitudinal stress in the hub also is to be checked. Ref. 2
gives integration analysis and derives similar equations to those for the loose flange.
Unlike the loose flange, stresses in the integral flange include longitudinal stress in the
hub and radial stress in the flange apart from tangential stress in the flange and are
given as proportional to M/(B t2) for the flange and M/(B g12) for the hub. Constants are
given in the code and Ref. 2. Table 13.4 illustrates the detailed calculations of stresses
Flanges 197
TABLE 13.4
Calculation of Stresses in the Integral Flange and Loose Flange with hub Figure 13.2
Data: units: N, mm, MPa UOS; pressure = 1, temp. = 225°C, mat. SA-226, flange thickness = 150
Bolt data Bolt spacing
a 24 Nominal diameter of bolt R 36.51 ID to BCD, (C-B)/2
n 72 Number of bolts E 28.58 BCD to OD, (A-C)/2
AO 312.75 Min root area of bolt PC 91.8 Bolt pitch min = 2a + 6 = 54,
Gasket data: type - flat metallic graphite filled max = 2a + 6t(m + 0.5) = 316
m 3.75 S-allowed stresses, E-Young’s modulus
y 62 Gasket seating load Operating.o Ambient.a, f-flange, b-bolt
N 19 Gasket contact width Sf 137 138
b 7.71 Eff. Gasket seating width Sb 172 172
= min(N/2,2.5√[N/2] E 185000202000
Flange data
B 2000 Flange inside diameter C 2106 BCD = B + 2(g1+R)
gO 10 Hub thickness at small end A 2163 Flange OD = C + 2E
g1 15 Hub thickness at large end Rf 2070 Raised face OD = C – a – 9
h 15 Hub length ≥ 1.5 gO GO 2067 Gasket OD = Rf – 3
Bolt load, bolt area, Forces and moments
G 2052 Gasket reaction diameter = Go – 2b
HP 372481 Contact load on gasket surface = π G 2b P m
H 3305762 Total. hydrostatic end force = π/4 G2 P
Wmo 3079178 Minimum operating bolt load = H + Hp
Wma 3678243 Minimum gasket seating bolt load = π G b y
Am 21385 Total required area of bolts, max(Wma/Sb, WmO/Sa)
Ab 22518 Total provided area of bolts = π/4(root dia)2 n
W 4948956 Flange design bolt load, seating, 0.5(Ab + Am) Sa, for max Ab Sa
Hg 372481 Gasket seating load, Wma – H
Hd 3141600 Hydro static end force on area inside of flange, π/4 B2 P
Ht 164162 Pressure force on flange face, H – Hd
hg 27.2 Radial distance from BCD to the circle on which load Hg act = (C − G)/2
hd 45.5 Radial distance from BCD to the circle on which load Hd act = (C – B – g1)/2
ht 40.1 Radial distance from BCD to the circle on which load Ht act = [(C – B)/2 + hg]/2
MO 160 KNm Total moment in operation = Mg + Md + Mt = Hg hg + Hd hd + Ht ht
Ma 105 KNm Total moment for gasket seating, W hg
Flange factors for integral or loose with hub
Xg 1.5 g1/go T 1.878 [K2{1 + 8.55LOG(K)} – 1]/[(1.05 +
1.94K2)(K – 1)]
hO 141.4 √(B*go) F 0.904 Figure 2.7.2 for integral, 2.7.4 for loose
of code
Xh 0.106 h/ho U 27.01 [K2{1 + 8.55LOG(K)} – 1]/[1.36(K2
– 1)(K – 1)]
K 1.0815 K = A/B V 0.468 Figure 2.7.3 for integral, 2.7.5 for loose
of code
Z 12.79 (K2 + 1)/(K2 – 1) d 8.16E5 U hO gO2/V
L 5.181 (t e + 1)/T + t3/d Y 24.66 [0.668 + 5.72K2 LOG(K)/(K2 – 1)]/(K – 1)
e 0.00639 F/ho in 1/mm f 1.824 Figure 2.7.6 of code for integral, 1 for
loose flange
Stresses induced
Operating Seating condition
Sh 124.9 82.44 Longitudinal hub = (f/L){MO, Ma}/(B g12), all = 1.5Sf
Sr 1.558 1.028 Radial flange = {MO, Ma}/(B t2) (1.33t e +1)/L, all = Sf
St 67.57 44.59 Tangential flange = {MO, Ma}/(B t2)Y – Z Sr, all = Sf
Sa 96.24 63.52 Average flange = [Sh + max(Sr, St)]/2, all = Sf
BS 163.3 137 Bolt stress = {Wm1, Wm2}/Ab, all = {Sb, Sa}
J 0.959 0.58 Flange.rigidity.index = 52.14V(MO, Ma)/[L(EO, Ea)gO2 k hO]
k = 0.3 for integral, 0.2 for loose
and rigidity check for the integral flange using the same data of example of Table 13.3
for the benefit of comparison. Except B, Hd, Ht, hd, ht, and Mo, for flange factors and
stresses, all data and calculations are the same. Using the integral flange instead of
loose flange, the thickness required for the flange is reduced from 190 to 150 mm.
Analysis of the loose flange with the hub is the same as the integral flange except
flange factors F, V, and f. The values of F and V increase, and that of f will reduce.
The effect of F will increase stresses and reduce rigidity, that of V reduces stresses
and increases rigidity, and that of f decreases stresses. Generally, the effect is nega-
tive as the hub to pipe joint is not integral. The constants F, V, and f can be read from
graphs in the code.
13.4.2 Full Faced Flange

Large raised face flanges with low pressures are normally subjected to higher seating
stresses than operating. The flat faced flange with the gasket within bolts is the same
as 13.4.1 as long as both flanges will not touch at end due to bolt tightening. However
with a full gasket, moment in the seating condition is negligible although bolt load is
higher due to a large contact surface. Therefore, full faced gaskets are used for large
flanges and low pressures with gaskets made of non-metallic material and with low
compressive strength. Analysis in the operating condition is the same as the example
in Table 13.3. Additionally, the gasket portion outside the bolt circle will exert bal-
ancing reaction Hr at a distance hr from Go, opposing Mo and is given by
Hr = M o /hr
where hr = (Go – C+ dh)/4 and dh is the bolt hole diameter

Operating bolt load WO will be higher by Hr and the bolt required area in the oper-
ating condition will go up. Therefore, apart from the above (WO and Ma), the analy-
sis is the same as that for loose and integral flanges given in Table 13.3 and 13.4.
13.4.3 Ring-type Joints
Ring-type joints are used for high pressures with soft iron or steel oval or octagon
ring gaskets (R type). Gaskets will have a low width and higher height. The grooves
in both mating flanges in which the ring gasket seats will be self-confining as required
for high pressures. The analysis is the same as the integral flange except m and y
values, which are much higher, m = 6.5 and y = 179 MPa.
13.4.4 Lap Flange
A lap flange is a flat plate circular ring welded to the companion flange at the outer
edge. Two loads are acting on it. First, (F1) force per unit circumference at its inner
edge due to pressure in the pipe and second, pressure load on the flange surface
(area of ring between OD and ID of flange) as shown in Figure 13.4. The calcula-
tion of moments and stresses is based on flat plate theory for the circular ring given
in 10.4.2.
Flanges 199
FIGURE 13.4 Lap flange.
Lap flanges are used for large sizes and low pressures to reduce the cost and flexibil-
ity of alignment and re-welding. The flange width shall be taken minimum as possible
(50-75mm) to reduce thickness. Weld throat shall be adequate to resist tensile load due
to pressure over area to radius Ro. Companion flange OD shall be more than Ro to
accommodate fillet weld. Both flanges can be welded inside if access is available.
13.4.5 Blind Flange
Blind flange analysis is the same as that for the loose flange except the central portion
is subjected to pressure the effect of which is added stress equation. The stresses are
derived below:
Seating condition: As moment Ma is at gasket reaction diameter G, section

modulus at G is πG t2/6, and tangential stress is given by

M a /z 6 / M a / (G t 2 ) 1.91 M a / G t 2 (13.2)
Operating condition: Apart from the above equation with Mo replacing Ma,
additional stress is induced due to the pressure acting on blind flange up to
diameter G. Tangential stress can be calculated from flat plate theory assum-
ing the boundary condition. However, the boundary is neither fixed nor SS,
and stress is approximately equal to
0.3P(G/t)2. Therefore, adding both tangential stresses is

1.91 M a / G t 2 0.33P(G /t )2

(13.3)
13.4.6 Rectangular Flange
Rectangular flanges are used normally for low pressures and slip on type similar to
the loose circular flange without a hub and with or without the raised face. Their
cross-section is the same as that of the circular flange. Normally, non-metallic
gaskets with low compressive strength (y value) are used. Analysis is based on flat
plate theory. The pressure effect (force) is in two directions, normal to flange face
and tangential.
13.4.6.1 Analysis in the Normal Direction

The pressure effect in normal to flange face is the same as the axial direction of cir-
cular flanges, and the same notation can be used replacing diameters with suffixes a
and b. These suffixes may be omitted for dimensions from inside to outside of the
flange as they are the same in four sides. Forces and other details are shown in
Figure 13.5. Furthermore, the following assumptions are made which are conserva-
tive and valid for large ducts.
• Gasket nominal width can be full face or any width up to bolt without raised
face or up to raised face. The max gasket width other than full face from B to
bolt gives a theoretical gasket reaction at a distance (C – d/2 – B)/2 from C.
Practically it is less, and the effective gasket width is very less depending on
the type of gasket. Ref. 4 prescribes 20mm as the effective width b and gasket
force considered as acts at distance hg from C, hg = fg(C – B)/4 omitting the
effect of bolt size, fg (≥1) is the geometrical correction factor depending on the
max gasket width for partial gaskets. For gaskets beyond the bolt circle (full
face), fg is not applicable and taken as one.
t Pc
E
(b)
Fbo,Fba
D
Fg Fp
Fg
R
A B
Fp
Mp + Mg
Fixed C
(c)
T
B Fba
A C go Ma
(a)
A B
C a3
Fixed
(d)
FIGURE 13.5 Rectangular flange.

Flanges 201
• The effect of pressure force is the same as that of the circular flange; however,
it can be considered as single force with pressure up to the bolt center and acts
at about the mean thickness of duct.
• Beam theory can be used because the flange width is very small compared to
the duct dimension.
• Stresses are the same in all ligaments so that analysis is limited to one ligament
or for one bolt provided the pitch is constant.
• Bolt size (d) is advised min 20 mm, and pitch shall be optimum for the quantity
of bolts and flange thickness.
The forces and moments in operating and seating conditions are derived below
with the above considerations.
Fp = pressure force = P Ca Cb acts at a distance [hp = fp(C – B + T)/2] from C

fp = 0.9 + (C – B)/2 – a3)/a is the geometrical correction factor and = 1 if the
gasket is beyond bolt circle (full face)
Fg = gasket force = y [Goa Gob – (Goa – 40)(Gob – 40] acts at [hg = fg(C – B)/8]
from C
Fbo = total bolt load operating = Fp + Fg
Fba = max bolt force in the seating condition = N Ao Sba acts at C for raised face
or gasket within bolt, not applicable for the full faced gasket
where
T = thickness of duct + gap between the flange and duct

N = number of bolts
Ao = net area of bolt
Sba = bolt allowed stress at ambient temperature
Considering the rectangular flange as a flat beam of width equal to pitch of bolts
in both operating and seating conditions, stress analysis is simple with insignificant
error.
Ma = Moment per pitch due to Fba = Fba a3/N

hg = fg(C – B)/8
Bending stress in the seating condition = Ma/Z
Min number of bolts required = Fbo/(Sbo Ao)
MP = moment per pitch due to Fp = Fp hP/N
fp = geometric correction factor = if{hP > 1.2e2, 0.9 + (hP – e2)/e2, 1}
Mg = moment per pitch due to Fg = Fg hg/N
fg = geometric correction factor = if{(C – B)/2 > a3, 0.9 + (C – B)/2 – a3)/a3, 1}
Bending stress in operating due to MP + Mg = (MP + Mg)/Z
where
e2 = (A – B + T/2)/4
a3 = (Go – B)/4
Z = (PC – D)t2/6 for operating and Pc t2/6 for seating
PC = pitch of bolts
D = diameter of bolt holes
Equations for geometric correction factors fP and fg are taken from Ref. 4.
Example 13.1: Calculate flange stresses for design data: pressure 0.1
MPa, temperature 250°C, rectangular duct 2000 × 1500 inside, 10
thick, SA-516 Gr.70, allowed stress 138 MPa in both conditions, 122 ×
M24 bolts SA-193 B7 allowed stress 172 MPa at both conditions, and
soft gasket with 20MPa compressive strength. Units are in mm and N.
Symbols as shown in Figure 13.5
• Bolt parameters R = 37, E = 27, and AO = 313 m2

• B = 2000, 1500, C = B + 2R = 2074, 1574, A = C + 2E = 2132, 1632, N
122, Pc = 60, a-bolt nominal dia = 24, gasket OD = G = C – a = 2050,
and T = duct thickness + gap =12
• Number of bolts required = 2(Ca + Cb)/ PC = 121.6
• Fp = P Ca Cb = 0.1*2074*1574 = 326448
• Fg = y[Ga Gb – (Ga – 40)(Gb – 40)] = 2848000
• Fb = Fp + Fg = 3174448
• a3 = (G – B)/4 = 12.5
• h = (C – B)/2 = 37
• If [h > a3, fg = 0.9 + (h – a3)/a3 = 2.86, (else fg = 1)
• hg = fg h/4 = 26.455
• Mg = Fg hg/N = 617572
• e2 = (A – B + T/2)/4 = 34.5
• If{h + T/2 > 1.2e2, fP = 0.9 +(h + T/2 – e2)/e2 = 1.146, (else fP = 1)
• hP = fp(h + T/2) = 49.3
• MP = FP hP/N = 131901
• Z = (PC – d) t2/6 = 5632
• σf = (Mg + MP)/Z = 133 < 138
• Fba = N Ao Sba = 92*313*172 = 53836
σS = Ma/ZS = Fba a3/(pC t2/6) = 672950/10240 = 65.7 < 138

Flanges 203
13.4.6.2 Analysis in the Tangential Direction

Pressure not only acts on the flange face, but the pressure force acting on the portion
of connecting duct partially transfers to the flange and depends on the arrangement
of duct with or without stiffeners. Refer section 10.5 for the calculation guidelines of
the above force. Each side of the flange with an effective width of duct can be con-
sidered as a fixed beam (T shaped) under the loading explained above.
13.4.7 Standard Flanges
A standard flange is predesigned, and several countries have their own standards for
flanges; however, the widely used one is the American Standard. ASME B16.5 pro-
vides all the required details for sizes up to NPS 24” and B16.47 for sizes from NPS
26–60”.
Flanges are classified by size and class. The class is number, and its value is
approximately equal to pressure in psi. The standardization (design) is based on all
the other related parts like gasket, bolts etc., and materials are used as given in the
standard.
The classes in B16.5 are: 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, and 1500 up to 24”; 2500 up to 12”.
The class is selected from rating tables for the material, pressure, and temperature
available in standard. Pressure, temperature, and class can be calculated by the fol-
lowing equations
For 150 class
Ceiling pressure = 21.41–0.03724T bar

Ceiling temp = (21.41–P)/0.0372°C
For 300 class and above

Class = 8750P/S,
where
S = stress at temperature in bar, P = pressure in bar, T = temperature °C

If 2500 class is not adequate, increase the bolt size or number of bolts.
The classes in B16.47 are 75, 150, 300, 400, 600, and 900 A & B series.
In A series, the bolt size is higher and OD of flange is more over B series, B series
are compact. Pressure, temperature, and class can be calculated using the following
equations
Class 75
Ceiling pressure = 160–0.15T

Ceiling temp °F = (21.41-P in psi)/0.03724
Class 150
Ceiling pressure = 320–0.3T

Ceiling temp °F = (21.41-P in psi)/0.03724
Class >150
Class = 8750 P/S
13.4.8 Other Flanges
Noncircular flange with a circular bore: The outside diameter A for a noncir-
cular flange with a circular bore shall be taken as the diameter of the largest
circle, concentric with the bore, inscribed entirely within the outside edges
of the flange. Bolt loads and moments, as well as stresses, are then calcu-
lated as per circular flanges, using a bolt circle drawn through the centers of
the outermost bolt holes. For external pressure the same as integral except
MO H d (hd hg ) H t (ht hg )
Reverse flange: Reverse flanges are reducing with a larger flange bolt circle
inside and less than outside diameter of the shell. They are used in special
applications and under external pressure. The analysis is covered in code.
High pressure flanges: These are used for very high pressures for equipments
such as feed water heaters, and pressure will give seating force.
REFERENCES
1 Code ASME S VIII D 1, 2019.
2 Process equipment design, L. E. Brownell & E. H. Young.
3 Formulas for stress and strain, Raymond J. Roark & Warren C. Young, 5th edition.
4 Heat Exchanger Institute standard.
14 Vibration
14.1 GENERAL
Vibration in pressure vessels is mainly in tubes, tube banks, rectangular enclosures to
tube banks, and rectangular ducts. These vibrations are flow induced, either inside
flow of fluids or outside. The vibration subject starts with natural frequency (fn).
Natural frequency of any element is the measure of its resistance to vibration and is
given by Eq. 14.1. Minimum natural frequency advised is about 2.5 to 3 to prevent
vibration.
g /y
fn
2π (14.1)
where
y = deflection of the element simply under its self-weight
g = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2 or 32 fps2
Depending on the arrangement of elements in relation to connecting elements in

equipment, other factors such as fluid will contribute to load as well as for damping.
For the purpose of analytical vibration analysis, elements are mainly two types
• Beam element
• Plate element
Others such as the three-dimensional element and whole equipment are compli-
cated to analyze analytically and require CFD (computational fluid dynamics).
Thus, element is a body or part of any equipment, which can be isolated from
rest of the equipment with well-defined boundaries whose fn can be calculated by
mathematical equations. Part of any piping system between two adjacent supports,
a tube of shell and tube exchanger between tube sheets, a stiffened flat plate or part
of it enclosed by stiffeners, or any part of equipment with clear boundary condi-
tions which can be isolated to arrive at its free body diagram are examples of
elements.
Types of vibrations are vortex shedding, buffeting, and acoustic. Fluid flowing
past any element induces frequency which coincides with natural frequency of any
mode, the amplitude multiplies, and the element vibrates.
205
14.2 DAMAGING EFFECTS OF VIBRATION

The structural effect of vibration is basically fatigue failure. Damaging effects are:
1. Vibration of element due to large amplitude has impact on tubes against each
other or the end tube with the vessel wall.
2. Wear of the tube and tube holes in baffles and tube sheets.
3. Vibrating element fails by fatigue.
4. Process performance is affected.
14.3 NATURAL FREQUENCY
The lowest frequency of an element is called fundamental or the 1st mode and
involves deflection of elements at its middle point. The 2nd mode frequency is
higher and involves deflection at two points and so on. For equipment with several
elements, the most flexible element will have lowest fn and is more prone to vibra-
tion. The 2nd mode frequency can be in the same element at other points or in other
elements. fn depends on deflection y which can be calculated from the loading dia-
gram. Apart from self-weight, other factors such as weight of fluid inside, weight
fluid displaced by element, and hydrodynamic mass contribute wherever applica-
ble. If the element is in tension, its effect is added to Eq. 14.1, by multiplying factor
(A). Outer tube bend fn is lower than inner. These effects and computation of fn of
some normal elements of pressure vessels are given in the following sections.
14.3.1 Tubes of the Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

The derivation of fn is based on structural basics and example 14.1 illustrates the
procedure.
Example 14.1: Calculate natural frequency given the following data:
p = Square pitch = 76.2 mm

d = Tube outside diameter = 50.8 mm
t = Tube thickness = 4 mm
di =Tube inside diameter = 42.8 mm
L = Tube length = 6 m
ρs = Shell side fluid (water) density = 800 kg/m³
ρt = Tube side fluid (gas) density = 0.56 kg/m³
ρ = Tube material density = 7850 kg/m³
F = 10000 kgf, tension in the tube due to the tube staying as the tube sheet
against deflecting under shell side pressure = (tube supporting cross-
sectional area x shell side pressure)
E = 19000 kgf/mm2
I = Moment of inertia of tube = 162106 mm4
Vibration 207
Computation of deflection (y) of tube in Eq. 14.1
Wt = Weight of the tube = 0.25 πdi2 ρ = 0.00461 kg/mm

Wi = Weight of fluid in the tube = 0.25 πdi2 ρt = 8.1E-7 kg/mm (neglected)
Wd = Weight of fluid displaced by tube/unit length = 0.25 πd2 ρs = 0.00162
kg/mm
Cm = 1.275 for P/d = 1.5, added mass coefficient depends on p/d and given
in table below (ref: TEMA)
P/d 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.25, 1.2
Staggered 1.28, 1.36, 1.53, 1.7, 1.97
In line 1.275, 1.51, 1.425, 1.51, 1.6
H = Hydrodynamic mass = Wd Cm = 0.00206, H increases the apparent
weight of the vibrating body due to displacement: 1) motion of the body,
2) proximity of the tubes within the bundle, and 3) relative location of
the shell wall
Wo = total effective weight per unit length = Wt + Wi + H = 0.00667 kg/mm
y = 5WoL4/(384EI) from beam formulas for simply supported = 37 mm
Fc = (k/L)2EI = 843.5 kg, where k depends on the boundary condition = 3.14
(π for SS, 4.49 for one end fixed & other SS, 2π for fixed refer TEMA).
Tube ends are assumed as simply supported
A = factor for effect of tube tension 1+ F /FC = 3.585, 1 if no tension
A g /y
fn = = 3.585/6.28*√(9810/37) = 9.34 cycles/sec
2π
Because natural frequency is more than three, the tube may not vibrate.
14.3.2 Tubes of the Tube Bank of Heat Exchanger

The derivation of fn is similar to example 14.1. Example 14.2 illustrates the procedure.
Example 14.2: Same data as example 14.1, except fluid in the tube
side is water and that in the shell side is gas, and no tension in tube.
The following values will change:
A = 1 as F = 0, because no tension
Wi = 0.25 πdi2 ρt = 0.00115 kg/mm
Wd = 0.25 πd2 ρs =1.13E-6 kg/mm
H = WdCm = 1.44E-6
Wo = Wt+Wi+H = 0.00461+0.00115 = 0.00576 kg/mm
y= 5WoL4/384EI = 5*0.00576*6000^4/(384*19000*162106) = 31.5 mm
fn = A√[g/y]/2π = 1/6.28*√(9810/31.5) = 2.81 cycles/sec
Since the natural frequency is less than three, the tube may be prone to vibration.
14.4 VIBRATION IN FLAT PLATES

The notation is the same as in example 14.1
Normally, inside of the plate is fluid (mostly gas) in pressure vessels; the other
side is open to atmosphere. Vibration may be due to inside fluid flow or outside wind
air or induced due to vibration of internal elements such as tube bundle or combina-
tion. For calculating y, only its self-weight (Wt) including stiffeners if provided is
effective. Wi is not applicable, H is negligible, and therefore Wo = Wt = ρ x t, where
t = thickness of the plate
Deflection y can be calculated as per applicable equation for load Wo derived from
plate theory (Chapter 10), and fn is calculated from Eq. 14.1 = g / y
2π
Normally, the rectangular duct or chamber or vessel which includes flat elements
is considered for vibration and for calculating fn. It is difficult to isolate or arrive at
the free body diagram of rectangular plate elements from such equipment to calcu-
late fn. CFD analysis is used for calculating fn.
14.5 TALL VESSELS LIKE CHIMNEYS

For instruments such as chimneys, fn can be calculated by arriving at equivalent
deflection y by the summation procedure.
y (m y2 ) /(m y)

where
m = weight of the element (segment)

yʹ = deflection at CG of each element due to m at CG
14.6 FLOW-INDUCED FREQUENCIES AND VIBRATION

Fluid dynamics and engineering standards specify normal working velocities of flu-
ids. The basis of which is economics of capital and operational costs. Pressure parts
generally have fn much above flow induced frequencies. Vibration problems are lim-
ited to low pressure parts or high fluid velocities for certain process requirement.
Constraints in providing more supports or restraints than required for pressure and
static design, and deviating from normal plant layout due to space, height, road
restrictions, etc. will result in abnormal flow and non-uniform velocities, which will
induce high frequencies and be prone to vibration. Flow-induced frequencies are the
following three types.
• Vortex frequency fv
• Buffeting frequency fb
• Acoustic frequency fa
When vortex or buffeting frequency coincides natural frequency of element, it will

vibrate. Practically, vibration will be felt when fV or fb is in the range from 0.8fn to
Vibration 209
1.2fn, peak at fn. When fv or fb crosses 1.2fn, vibration will not be felt until frequency
increases nearer to fn of second mode. Flow-induced vibration in tubes will cause
vibration in enclosed casing if its natural frequency is close. Computation of flow-
induced frequencies for tubes of the tube bundle is given in the following sections.
14.6.1 Vortex Frequency
Vortex shedding is a phenomenon, when the fluid flows across a structural member
such as tube, vortices are shed alternately from one side to the other, as alternating
low-pressure zones are generated on the downstream of the structure, giving rise to a
fluctuating force acting at right angles to the flow direction. The Strouhal Number (S)
is a measure of the ratio of the inertial forces due to the unsteadiness of the flow or
local acceleration to the inertial forces due to changes in velocity from one point to
another in the flow field. S depends on the pattern of tubes (inline or staggered or
otherwise) and cross or longitudinal pitch. S for tubes in tube bank can be read from
Table 14.1 (ref: TEMA). Vortices are formed when fluid flows in any conduit when-
ever gross discontinuities are encountered in its flow path. If the induced frequency
is close to the fn of the conduit wall local to vortices, the wall vibrates. The elements
of such conduits shall be stiffened, and the parts transferring the load to the support
shall be stiff enough to obtain large fn. Furthermore, discontinuities shall be mini-
mized using the following precautions:
1. Increase or decrease of the cross section where required shall be gradual and
divergence or convergence shall not be more than 30°. If it is not possible, either
velocity shall be minimum level or guide vanes shall be provided. Guide vanes
if provided shall not obstruct flow and shall have fn not less than that of conduit.
TABLE 14.1
Strouhal’s Number
Xt xl Inline Staggered
1.3 1.25 0.42 0.4
1.5 0.25 *
2 0.15 0.21
2.5 0.12 0.15
3 0.05 0.1
1.5 1.25 0.46 0.6
1.5 0.3 *
2 0.2 0.42
2.5 0.15 0.3
3 0.09 0.16
2 1.25 * 0.8
2 0.27 0.64
2.5 0.19 0.5
3 0.14 0.29
2.5 2.5 0.23 0.45
3 0.16 0.3
3 3 0.18 2.8
2. When direction flow takes turn, provide the bend radius at least inner side.
3. Provide minimum straight length of 2.5 times the tube diameter at entrance
and exit of fluid flowing across tube bundle.
4. Limit turbulence velocity of flow of gases at NTP to 300 kg/m.s2 (ρ V2)
Vortex frequency is calculated using the equation
fV = S V / d
where
V = velocity of fluid
d = outside diameter of the tube
S = Strouhal’s number (Table 14.1)
14.6.2 Buffeting Frequency
A random turbulence can excite tubes into vibration at their natural frequency by
selectively extracting energy from a highly turbulent flow of fluid across the bundle.
Turbulent buffeting is a low-amplitude vibration response of the tube bundle below a
certain critical velocity of fluid. Its frequency in the tube bank is given by the equa-
tion (ref: TEMA).
fb V / (d xL xt )[3.05(1 1/xt )2 0.28]
where
pL and pt are longitudinal and transverse pitch of tube bundle arrangement
xL = pL/d and xt = pt/d.
14.6.3 Acoustic Frequency
Notation as per example 14.1
Acoustic resonance is due to gas column oscillation and is created by phase vortex
shedding vibration. Acoustic frequency fa can be calculated using the equation (ref:
V 12.3 of TEMA)

fa (K/w) n Tg
where
n = mode number
Tg = temperature of fluid in °K
K = 10.04 if w is the width of the duct in m, 32 if w is in feet
Vibration 211
Acoustic resonance is possible under the following four conditions (ref: TEMA)
1. 0.8 (fv or fb) < fa < 1.2(fv or fb)

2. V > fa d(xL − 0.5)/6
3. V > fa d/S
4. Re/(S xt)(1 − 1/xo)2 > 2000, xo = xL for 90°, 2xL for 30, 45, 60 tube patterns
The audible range is 500–2500 Hz, 0.1–120 dB, sounds above 90 dB are damag-
ing and dangerous above 120 dB. The energy (E) equivalent of 120 dB is 1 W/m² and
for any other dB
E(dB) = 10 k
where
k = (dB–120)/10
E at 80 dB = 10^[(80−120)/10] = 10E-4 W/m²
REFERENCE
TEMA: Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Assn. standard.
15 Expansion Joints
Notation UOS: P: pressure, E: elastic modulus, v: Poisson’ ratio, S: allowed stress,

M: moment, Z: section modulus.
The function of expansion joints is to provide flexibility for thermal expansion,
and the expansion joints are also able to function as a pressure-containing element.
In all vessels with integral expansion joints, the hydrostatic end force caused by pres-
sure (pressure thrust) and/or the joint spring force shall be resisted by adequate
restraint elements (e.g., exchanger tubes, external restraints, anchors, etc.). For large
ducts and significant pressure, thrust is considerable and tie rods are provided in case
supports either side of expansion joint cannot take the pressure thrust. Care should be
taken to ensure that any torsion loads applied to expansion joints are kept to a mini-
mum to prevent high shear stresses due to the lower thickness of bellows.
15.1 TYPES OF EXPANSION JOINTS: CIRCULAR OR RECTANGULAR

AND NON-METALLIC OR METALLIC
a. Non-metallic fabric type: it consists of thick fabric connecting both parts and a
bolster ring inside to reduce temperature, prevent fluid to pass through, and
drop pressure so that the pressure between bolster and fabric is almost atmo-
spheric. Fabric will stop fluid leak if any entered through bolster. It absorbs a
considerable amount and all types of expansion movements. Limitations are
pressure and temperature due to its construction and material. Figure 15.1
shows the joint (compensator) construction details, parts, etc. of plain and with
refractory. Plain is used for low temperatures up to about 400°C, and refractory
and/or insulating bricks are used for higher temperatures.
b. Metallic joints (bellows): For the required main function of absorbing move-
ment, a bellow shall consist of maximum lateral projection outside the conduit
and shall be made of thin plates. At the same time, straight lateral projection
and thickness shall be optimum to resist pressure load. Types of bellows can be
to designers imagination, knowing basics of their function and stress and
fatigue analysis. The following types are normally used.
1. Unreinforced and reinforced Bellows: Unreinforced is preferable for sim-
plicity. However to resist pressure together with movement, reinforcement
bellows are used.
2. Flat, U-shaped, and toroidal shaped: U-shaped is common and flat is used
in rectangular and low pressures for simple manufacturing. Toroidal
requires less thickness and is used for higher pressure and connected to the
shell either from inside or outside and requires a reinforcing collar for more
than one convolution as shown in Figure 15.2.
213
FIGURE 15.1 Non-metallic expansion joint.
FIGURE 15.2 Flat and U-type bellows.
3. Rectangle and circular: Normally, it has the same shape as the conduit. A
square can be used for a circular conduit for low pressure.
4. Single or multiple convolutions: Single is advisable, if not possible to meet
required movements multiple is used.
5. Single or multiple plies: Multiple plies of total thickness of single ply give
the same membrane stress, not favorable to bending stress and stabilities
Expansion Joints 215
but give more flexibility (capacity of movements). They are used where
inner ply of stainless steel for corrosion resistance is the requirement and
for large movements with low pressure. Due to complexity of making, they
are not used normally.
15.2 UNREINFORCED BELLOWS
The following types of convolutions are normally used.
1. Flat rectangular
2. U-type rectangular
3. Flat circular
4. U-type circular
5. Toroidal (torus)
V-shaped convolutions can be used but normally the half angle shall be limited to
15° to avoid compressive stress due to movement forces in length BC. Construction
of flat and U-type bellows is shown in Figure 15.2.
Convolution of each type is divided into convenient elements for the purpose of
analysis. The element types are plate or beam, shell, curved, and torus.
The following stresses are induced due to pressure and deflection (expansion or
contraction) loads, and analysis involves stability, axial stiffness, and fatigue life of
bellows.
1. Circumferential membrane stress in convolution due to pressure

2. Longitudinal bending stresses in convolution due to pressure in rectangular
bellows (for single convolution, the conduit offers resistance and generally,
analysis is not required)
3. Meridian membrane and/or bending stresses due to pressure
4. Expansion stresses due to deflection loads and fatigue life
5. Circumferential membrane stress in tangent and collar if provided due to
pressure
6. Column and in plane stability in multiple convolutions
Notation, see also Table 15.1 and example 15.1 and Figure 15.3
q = convolution pitch 4R, (if i/s and o/s are not the same, difference shall be
≤10%)
t = convolution thickness, multiply with n if multiple plies are used
N = number of convolutions, N q ≤ 3Db
w = convolution width = b + 2Rm ≤ Db/3 for validity of instability equations Psi
and Psc
Rm = mean bend radius of U-type convolution
A = cross-sectional area of convolution = developed length of convolution x t
Dm = bellow mean diameter for circular = Db + w + n t
q
R D
t
w
b w
a
D
e N e
ENLARGED VIEW YY RECTANGULAR
w
t t
r
D
L
e
CIRCULAR OR
TOROIDAL TOROIDAL COLLAR & TANGENT
FIGURE 15.3 Stresses and deformations in bellows.
L = mean dimension = (a + w + t) or (b + w + t) for rectangle, a and b are inside

dimensions of rectangular bellow, and L and s are suffixes for large and
small sides
Db = bellow ID, pipe ID if butt welded, OD if lap welded outside
r = mean radius of toroidal bellow
n = number of plies, n t ≤ 5mm for validity of stability equations. Avoid dis-
similar materials(CS+SS) if temperature ≤ 425°C due to differential
expansion.
15.2.1 Circumferential Membrane Stress in Convolution (σc) due to

Pressure
Since the convolution cross-section is not uniform, the convolution length or pitch
(q) is considered for compiling this stress. By static equilibrium, stress is the pressure
effect on the loaded area (AL) divided by resisting area (Ar) over length equal to
pitch. That is, σc= P AL/Ar, where Ar = 2A for all types except toroidal. For end con-
volution, Ar and AL shall include tangent and collar if provided. For rectangular com-
ponents, it is simply membrane stress (circ or long is not relevant) and termed σ7 in
Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association (EJMA). Single convolution cannot be
isolated, and the conduits either side resist the pressure. For circular bellows, σc may
not be same for end and intermediate convolutions and are to be calculated sepa-
rately. For rectangular bellows, tangent is fully supported and N = 1, σ7 = 0
1. Flat and U-type rectangular: AL = q L = q [(a or b) + w + t]

2. Flat and U-type circular: AL = q Dm, A = 2(π Rm+ b)t
3. Toroidal: σc = P r/(2t), since stress is the same as longitudinal stress of the
cylinder with radius r.
15.2.2 Longitudinal Bending Stress (σ8) due to Pressure in Rectangular

Bellows (N >1)
Moment is induced in each of the four straight convolutions 1234 as shown in
Figure 15.3 considering similar to the rectangular plate in both directions (refer sec-
tion 10.3). In one direction, consider as a fixed beam with (1-4 or 2-3 or N q) as the
span and unit width, other N q × L rectangular (1234) beam of width N q and span L.
The stress equations are derived with beam formulas and given by Eq. 15.1 and 15.2.
2
P ( N q )2 6 P  N q  (15.1)
σ8 b = M / Z = =
12 t 2 2  t 
FL
σ8 a = = ( P L N q)L /12 ) / (2 I /w) = P N q L2 w /(24 I ) (15.2)
12 Z
where I = moment of inertia can be computed for the plain bellow by dividing into
three-rectangular elements and by integration for U-shaped as explained in 3.1.9.
EJMA gives the equation for the U-type bellow as
I = N t (2w − q)3 / 48 + 0.4q t (w − 0.2q)2  (15.3)

For tangent fully supported and N = 1, σ8a = σ8b = 0
In equation, σ8b tangent length either side is to be added to N q if provided.
Allowed stress and applicable stress (σ8a or σ8b) depend on the shape factor and tan-
gent and ≥1.5S and = S in the creep range.
The shape factor (KS) for the cross-section is taken from EJMA for U-shaped and
given by Eq. 15.4
{
 t (w − 2 R)0.25 4(w − 2 R)2 + (q − 4 R)2
K S = 0.5N w  }  /I (15.4)
 + πR t (w − 0.7268 R) 

Applicable stress σ8 = σ8a if it is ≤1.33KS S else σ8 = σ8b
Allowed combined membrane and bending stress is given by
σ7 + σ8 ≤ 1.33K sS, if σ8a = ≤ 1.33K sS, else = σ8 ≤ CaS.

In creep range σ7 + σ8 /1.25 ≤ S
where Ca = 2 if tangent is fully supported against pressure, else 1.5.
15.2.3 Meridian Membrane and Bending Stresses due to Pressure

1. Flat rectangular: the applicable element is BC/DE, it is a flat rectangular plate
of size w × Dm or plate simply supported beam with span BC (if Dm > 5w) and
stress is given by
( )
σ9 = M /Z = ( P w 2 /8) / t 2 / 6 = 0.75P(w /t )2
2. U-type rectangular: the applicable element is AB+BC+CO, where AB and CO

are curved, bending stress can be derived from flat and curved beam theory and
σ9 = k P (w/t)2 where k = constant. EJMA gives the equation for k = (0.5
– 0.65R/w).
3. Flat circular: the applicable element is BC being flat circular rings and can be
derived by flat plate theory and moment M = k P w2 (k = 0.0247 as per 10.4.1 for
both edges fixed) and stress which is approximately the same as the code1 equation

σ4 =
M
Z
( )
= 0.0247 P w 2 / t 2 / 6 = 0.1482(w /t )2
4. U-type circular: the applicable element is AB+BC+CO. AB and CO are quar-

ters of torus. The stress equation is equal to k P(w/t)2, where k for BC or DE
being flat circular rings can be derived by flat plate theory but AB and CO
being torus, the analytical equation is complicated. Code equation σ4 = Cp
P(w/t)2/2 may be used, where Cp is the coefficient depending on Dm, R, w, and
t and can be read from Figure 26.4 of code. Membrane stress σ3 = P w/2t
5. Toroidal: Meridianal membrane stress is the same as circumferential mem-
brane stress and can be calculated with Eq. 5.3. The code1 gives approximately
the same equation (P r/2t) and is given below and r shall be ≥3t
P r Dm − r
σ3 =
t Dm − 2r
Considering torus convolution as the membrane shell, bending stress is negligible.
15.2.4 Expansion Stress, Fatigue Life, and Spring Rate

Expansion stresses (σe) due to equivalent axial movement (e) are similar to meridian
stresses due to pressure. The elements stressed are the same in both loads. However
if the thickness of the bellow is increased, stresses due to pressure reduce but that due
to deflection stresses increases. Axial expansion or contraction e is evaluated as per
15.4. Stresses due to deflection can go in the plastic region. As these are self-limiting
and as long as the max stress is within ultimate tensile strength (UTS), the bellow
will not fail but fail only after reaching its fatigue life cycles.
1. Flat rectangular: the applicable element is BC and can be considered as a

guided cantilever. Bending stress σ10 = 3E t e/w2 (refer Eq. 9.4)
2. U-type rectangular: applicable elements are AB+BC+CO. Since AB and CO
are curved, k in bending stress equation σ10 = k E t e/w2 is based on curved
beam theory and complicated. The EJMA equation for k = 5/[3(1 + 3R/w)]
may be used. The stresses σ9 and σ10 are factors in fatigue and its life in the
number of cycles is calculated depending upon stress intensity (σt) which is =
σ9 + σ10 and other factors. Fatigue life is normally given by the manufacturer
by the equation N = [c/(σt – b)]a giving the constant values a, b, and c.
The theoretical elastic spring rate is given in EJMA for Ls/w >10
K b = E n t 3 ( LL + Ls ) /[w3 (1 + 3.4 R /w)] (15.5)

For Ls/w >10, Kb is obtained by testing. Suffixes L and s are for longer and
smaller sides of bellows.
3. Flat circular: the applicable element is BC being a flat circular ring, max
moment at inner point B and stress σe can be calculated considering C fixed
and B guided by the following equations from (case 1f, of Table 24 of Ref. 3)
(
w = ( yb D)/ k yb a 3 )
(
M b = kmb w a = (kmb / K yb ) yb D /a 2 )
σe = 6 M b /t 2 = 6 yb D (kmb /K yb ) /(a t )2
where yb = e, a = Ra = (L + w)/2, and Kmb and Kyb are constants given in the
above reference for the ratio of radius at B and C.
4. U-type circular: the applicable element is AB + BC + CO. Code equations for
membrane (σ5) and bending (σ6) are
E t 2p e 5E t 2p e
σ5 = , and σ 6 =
2w3C f 3w 2Cd
where Cf and Cd are coefficients depending on Dm, R, w, and tp (tp is defined in
example 15.1) and can be read from Figure 26.5 and 6 of the code against C1 =
2R/w and C2 = 1.82 R / Dm t p .
Allowed no of fatigue cycles
2
N = if k f < 448 MPa,  46200/(k f − 211)  , else [35850(k f − 264)]2 (15.5)

In customary units = if kf < 65000 psi, [6.7E6/(kf – 30600)]2, else [5.2E6 (kf –
38300)]2 where
Total stress range σt = 0.7(σ3+σ4)+ σ5 + σ6
Stress factor kf = σt Ea/Et where Ea and Et are at ambient and temperature
3
π n Dm E  t 
Spring constant K b = (15.6)
2(1 − v 2 ) N C f  w 

5. Toroidal: The code gives the following equations for membrane σ5 and bending
σ6 stresses in convolution
σ5 = E t 2p B1e /(34.3r 3 )
σ6 = E t p B2e /(5.72r 2 )
Fatigue life equation is the same as for the U-type circular bellow except σt =
3σ3 + σ5+ σ6
Axial stiffness K b = n E Dm B3 (t /r )3 /[12(1 − v 2 ) N ]
where
B1 = 1.00404 + 0.028725C3 + 0.18961c32 – 5.826e-5C33/[1 + 0.14069C3
– 5.2319e-3c32 – 2.9867e-5c33 – 6.2088e-6C34]
B2 = 1 if C3 ≤ 5, 0.049198-0.77774c3 – 0.13013c32 + .080371c33/[1 –
2.81257c3 + 0.63815c32 + 6.405e-5c33]
C3 = 3Dm/[N(N q + x)y]
x, y are axial and lateral displacements.
B3 = 0.99916 – 0.091665c3 + 0.040635c32 – 3.8483c33 + 1.33692c34/
[1 – 0.1527c3 + 0.013446c32 – 6.2424e-5c33 + 1.4374e-5c34]
15.2.5 Tangent and Collar

Tangent is a straight portion of bellow connected to conduit, while collar is a rein-
forcement pad over tangent as shown in Figure 15.2. Normally tangent (bellow)
thickness is less than that of the conduit and needs to be checked for max stress due
to pressure. Collar can be welded over tangent to resist the pressure if tangent alone
is not sufficient. If the thickness of bellow tangent (same as bellow) is adequate to
withstand pressure or strengthened by collar, it can be butt welded to conduit.
Alternately, it can be attached to the shell by lap welding inside or outside overlap-
ping full tangent length. The U-type bellow can be directly welded to the shell with-
out tangent. The calculations of circumferential stress in tangent and collar are as per
membrane theory or by static equilibrium as computed in 4.3 and 4.4. If the E is not
the same for their material, correction can be added as their ratio of E. also correction
is added for difference in their diameter. The corrected equation is given in example
15.1 for the U-shaped circular bellow.
FIGURE 15.4 Bellow instability.
15.2.6 Instability due to Pressure

Column instability (squirm Figure 15.4a) is similar to column in buckling which is
affected only when the bellow is compressed. In plane instability (Figure 15.4b) is
shift or rotation of plane of one or more convolutions such that their plane is no lon-
ger perpendicular to the axis of the undeformed bellow. It is similar to local compres-
sion flange buckling of I-beam in bending, and induced only in the unreinforced
bellow. The equation for allowed pressure to resist instability is used from the code.
Example 15.1 illustrates the detailed calculation of the above instabilities of the
U-shaped circular bellow.
Example 15.1: Calculate stresses in the circular U-type unreinforced

bellow for data:
P = 0.01962 MPa, design temperature = 175°, units N, mm, MPa

Bellow material annealed = SA-240 321, S = basic allowed stress at ambi-
ent temp = 138, at temp = 110, SY = yield stress at temp = 165, EO ambi-
ent = 199000, Ez temp = 184278, v=0.3
Dimensions in mm: b = 200, n = 1, t = 4, R = 50, Db = 1992, q = 200, N =
1, Lt = tangent length = 145, tC = collar thick = 0, LC = collar width = 0
W = b+2R = 300, Dm = Db + w + n t = 2296
tp = reduced thickness after thinning correction = t Db /Dm = 3.726
A = X area of one bellow convolution = (2πRm + 2b)n tp
= [(π − 2)q/2 + 2w]n tp = 2661
k = factor for effect of end convolution on collar or tangent
= Lt / 1.5 Db t  ≤ 1 = 1
 
DC = mean dia of collar = Db+2n t + tC = not applicable
Values of constants Cp, Cf, and Cd from graphs for values of C1 and C2
C1 = 2Rm/w = 0.333, (≤ 1)
1.82Rm
C2 = 0.984 (0 to 4)
Dmt p
Cp =0.546, Cf = 1.176, Cd = 1.547
Stresses due to pressure, allowed membrane stress = S
σct = End tangent circumferential membrane stress
= P(Db + n t)² Lt Eb k/[2{n t DbLt(Db + n t) + tC k EC LC DC}] = 5.47
σcc = Collar circ membrane stress
{ }
= PDC2 Lt Ec k /  2 nt Eb Lt (Db + nt ) + tC k EC LC DC  no collar
 
σce = End tangent circumferential membrane stress
= P(Db + n t) ² Lt Eb k/[2{n t Eb Lt(Db + n t) + tC k EC LC DC}] = 2.5
σci = Intermediate convolution circumferential membrane stress
= P Dm q/(2A) =1.86
σ3 = Meridian membrane stress = P w/(2n tp) = 0.883
σ4 = Meridian bending stress = (w/tp)² Cp P/(2n) = 38.8
Km = Factor (1.5-3 for SS, 1.5 for CS) for formed, 1.5 for annealed below
= 1.5
σ34 = Meridian membrane + bending stress σ3 + σ4 = 40.66 ≤ km S (165)
Calculation of column and in plane instabilities and spring constant

Kb = Spring rate/convolution = Eq. 15.7 = 1189
PSC = Resisting pressure to column instability = PSC = 0.34π kb/(N q) = 6.35 > P
ρ = σ4/(3 σci) = 6.842
α = 1 + 2δ2 + √(1 – 2δ2 + 4δ4) = 187.752
SY = (2.3-formed, 0.75-annealed)SY, SY =165 yield strength at temperature =
0.75*165 = 124
SY
PSi = Resisting pressure to in plane instability = ( π − 2) A = 0.06 > P
Dm q α
Calculation of stresses due to movements and number of cycles allowed

e = Total equivalent axial displacement per convolution (calculated as per 15.4)
for axial 10mm, lateral 0.75 mm, and angular 0.005 radians = 40 mm
σ5 = Meridian membrane stress due to e = Eb t p2e /( 2w 3Cf ), (Cf = 1.176) = 1.6
σ6 = Meridian bending stress due to e = 5Eb tp e/(3w² Cd), (Cd = 1.547) = 331.7
σt = Total stress range due to cyclic displacement, = 0.7(σ3 + σ4) + σ5 + σ6 =
358
Kf = Factor = σt EO/Eb = 379
Na = Allowed no of fatigue cycles, kf =379<448MPa, Na = [46200/(kf-211)]²
= 75390
Table 15.1 gives Illustrative example for analysis of rectangular U-type bellow.
Table 15.1
Stresses in the unstiffened U-type rectangular bellow
Data: units: N, mm, MPa; P = 0.05, temp. = 175°, mat. SS, b = 100, R = 25, S = 110, E at 175 =
184278, E at ambient = 199000, b = 100, R = 25, q = 100, N = 2, w = b + 2R = 150, t = 2, Ca = 2
Bellow tangent length (if tangent is fully supported against pressure Lt mm 50

Lt=0)
Moment of inertia = N[t(2w – q)3/48 + 0.4q t(w – 0.2q)2] I mm4 2714417
Cross-sectional area of one convolution = 2(π R + b)t A mm2 714.2
Allowed stress Ca S required in σ8 MPa 220
Shape factor for X section = Eq. 15.4 KS 1.6969
Allowed stress 1.33KS S required in σ8 MPa 248.26
Larger Smaller
Bellow inside, a > b 2500 a or b mm 2000
Bellow thickness, multiply t with number of plies if n >1 2 t mm 2
Bellow mean side = (a or b) + w + n t = L or Dm, n = 1 2652 L mm 2152
Pressure stresses
Membrane stress = P L q/2A, 0 if N = 1, shall be ≤S 9.28 σc MPa 7.53
Bending stress = P N L2 q w/(24 I) or (0 for N = 1), (Eq. 15.2) 161.94 σ8a MPa 106.63
Bending stress = P(N q + 2Lt)2/(2 t2) or (0 for N = 1) 562.5 σ8b MPa 562.5
if σ8a ≤ 1.33Ks S, σ8 = σ8a; else σ8 = σ8b 161.94 σ8 MPa 106.63
if σ8a ≤ 1.33Ks S, σc + σ8 ≤ 1.33Ks S else σ8 ≤ Ca S 571.78 σc + σ8 MPa 570.03
in creep range σc + σ8 / 1.25 ≤ S 138.83 σc MPa 92.84
Meridian Bending Stress in AB + BC + CO 110.16 σ9 MPa 110.16
= P(w/t)2(0.5 – 0.65R/w) ≤ 1.5S, in creep range ≤ 1.25S
Bending stress in tangent = 0.938P(Lt/t')2 ≤ 1.5S; 29.313 σ11 MPa 29.313
in creep range ≤ 1.25S, t' = tangent thick = t
Total equivalent axial displacement per convolution e mm 40.5
(calculated as per 15.4) for axial 10 mm, lateral 1 mm
and angular 0.001 radians in both large and small sides
Meridian bending stress due to e = k E t e/w2, k = 5/[3(1 + 3R/w)] σ10 MPa 737.39
Theoretical elastic spring rate = Eq. 15.5 Kb N/mm 1339.4
15.3 REINFORCED BELLOWS
For medium and high pressures, optimum thickness may not be sufficient for unrein-
forced bellows. Increasing thickness will reduce expansion capacity and fatigue life.
Reinforcing the bellow will overcome above as well as the thickness can be reduced.
Reinforcing is performed by rings or equalizing rings. Rings will resist circumferen-
tial bending stress but not meridian. Equalizing ring will resist both. Figure 15.5
shows the reinforced bellow.
Notations: same as for the unreinforced bellow as in example 15.1 and Figure 15.5
plus the following
suffixes: r: reinforcing ring, f: fastener, b: bellow

Cr = 0.3 − [100/{(P/k)1.5 + 320}]2 constant required in equations for meridi-
anal membrane and bending stresses.
FIGURE 15.5 Reinforced bellow
k= 1.41psi if P is in psi or 0.0097 MPa if P is in MPa.

A = Cross-sectional area
Lf = effective length of one reinforcing fastener as shown in the figure
Circumferential membrane stress σc: due to reinforcement, resistance in end and

middle convolutions is the same. The loaded area is (q Dm) the same as in 15.2.1, and
resisting area Ar is twice of A of bellow plus that of reinforcing elements (ring and
fastener). If the E is not the same for bellow and reinforcing elements, the effective
area is the actual area multiplied by their E ratio. If the ring with a fastener is used,
the fastener area is further multiplied by Dm/Lf, and the following equations can be
evaluated.
Ar for σC in the bellow = 2A + 2Ar Er/E +2Af Ef Dm/(E Lf)

Ar for σC in the ring = 2Ar + 2A E/Er
Ar for σC in the fastener = 2Af + 2A E/Er +2A E Lf/(Dm Ef)
The code gives other analyses, and extracts are given below. Allowed stresses are
the same as for unreinforced bellows.
1. Meridian membrane stress σ3: due to reinforcement, the convolution height

factor (Cr) is added in equation and depends on pressure
σ3 = 0.85[w − 4Cr rm P]/(2n tp)
2. Meridian bending stress σ4: σ4 = 0.85[(w − 4Cr rm )2 C p P ]/(2n t 2p ); allowed
stress for σ3+ σ4 is the same as in example 15.1
q
3. Circumferential membrane stress in the reinforcing ring: PDm
[2 Ar ( R1 + 1)]
q
4. Membrane stress in the fastener: PDm
[2 A f ( R2 + 1)]
5. Instability: allowed internal pressure to avoid column instability

= 0.3πKb/(N q), and not subjected to in-plane instability.
6. Displacement stresses: Meridianal stresses, membrane σ5, and bending σ6 in
convolution are given by
σ5 = Ebt pe / 2(w − 4Cr Rm )3 C f 

σ6 = 5Ebt 2p e /[3(w − 4Cr Rm )2 Cd ]
1. Stress range = 0.7(σ3 + σ4 + σ5 + σ6)

2. Fatigue life: allowed no of fatigue cycles = if kf < 567 MPa, [58605/(kf –
267.5)]2, [45505(kf – 334)]2 if kf < 82200 psi, [8.5E6/(kf – 38800)]2, [6.6E6(kf
– 48500)]2
3. Axial stiffness: Kb = πnEbDm {tp/(w − 4CrRm)}3/[2Cf(1 − v2)N]
15.4 MOVEMENTS
Expansion movements are three types: axial, lateral, and angular and given below for
circular bellows as shown in Figure 15.6. The figure shows mostly straight mean
lines for clarity ignoring local deformations and 90° at all corners. Movements can
be applied to rectangular bellows as well as U-type bellows.
w
~R
α
Dm
q
AXIS
w
AXIS
α
q e
R
q
~R
~R
(a) AXIAL
w
(b) ROTATIONAL (c) LATERAL
FIGURE 15.6 Bellow movements

15.4.1 Axial
When the ends of the bellows are subjected to an axial displacement x (Figure 15.5a),
inner periphery of lateral part deflects. The equivalent axial displacement per convo-
lution is given by
e x = x /N
where
x = positive for extension (x > 0) = negative for compression (x < 0). The corre-
sponding axial force FX applied to the ends of the bellows is given by
Fx = K b x
where
Kb = elastic spring rate of the bellow
15.4.2 Angular Rotation
When the ends of the bellows are subjected to an angular rotation (θ) in radians with
radius of curvature (R) as shown in Figure 15.5b, outer convolutions will extend and
inner compress. The equivalent axial displacement per convolution (eθ) is derived as
follows:
Angle between consecutive convolution α = θ/N
Pitch of convolution q at axis remains the same (R α) but increases at mean outer
convolution to (R + Dm/2)α. Reverse is at inner convolutions. The difference is the
average displacement of one convolution at mean bellow diameter Dm is equal to
(R + Dm /2)α − Rα = (α Dm /2)
Maximum displacement at bottom is twice that at mean and that of each side is half
of maximum. Thus, eθ is given by
eθ = Dm θ /(2 N ) (15.7)

The corresponding moment Mθ induced to the ends of the bellows is given by
M θ = K b Dm2 θ /8
Example 15.2: θ =10° = 0.1744, Dm = 1000 mm, N = 2, q = 200 mm,

α = 5° = 0.0872, R = 200/0.087 = 2292 mm, eθ = 1000*0.1744/4 =
43.6 mm.
15.4.3 Lateral Displacement
When the ends of the bellows are subjected to a lateral displacement y, half convolu-
tions rotate in one direction and other half in reverse direction so as to bring the axis
parallel to the undeflected axis as shown in Figure 15.5c. It is similar to the guided
cantilever shown in Figure 9.1 and induces lateral force FY and moment MY. By
geometry, the angle of rotation (α) of half bellow under extension or compression is
given by Eq. 15.8
(1- cos α)/sin α = (y/2)/(N q/2) = y/(N q) (15.8)

Similar to Eq. 15.7
e y = (Dm /2) α /(N/2) = Dm α /N (15.9)

The code gives the following equation which is approximately equal to Eq. 15.10
3Dm y
ey = (15.10)
N ( N q + x)

The corresponding lateral force FY and My at the ends of the bellows are given by
3K b Dm2 y
Fy =
2( N q + x )2
3K b Dm2 y
My =
2( N q + x )2
Example 15.3: y = 70 mm, Dm = 1000 mm, N = 4, q = 200 mm, α =

10° = 0.1744, R = 200/0.087 = 2292 mm, ey = 1000*0.1744/4 = 43.6 mm
by Eq. 15.9
Code equation (Eq. 15.10), ey = 3*1000*70/(4^2*200) = 65.6 mm.
15.4.4 Total Equivalent Axial Displacement Range per Convolution

Equivalent axial displacement per convolution in extension (e) and compression (c)
side for circular bellow are given by
e = ex + ey + eθ
c = ex − ey − eθ
The above equations are applicable for the rectangular bellow except the Dm replaced
by L (equivalent Dm) for calculating e or c.
Example 15.4: Calculate equivalent axial displacement e for the

rectangular bellow with size (L = 2653 × 2152 mm) for movements x =
10 mm, y = 1 mm, θ = 0.001, q = 100 mm, and N = 2 (θ and ey in both
sides)
e x = x/N = 5, e y = 3L y/[N(N q + x)] = 19 & 15.4, e θ = θ L/(2N) = 0.663 & 0.538

e maax[eyl + eθl + eys + eθs ± ex] = (19 + 15.4 + 0.663 + 0.538) ± 5 = 40.5 mm.
15.4.5 Cold Pull
Cold pull is intentionally provided in compressed or extended position opposite to the
actual movement to allow higher total movement for given convolution geometry. If
the actual movement is compression c, the bellow is installed by stretching c/2, thus
moves from +c/2 to –c/2. The bellow will operate between equal and opposite stresses
if in the elastic range. In the plastic range, it yields in either position and will operate
between opposite stresses but may not be equal. In either case or cold pull is applied
or not, the stress range between idle and operating conditions remains the same.
15.5 FACTOR INFLUENCE ON DESIGN

1. To increase fatigue life, select a material within the creep range and in the
annealed condition. If C&LAS material temperature is in the creep range, it is
advised to use stainless steel.
2. Toroidal shape is better for pressure but reverse for deflection. U shape is
opposite. Reinforced U-type bellows have both advantages.
3. Fatigue life is influenced by stresses from pressure and deflection.
4. Excessive meridian bending stress bulges the convolution and restricts the
expansion capacity of bellows and affects fatigue life.
5. Fatigue life shall be optimum, else more convolutions and more instability.
15.6 VIBRATION IN BELLOWS
Vibrations in bellows are flow induced. Fluid flow is internal like in pipes or external
in special cases in heat exchangers and due to wind over piping.
15.6.1 Internal Flow
When turbulent flow was generated, within the bellow or originating upstream of the
bellow due to high flow velocity, it may induce vibration. Internal sleeves are used to
reduce the vibration. Normally, vibration for internal flow is not noticed when veloc-
ity is limited as given below.
For sizes up to 150 mm (6”) diameter: 7.5 m/s (25fps) for gasses (steam),
3.2m/s (10fps) for liquids.
For sizes > 6”: 1.2 m/s (4fps) per cm (inch) diameter for gasses, 0.6 m/s (2fps)
per cm (inch) diameter for liquids.
Natural frequency (fn) shall be kept <2/3 and >2 times the system frequency to
avoid vibration.
15.6.2 Calculation of Natural Frequency (fn)

15.6.2.1 In Single Bellow
Axial vibration:
Fn = C kb /w
where
kb = spring rate
w = weight of the bellow and reinforcement + liquid inside
C = constant depending on no of convolutions
= 8.84 for 1; 9.51, 9.75, 9.75 for 2, 3, 4; and 9.81 for 5 and above in the 1st
mode, for higher modes refer EJMA
Lateral vibration:
Dm kb
fn = C
Lb w
where Lb = N q and C = (24.8,68.2,133,221,330) for first 5 convolutions.
15.6.2.2 Universal Expansion Joint (Dual Bellow)

Higher mode vibration do not occur in dual bellows (spring mass system)
• Axial: fn = 4.43√(kb/w), w=weight of spool pipe + one bellow + liquid con-

tained only between convolutions of one bellow.
• Lateral: fn = 5.42Dm/Lb√(kb/w), w includes the weight of liquid of diameter
Dm and length Lu-Lb, Lu = length between outermost ends of convolution
REFERENCES
2. Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association standard.
3. Roark, R. J. and Young, W. C. Formulas for stress and strain, 5th edition.
Index
A circular rings, 140–143
both edges supported, 141, 141
acts and rules, 2 one edge supported, 142–143
Alapeyron’s theorem, 27 compensation
allowable stresses, 46–48, 47 continuous openings, 93–95, 94
analysis methods, 35 multiple openings, 92–93, 93
authorized inspector, 2 compensation, nozzle openings
angular, 91, 92
B hill side, 90–92, 91
insert, 86, 87
base plate, 161 pad type, 89, 90
circular ring, 166–169, 167 set on, 87, 88
rectangular, 163, 164, 167 tangential, 91, 91
beam formulas, 23–24, 26, 38, 121–123, 138 taper, 88
beam theory, 22, 59, 124, 201 compensation of opening, external pressure, 100
bellow conical parts, external pressure, compensation, 70
cold pull, 228 conical reducer, internal pressure, 51
collar, 220 equivalent cylinder, 51
natural frequency, 229 reinforcement method, 51, 52
spring rate, 218, 222, 226,229 continuous beam, 27–28
tangent, 220 coordinate convention, 13
vibration, 228–229 crown radius, 58
bellow deflection stress, 218–220 cylinder, external pressure
bellow design, factors influence, 228–229 code equations, 66
bellow design, reinforced, 223, 224 collapse coefficient (k), 63, 65
bellow instability, 221 critical length, 64
column, 215, 221–222, 225 critical pressure, 64
in plane, 215, 221–222, 225 strain coincident to Pc (A), 66–67
bellow movements cylindrical parts, pressure stresses
angular rotation, 226 circumferential, 49
axial, 226 longitudinal, 50
lateral displacement, 227 radial, 50
rectangle, 228
bellow pressure stresses, 215–218
Bijlaard’s data, 102
D
bolted bracket, 161 deflection
boundary condition, 13, 34 Macaulay’s method of integration, 24–25
breathing space, 149 moment area method, 25–26
brittle fracture, 35 strain energy method, 26
design theories, 1, 19
diagonal stay, 150
C
discontinuity stress, 73
carbon steel (CS), 3, 6, 9 design tips, 81
Castigliano’s theorem, 26–27 general procedure, 74
circular plate, 134, 135 discontinuity stresses, cylindrical to
clamped, 136–137 cone, 78, 78–80
simply supported, 135–136 flat plate, 77
231
232Index
hemispherical head, 74, 76, 76 acoustic, 205, 208, 210

semiellipsoidal head, 77 buffeting, 205, 208, 210
torispherical heads, 77 vortex, 208–210
discontinuity stresses, large bore opening, 95, 96
G
E
gasket
earth quake effective width, 192
American standard, 185, 186 m & y values, 192
Australian & New Zeeland, 184–185 guided cantilever, 114, 115–116
Indian, 180–183 moment area method, 116
UBC, 183–184 gussets, 150
eccentric cone, 70
elastic failure theories, 36–37
elastic theory, 19–21, 35, 38, 64, 74–75, 173 H
ellipsoidal head
heat treatment, 8–10
external pressure, 69
hemi-spherical head
internal pressure, 55
external pressure, 69
equivalent cylinder of cone, 78
internal pressure, 50, 55
expansion joint
Hook’s law, 19
non-metallic fabric type, 213, 214
horn of saddle, 155, 156
external force tensor, 100,102
hydraulic test, 12
F I
Failure analysis, cylindrical shell, 60 impact test, 10–12
fatigue, 48, 61, 73, 83, 118, 137, 206, 213, 220,
222
fatigue life, 34, 113, 215, 219, 223, 228 K
fibre elongation, 8
flange knuckle radius, 58
blind, 199
full faced, 198
L
integral, 189–190, 195, 197
lap, 198 Lame’s theory, 49
loose, 189, 195, 196 leg and lug supports, 161
rectangular, 202 lifting arrangement analysis, 175
ring type, 198 lifting lug, 174, 176
standard, 203 ligament efficiency, 93–95
flange analysis loading & unloading, 174
operating condition, 189, 194 loads, 30, 40
seating condition, 189, 193 load combination, 30, 41
flange parameters local stress, spherical shell, external load
circumferential pitch of bolts, 190 hollow attachment, 108–110
selection philosophy, 193 rigid attachment, 108
R & E values, 191 local stresses
rigidity, 194–198 single opening, 84
flat plate margin, IBR, 148 small openings, 84, 95
flat plate theory, 133, 147 local stresses, compensation method, 83–84, 96,
flexibility check piping, code comparison, 118 100
flexure formula, see beam formulas local stresses, cyl. shell, external forces
foundation bolts, 172 cylindrical attachment, 104, 105–106
free body diagram, 17, 23, 35, 115, 134, 163, 205 rectangular attachment, 104
frequency local stresses due to opening, heads, 100
Index 233
local stresses in shells, external forces, general pressure, physical feeling, 39

procedure, 100–103 principal stress, 43
local stresses, nozzle, external load, 110–112
low alloy steel (LAS), 3, 6, 8
R
M radiographic test (RT), 9–10
rectangular plates, 137–140, 138
material division fixed edges, 138
group number, 8 maximum stress equations, 139
part number, 8 simply supported edges, 137–138
material selection rectangular vessels, 144
bolts and nuts, 6 rollers, sliding supports, 172–173
criteria, 5 rotation
for different temperature ranges, 7 axis, 15
matrix equation force, 16
beam element, 38 matrix, 14–16, 123
piping flexibility, 121, 123
transfer of forces, 14–16
mechanical design, 1 S
membrane equation, 42–43
membrane stress, 44 saddle, 151–161
membrane theory, 41, 44, 51, 54, 56, 59, 94, 220 circumferential stress, 155–158
meridian direction, 45 design philosophy, 159
metallic joints, see bellow longitudinal stress, 153
minimum design metal temperature (MDMT), transverse shear stress, 153
10–11 saddle parts design
moment of inertia, 17–19, 46, 67–68, 71, 116 splitting force, 159
web and rib, 160
saddle reaction, 154
N sea transport, 177
seismic, see earthquake
natural frequency, 205–206
shear stress, cylindrical shell, 46
tall vessels like chimney, 208
shell-nozzle joint, failure paths, 98–100
tubes of shell and tube heat exchanger, 206
shells of revolution, 41–42
tubes of tube bank of heat exchanger, 207
significant figures in numbers, 19
non-destructive testing, 9
skirt, 161, 162
skirt, base ring thickness, 170–171
O skirt thickness empirical equation, 171
stainless steel (SS), 4, 6
openings under pressure, 83–100 static head, 39–40
stay tubes, 147–148
Steele’s data, 103
P
stiffener ring, external pressure, cylinder, 67–68
piping flexibility matrix, 3-D system, 123–124 design philosophy, 68
beam theory, 124 stiffener, saddle, 152, 154–159
bend, 127–129, 130 both sides, 152, 159
Castigliano’s first theorem, 125–126 in plane, 152, 157, 159
2D-element, 120 stiffeners, flat plate, 143–145
3D 122 internal stiffeners, 143
straight, 127 main stiffeners, 143, 145
plastic theory, 19–20, 22, 147 square pattern, 143
shape factor, 20, 22 stress categorization
Poisson’s ratio, 13, 17, 23, 63, 73, 75, 134 peak stress, 45
post weld heat treatment (PWHT), 8–9 primary stresses, 45
pressure part, 2 secondary stresses, 45
234Index
stress concentration, 35, 45, 83–84, 95 attachment to shells, tubes and stays, 147
stresses, 30–35 extended as flange, 150
shear, 31–33 flanged, 150
Strouhal Number, 209 flat, 150
surface transport, 177 pressure areas, 148
unsupported portions, 149
T
tangential direction, 42 V
tangent modulus, 63, 65–66 vibration, 180, 205, 207
thermal stress, analysis bellow, 229
one dimensional, 119 flat plate, 208
single element, 123 structural effect, 206
three dimensional, 121 vortex frequency, 208–210
two dimensional, 119–120 vortex shedding, see vortex frequency
thermal stresses, 48
allowable stress, 118
basics, 114, 119 W
flexibility matrix (K), 121–122
stiffness matrix (S), 121 weld between stiffener and plate,
thermal stresses in piping, simplified analysis, 116 design, 143
tori-conical reducer, 53 weld joint efficiency, 9–10
torispherical head weld strength, shell-nozzle joint, 90, 97–98, 98
external pressure, 69 wind
internal pressure, 58 American standard, 185
toroidal shell, 42, 53, 53, 213, 216, 218, 220 Australian & New Zeeland, 184
transfer of forces, 14 Indian, 179–180
tube bend, 53–54 UBC 183
extrados, 54
intrados, 54
Z
tube sheet, 145–150, 146
analysis, flat, 147 Zick analysis, 152

Design of Pressure Vessels

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What are the main types of materials discussed for pressure vessels?

What are the main types of materials discussed for pressure vessels?

What are some key factors considered for material selection?

What are some key factors considered for material selection?

Design of Pressure

and by CRC Press

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-55064-6 (hbk)

Chapter 3 Mechanical Design Basics................................................................. 13

3.1.10 Polar Moment of Inertia............................................. 18

Chapter 4 Pressure Vessel Design Basics........................................................... 39

Chapter 5 Internal Pressure................................................................................ 49

Chapter 6 External Pressure............................................................................... 63

Chapter 7 Discontinuity Stresses........................................................................ 73

Chapter 8 Local Stresses.................................................................................... 83

Chapter 9 Thermal Stresses and Piping Flexibility.......................................... 113

Chapter 10 Flat-Plate Components..................................................................... 133

10.7.3 Analysis................................................................... 147

Chapter 11 Supports........................................................................................... 151

Chapter 12 Wind and Seismic............................................................................ 179

12.2.1 Rigid-Structure Approach (RSA)............................ 181

Chapter 13 Flanges............................................................................................. 189

Chapter 14 Vibration.......................................................................................... 205

14.5 Tall Vessels Like Chimneys................................................... 208

Chapter 15 Expansion Joints.............................................................................. 213

a. Equipments in which process or part of it takes place.

Linking between equipments is performed by process piping with required instru-

hence called pressure parts. Selection of materials, calculation of thickness, and

2.2.1 Carbon Steel (CS)

2.2.2 Low Alloy Steel (LAS)

alloying elements are chromium 9% max, molybdenum 1% max, traces of vanadium,

• Chromium (Cr) improves resistance to oxidation and improves corrosion resis-

2.2.3 Stainless Steel (SS)

1. Inconel: Different grades of inconel contain nickel in the range of 50 to 75%

2.3.1 Criteria for Selection of Materials

1. Nature of fluid and chemical reaction

The following factors are useful for the selection of material.

2.3.2 Ductile and Brittle Materials

2.3.3 Chemical Effect of Fluid in Contact

2.3.5 Pressure and Allowable Stress

Note: PP = pressure part.

2.4.1 Division of the Ferrous Material

2.4.2 Post-fabrication Heat Treatment

f  kt/R f (1  R f /R o ), k  50 for cyl. and  75 for head (double curvature)

2.4.3 Post-weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

a. For welds directly exposed to firing with thickness (T) ≤ 16 mm

2.5 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) AND WELD EFFICIENCY

a. RT of welds: UT can be performed in lieu of RT

2.6 IMPACT TEST AND MINIMUM DESIGN METAL TEMPERATURE

VIII-division 1, by permission of The American Society of Mechanical

(f) Impact test required in the following conditions

2.7 HYDRAULIC TEST (HT)

3.1.1 XYZ Coordinate Convention

• Fixed: all the six degrees of freedom are zero

Force tensor (matrix)[ F ]  {FX , F, FY , FZ , M X , M Y , M Z}

where x = x2–x1, y = y2–y1, and z = z2–z1

Matrix equation for [ F2 ]61 = [ T]66 [ F1 ]61

Transformation matrix [T] is given in Table 3.1

3.1.10 Polar Moment of Inertia............................................. 18

10.7.3 Analysis................................................................... 147

12.2.1 Rigid-Structure Approach (RSA)............................ 181

14.5 Tall Vessels Like Chimneys................................................... 208

2.2.1 Carbon Steel (CS)

2.2.2 Low Alloy Steel (LAS)

2.2.3 Stainless Steel (SS)

2.3.1 Criteria for Selection of Materials

2.3.2 Ductile and Brittle Materials

2.3.3 Chemical Effect of Fluid in Contact

2.3.5 Pressure and Allowable Stress

2.4.1 Division of the Ferrous Material

2.4.2 Post-fabrication Heat Treatment

f kt/R f (1 R f /R o ), k 50 for cyl. and 75 for head (double curvature)

2.4.3 Post-weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

2.5 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) AND WELD EFFICIENCY

2.6 IMPACT TEST AND MINIMUM DESIGN METAL TEMPERATURE

2.7 HYDRAULIC TEST (HT)

3.1.1 XYZ Coordinate Convention

Force tensor (matrix)[ F ] {FX , F, FY , FZ , M X , M Y , M Z}

Matrix equation for [ F2 ]61 = [ T]66 [ F1 ]61

FX ’ FX cos FY cos( 270 ) FX cos FY sin 1.366

2) General rotation of the 3d system: Unlike rotation of axes in (1), analysis

R R Z ( ) R Y () R Z () [(C C C S S ),( C C S S C ),(C S)]

3.1.7 Free Body Diagram

I B[ x 3 ]/ 3 B[( L / 2)3 ( L / 2)3 ]/ 3 B L[ L3 /8 L3 / 8]/ 3 B L3 /12

I D 4 / 64 for circle of diameter D

100 10 5 90 10 (10 45)

I of element 1 = 8333 + 10010(28.68–5)2 = 569265

3.1.10 Polar Moment of Inertia

3.1.11 Significant Figures in Numbers

3.2.1 Elasticity Theory and Hook’s Law

M b ( ft /dt )dt / 3 ( fc /dc )dC 3 / 3

3.3 FLEXURE OR BEAM FORMULAS

F dF F w dx, or dF /dx w (3.7)

3.4.1 Macaulay’s Method of Integration

3.4.2 Moment Area Method

3.5 LONG SHELLS WITH THREE SUPPORTS

M a /La 2 M b / ( La Lc ) M c /Lc 6(Aa xa /La Ac xC /Lc ) 0 (3.18)