Pressure Vessel Design - Guides and Procedures

Pressure
Vessel
Design,
Guides & Procedures
The main purpose of this book is to present
Pressure Vessel Design, Guides & Procedures

guides, procedures, and design principles for
pressure vessels to enhance the understanding
of designing process in this field.
The economical pressure vessel design can
only be accomplished through the application
of various theoretical principles combined with
industrial and practical knowledge. Therefore,
both theory and practice are emphasized in this
book and different aspects of pressure vessel
requirements are included. The book contains
10 chapters to cover all parts of designing and
testing.
To its advantages, each designing chapter
includes some flowcharts as guides to illustrate
a stepwise sequence of the design. Moreover,
the designing chapters are supported by an
PressureDesign,
Vessel
example to clarify each step for designers.
Consequently, the designing steps are
instructed and outlined using PV-Elite soft-ware
which can pave the way for the designers to use
the software to ease their calculations.
www.pv-book.com Guides & Procedures

Email:info@pv-book.com
Authors/Compilers Committee
G. Ghanbari
M.A. Liaghat
A. Sadeghian
A. Mahootchi
I. Sokouti
R. Heidary
M.H. Mohammadi
A. Ansarifard
M. Seraj
Pressure
Vessel
Design
Guides & Procedures
i
ii
Preface
In this modern age of industrial competition, a successful pressure vessel designer needs more than a
knowledge and understanding of the fundamental sciences and the related mechanical engineering subjects.
He must also have the ability to apply this knowledge to practical situations for the purpose of accurate and
beneficial design of a pressure vessel. To achieve this goal, the present book “Pressure Vessel Design, Guides
& Procedures” is co-authored by a group of well experienced mechanical engineers who are working in the
mechanical department of a company active in petrochemical industry named Hampa Energy Engineering &
Design Company, HEDCO (www.hedcoint.com).
The main purpose of this book is to present guides, procedures, and design principles for pressure vessels
to enhance the understanding of designing process in this field. The economical pressure vessel design can
only be accomplished through the application of various theoretical principles combined with industrial and
practical knowledge. Therefore, both theory and practice are emphasized in this book and different aspects
of pressure vessel requirements are included. The book contains 10 chapters to cover all parts of designing
and testing. To its advantages, each designing chapter includes some flowcharts as guides to illustrate a
stepwise sequence of the design. Moreover, the designing chapters are supported by an example to clarify
each step for designers. Consequently, the designing steps are instructed and outlined using PV-Elite soft-
ware which can pave the way for the designers to use the software to ease their calculations.
Furthermore, the book would not only be suitable for pressure vessel designers, but also educators and
students can use it in their courses. It is assumed that the readers have a background in mechanical and
material engineering. The coherent SI system is mostly used as the unit for formulas and calculations of the
book. Every effort has been made to assure the preciseness and credibility of the data contained herein.
However, it is worthy to note that the authors assume no responsibility against the designs based on the
presented formulas.
It is hoped that this book will meet all the requirements for pressure vessel technologist and designers and
also, can bridge the gaps in pressure vessel designing industry in this technology driven world. The authors
are indebted to many industrial and informative books and references, and individuals who have supplied
information and comments on the materials presented in this book. It has been attempted to preserve all
the rights for the referenced articles and books all through the compilation stages.
Authors Committee
July, 2011
iii
About the Authors
This book “Pressure Vessel Design, Guides & Procedures” is compiled and authored by a group of mechani-
cal engineers active in pressure vessel design projects and trainings (www.pv-book.com). The authors and
compilers committee members are listed below:
Mr. Ghader Ghanbari, MSc. In Solid Mechanics
Mr. Mohammad Ali Liaghat, MSc. In Mechanical Engineering Manufacturing & Production
Mr. Ali Sadeghian, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics
Mr. Alireza Mahootchi, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics
Mr. Iman Sokouti, MSc. In Solid Mechanics
Mr. Roohollah Heidary, MSc. In Solid Mechanics
Mr. MohammadHassan Mohammadi, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics
Mr. Amir Ansarifard, MSc. In Solid Mechanics
Mr. Mohammad Seraj, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics

The compilers committee is advised by a group of well experienced mechanical engineers in designing of
pressure vessels, who are Mr. Arsalan Barkhordari, Dr. Hossein Nemati, and Mr. Mohammad Reza Izadi.
The drawings which have been used as figures in the book are drawn by Mr. Vahid Boroomand. The book
cover is designed and prepared by Mr. Mohammad Reza Izadi.
The editorial committee is as follow:
Mr. Mohammad Ali Liaghat
Mr. Ali Sadeghian
Mr. Ghader Ghanbari
The team who contributed to preparation of the book is well coordinated and managed by:
Mr. Alireza Saraei.
We wish you success and hope you will find the book helpful. You are requested to contact the following
address in case you need further details regarding the technical issues or publication.
Authors committee &
Coordinating manager (info@pv-book.com)
iv
Content
Table of Contents
1 GENERAL ............................................................ 1 2.3.4 Code Alloys by Nominal Specification and
by Common Name.................................... 40
1.1 PRESSURE EQUIPMENTS TYPES AND COMPONENTS ... 1 2.3.5 Ferrous Materials Specifications by Code
1.1.1 What is Pressure Equipment? .................... 1 Section Use ............................................... 41
1.1.2 Pressure Equipment Categories ................. 1 2.3.6 Nonferrous Code Materials Specifications
1.1.3 Pressure Vessel Symbols ............................ 2 by Section Use .......................................... 42
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE VESSEL AND IT’S 2.4 MATERIAL SELECTION FOR PRESSURE VESSEL
CLASSIFICATION ................................................. 3 CONSTRUCTION ............................................... 43
1.2.1 Introduction ............................................... 3 2.4.1 Generic Material Selection Guide ............ 43
1.2.2 Pressure Vessel Classification ..................... 3 2.4.2 Specific Material Selection ....................... 47
1.3 COMPONENTS OF PRESSURE VESSELS ..................... 5 2.4.3 Minimum Design Metal Temperature
1.3.1 Shell ............................................................ 5 (MDMT) .................................................... 58
1.3.2 Head ........................................................... 5 2.4.4 Selection of materials Using PV-Elite ....... 61
1.3.3 Nozzle ......................................................... 5
1.3.4 Support ....................................................... 6 3 SHELL DESIGN ...................................................63
1.3.5 External Attachments ................................. 6 3.1 DEFINITION OF SHELLS ...................................... 63
1.3.6 Internal Attachments ................................. 7 3.2 THEORETICAL BASIS .......................................... 65
1.4 ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE ........... 7 3.3 ASME CODE & HANDBOOKS FORMULAS ............. 67
1.4.1 History ........................................................ 7 3.3.1 Nomenclature .......................................... 67
1.4.2 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel 3.3.2 Cylindrical Shell under Internal Pressure . 68
Committee.................................................. 8 3.3.3 Cylindrical Shell under External Pressure . 69
1.4.3 Outline of the ASME Boiler and Pressure 3.3.4 Stiffening Rings for Cylindrical Shells under
Vessel Code ................................................ 9 External Pressure ..................................... 72
1.5 ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE SEC. VIII 3.3.5 Attachment of Stiffening Rings ................ 75
9 3.3.6 Spherical Shell under Internal Pressure ... 77
1.5.1 Division 1 .................................................... 9 3.3.7 Spherical Shell under External Pressure ... 77
1.5.2 Division 2 .................................................. 10 3.4 SPECIAL CONSIDERATION FOR SHELL DESIGN ......... 79
1.5.3 Division 3 .................................................. 10 3.5 DESIGN PROCEDURE ......................................... 81
1.5.4 Outline of the ASME Code Sec. VIII, Division 3.7 DESIGN OF SHELLS USING PV-ELITE..................... 86
1................................................................ 11 3.8 EXAMPLE FOR DESIGN OF A DRUM SHELL COURSES 87
1.6 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGNING CODES/STANDARDS . 12 3.8.1 Design by ASME Sec. VIII, Division 1 Rules 87
1.7 PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGNING SOFTWARE PACKAGES 3.8.2 Design by using flowchart ........................ 88
13
1.8 DOCUMENTS FOR PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN AND 4 HEAD DESIGN ...................................................95
CONSTRUCTION ............................................... 17 4.1 DEFINITION OF HEADS AND SECTIONS .................. 95
1.9 OVERALL DESIGN PROCEDURE OF PRESSURE VESSELS 4.2 ASME CODE & HANDBOOKS FORMULA............... 96
19 4.2.1 Nomenclature .......................................... 96
2 MATERIAL ........................................................ 23 4.2.2 Head Design for Internal Pressure ........... 98
4.2.3 Head Design for External Pressure ........... 99
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................ 23 4.3 CONNECTION OF HEAD TO SHELL ...................... 101
2.2 MATERIAL STANDARDS ..................................... 23 4.4 RULES FOR REINFORCEMENT OF CONE-TO-CYLINDER
2.2.1 North American Metal Standard JUNCTION ..................................................... 102
Designation Systems ................................ 23 4.4.1 Under internal pressure ......................... 103
2.2.2 Canadian Standards Association (CSA) ..... 28 4.4.2 Under external pressure ........................ 103
2.2.3 American National Standards Institute 4.5 HEADS DESIGN PROCEDURES ........................... 104
(ANSI)........................................................ 28 4.5.1 Head Design Procedure under Internal
2.2.4 European Standard (CEN) Steel Designation Pressure .................................................. 104
System ...................................................... 29 4.5.2 Head Design Procedure under External . 106
2.3 ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL SECTION II .. 32 4.5.3 Pressure .................................................. 106
2.3.1 Outline ...................................................... 32 4.6 DESIGN OF HEADS AND SECTIONS USING PV-ELITE
2.3.2 Organization and the Use of Section II Part 109
D ............................................................... 32 4.7 EXAMPLE FOR HEAD DESIGN ............................ 109
2.3.3 Code Alloys by UNS Number .................... 40
v
Pressure Vessel Design
4.8 MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT HEADS 5.12 EXAMPLE FOR DESIGN OF AN OPENING .............. 176
AND SECTIONS ............................................... 115
6 FLANGE AND GASKET DESIGN .........................183
5 DESIGN OF OPENINGS AND NOZZLES ............. 117
6.1 FLANGES ...................................................... 183
5.1 DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF OPENINGS ... 117 6.1.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 183
5.1.1 Description of Openings and Applications 6.1.2 Flange Types ........................................... 185
117 6.1.3 Bolt Loads ............................................... 187
5.1.2 Classification versus Size ........................ 118 6.1.4 Flange Moments..................................... 189
5.1.3 Classification versus Location ................. 118 6.1.5 Calculation of Flange Stresses ................ 189
5.1.4 Classification versus Direction ................ 118 6.1.6 Allowable Flange Design Stresses .......... 193
5.1.5 Classification versus Shape..................... 120 6.1.7 Flanges Subject To External Pressures ... 194
5.2 REINFORCEMENT REQUIRED FOR OPENINGS ........ 120 6.1.8 Flange Rigidity ........................................ 194
5.2.1 Strength and Design of Finished Openings 6.2 GASKETS ...................................................... 195
120 6.2.1 Flange Faces ........................................... 195
5.2.2 Reinforcement Required for Openings in 6.2.2 Gasket Compatibility .............................. 196
Shells and Formed Head ......................... 121 6.2.3 Metal Gaskets Structure......................... 197
5.2.3 Reinforcement Required for Openings in 6.3 FLANGE DESIGN PROCEDURE............................ 197
Flat Heads ............................................... 125 6.4 DESIGN OF FLANGE USING PV-ELITE ................. 199
5.2.4 Reinforcement of Multiple Openings ..... 129 6.5 EXAMPLE FOR FLANGE DESIGN ......................... 202
5.2.5 Limits of Reinforcement ......................... 129
7 SUPPORTING DESIGN ......................................205
5.2.6 Strength of Reinforcement ..................... 130
5.3 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR ATTACHMENT WELDS 7.1 DIFFERENT WEIGHT CONDITION (ERECTION,
AT OPENINGS ................................................ 133 OPERATING, ETC.) .......................................... 205
5.3.1 General ................................................... 133 7.1.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 205
5.3.2 Symbols .................................................. 133 7.1.2 Weigh Estimation ................................... 205
5.3.3 Necks Attached by a Full Penetration Weld 7.2 INTRODUCTION TO ASCE AND UBC CODES ........ 206
133 7.3 TYPES OF SUPPORTS AND APPLICATIONS ............. 207
5.3.4 Neck Attached by Fillet or Partial 7.3.1 Skirt Supports ......................................... 207
Penetration Welds.................................. 134 7.3.2 Leg Supports ........................................... 207
5.3.5 Necks and Tubes Up to and Including NPS 6 7.3.3 Saddle Supports ..................................... 208
(DN150) Attached from One Side Only .. 134 7.3.4 Lug Supports........................................... 209
5.3.6 Standard Fittings: ASME/ANSI or 7.3.5 Ring Supports ......................................... 209
Manufacturer’s Standard ....................... 134 7.4 CALCULATION OF WIND LOAD .......................... 209
5.3.7 Welded Connections .............................. 138 7.4.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 209
5.3.8 Specification of Weld Loads and Weld 7.4.2 Wind Load Calculation ........................... 210
Strength Path ......................................... 138 7.5 CALCULATION OF SEISMIC LOAD PER UBC CODE AND
5.4 CALCULATION OF NOZZLE NECK THICKNESS ......... 142 RELATED FORMULAS ....................................... 211
5.5 LARGE OPENINGS IN CYLINDRICAL AND CONICAL 7.5.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 211
SHELLS ......................................................... 142 7.5.2 Seismic Load Calculation ........................ 211
5.6 METHODS OF ATTACHMENT OF PIPE AND NOZZLE 7.6 DESIGN OF SKIRT ........................................... 215
NECK TO VESSEL WALLS .................................. 145 7.6.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 215
5.7 FLANGES AND PIPE FITTINGS ............................ 146 7.6.2 Skirt Design Procedure ........................... 215
5.8 INSPECTION OPENINGS.................................... 146 7.7 DESIGN OF SADDLE (ZICK’S ANALYSIS) ................ 224
5.9 CALCULATION OF STRESS RESULTING NOZZLE LOADS 7.7.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 224
148 7.7.2 Saddle Design Procedure ....................... 224
5.9.1 Introduction to WRC-107 ....................... 148 7.8 DESIGN OF UNBRACED LEGS............................. 239
5.9.2 General Equation.................................... 149 7.8.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 239
5.9.3 Spherical Shells ....................................... 149 7.8.2 Leg Design Procedure ............................. 239
5.9.4 Cylindrical Shells ..................................... 154 7.9 DESIGN OF LUGS ............................................ 246
5.10 OPENINGS AND NOZZLES DESIGN PROCEDURES ... 159 7.9.1 Nomenclature ........................................ 246
5.11 DESIGN OF OPENINGS AND NOZZLES USING PV-ELITE 7.9.2 Lug Design Procedure ............................. 247
168 7.10 SUPPORT DESIGN PROCEDURE .......................... 261
5.11.1 Nozzle Dialog Data ................................. 168 7.11 SUPPORT DESIGN USING PV-ELITE .................... 280
5.11.2 Nozzle Analysis ....................................... 168 7.11.1 Weight .................................................... 280
5.11.3 Nozzle Input Data ................................... 169 7.11.2 Wind ....................................................... 280
5.11.4 Additional Reinforcing Pad Data ............ 175 7.11.3 Seismic.................................................... 280
vi
Content
7.11.4 Skirt ........................................................ 281 9.3.3 Leak Testing ............................................ 323

7.11.5 Saddle ..................................................... 282 9.4 WELDING IMPERFECTIONS AND REPAIRS ............. 323
7.11.6 Leg .......................................................... 283 9.4.1 Welding Imperfections ........................... 323
7.11.7 Lug .......................................................... 285 9.4.2 Welding repairs ...................................... 324
7.12 EXAMPLE FOR DESIGN OF A TOWER SKIRT ........... 285
10 DESIGN BY ANALYSIS ......................................325
8 WELDING........................................................ 297
10.1 NOMENCLATURE............................................ 325
8.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................. 297 10.2 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN BY ANALYSIS ............. 328
8.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS OF WELDS .................. 297 10.3 COMPARISON OF DBA AND DBR ...................... 328
8.2.1 General Terms ........................................ 297 10.3.1 Design by Rule or Design by Formula ..... 328
8.2.2 Types of common joints ......................... 297 10.3.2 Design by Analysis .................................. 329
8.2.3 Types of common welds ......................... 298 10.4 LOADING DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS ...... 329
8.2.4 Weld Preparations.................................. 300 10.5 STRESS DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS ......... 331
8.2.5 Weld Terms ............................................ 301 10.5.1 Stress and Discontinuity Definitions....... 331
8.2.6 Welding Positions ................................... 303 10.5.2 Stress Categorization .............................. 331
8.3 WELDED JOINT CATEGORIES AND TYPES IN PRESSURE 10.6 STRESS ANALYSIS METHOD .............................. 334
VESSELS ........................................................ 304 10.7 FAILURE MODES ............................................ 336
8.3.1 Welded joint Categories ......................... 304 10.7.1 Introduction ........................................... 336
8.3.2 Welded joint Types................................. 306 10.7.2 Protection against Plastic Collapse......... 336
8.3.3 Welded Joint Categories and Types Due to 10.7.3 Protection against Local Failure ............. 338
Service Restrictions ................................ 306 10.7.4 Protection against Collapse from Buckling
8.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION 340
307 10.7.5 Protection against Failure from Cyclic
8.4.1 Full Radiography ..................................... 307 Loading ................................................... 340
8.4.2 Spot Radiography ................................... 307
A. APPENDICES ...................................................349
8.4.3 No Radiography ...................................... 307
8.5 JOINT EFFICIENCY ........................................... 307 A.1 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES .............................. 349
8.6 WELDING PROCESSES ..................................... 308 A.1.1 PROPERTIES OF HEAD ..................................... 349
8.6.1 Arc welding ............................................. 308 A.1.2 PROPERTIES OF SHELL ..................................... 350
8.6.2 Gas Welding ........................................... 310 A.1.3 PROPERTIES OF SKIRT CHAIR ............................ 354
8.6.3 Resistance Welding ................................ 310 A.2 METALLURGICAL FUNDAMENTALS ..................... 356
8.6.4 Selection of a welding process ............... 310 A.2.1 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION.......................... 356
8.7 WELDING HEAT TREATMENT ............................ 311 A.2.2 PURE IRON AND ITS ALLOTROPY ........................ 357
8.7.1 Pre-heating ............................................. 311 A.2.3 HEAT TREATING OF STEEL -THE EFFECTS OF CARBON
8.7.2 Post weld Heat Treatment ..................... 311 CONTENT AND COOLING RATE .......................... 360
8.7.3 Heat Treatment Due to Service .............. 313 A.2.4 THE ROLES OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS .................. 361
8.8 WELDING DOCUMENTATION ............................ 313 A.2.5 INDUSTRIAL HEAT TREATMENTS ........................ 362
8.8.1 Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) 313 A.3 CORROSION .................................................. 362
8.8.2 Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) ... 314 A.3.1 CORROSION CLASSIFICATIONS ........................... 363
A.3.2 WAYS OF COMBATING CORROSION ................... 367
9 EXAMINATION AND TEST ............................... 315
A.4 FIGURES OF WRC-107 [19] ............................ 368
9.1 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING .............................. 315 A.5 RADIOGRAPHY SUMMARY OF REQUIREMENTS FOR
9.1.1 Visual Testing (VT) .................................. 315 100% X-RAY AND PWHT ............................... 407
9.1.2 Penetrant Testing (PT) ............................ 315 A.6 HARDNESS CONVERSION................................. 408
9.1.3 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) .............. 316 A.7 EXPERIMENTAL COMPATIBILITY TESTS ................ 409
9.1.4 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) ........................... 317 A.8 WORKING FLUIDS AND TEMPERATURE RANGES ... 409
9.1.5 Radiographic Testing (RT) ....................... 318 A.9 ONE DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION ............. 411
9.1.6 Summary of Non Destructive Tests ........ 319 A.10 MINOR DEFECT EVALUATION PROCEDURE .......... 412
9.2 DESTRUCTIVE/MECHANICAL TESTING ................ 320 A.11 LINEARIZATION OF STRESSES............................. 413
9.2.1 Hardness Testing .................................... 320 A.11.1 NOMENCLATURE............................................ 413
9.2.2 Impact Testing ........................................ 321 A.11.2 GENERAL ...................................................... 413
9.2.3 Tensile Testing ........................................ 321 A.11.3 SELECTION OF STRESS CLASSIFICATION LINES ....... 414
9.2.4 Bend Testing ........................................... 322 A.11.4 STRESS INTEGRATION METHOD......................... 416
9.3 PROOF TESTING ............................................. 322 A.11.5 STRUCTURAL STRESS METHOD BASED ON NODAL
9.3.1 Hydrostatic Testing................................. 322 FORCES ........................................................ 417
9.3.2 Pneumatic Testing .................................. 323
vii
A.11.6 STRUCTURAL STRESS METHOD BASED ON STRESS INDEX......................................................................425

INTEGRATION ................................................ 422
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................... 423
viii
Reactor
Figure ‎1-5 illustrates a typical reactor vessel with a
cylindrical shell. The process fluid undergoes a chemical
reaction inside a reactor. This reaction is normally facili-
tated by the presence of catalyst which is held in one or
more catalyst beds [3].
Figure ‎1-3: Vertical Drum on Leg Support [3]
Tower (Column)
Figure ‎1-4 illustrates a typical tall, vertical tower. Tall
vertical towers are constructed in a wide range of shell
diameters and heights. Towers can be relatively small in
diameter and very tall (e.g., a 4 ft. diameter and 200 ft.
tall distillation column), or very large in diameter and
moderately tall (e.g., a 30 ft. diameter and 150 ft. tall
pipestill tower). The shell sections of a tall tower may be
constructed of different materials, thicknesses, and
diameters. This is because temperature and phase
changes of the process fluid which are the factors that
affect the corrosiveness of the process fluid, vary along
the tower’s length [3]. Figure ‎1-5: Vertical Reactor [3]
Spherical Tank
Figure ‎1-6 shows a pressurized storage vessel with a
spherical shell. Spherical tanks are usually used for gas
storage under high pressure.
Figure ‎1-4: Tall Vertical Tower [3] Figure ‎1-6: Spherical Pressurized Storage Tank [3]
4
General
1.3 Components of Pressure Vessels curved rather than flat. Curved configurations are strong-
er and allow the heads to be thinner, lighter, and less
The main pressure vessel components are as follow: expensive than flat heads. Heads can also be used inside
a vessel. These “intermediate heads” separate sections of
1.3.1 Shell the pressure vessel to permit different design conditions
in each section [3]. Heads are usually categorized by their
The shell is the primary component that contains the shapes. Ellipsoidal, hemispherical, torispherical, conical,
pressure. Pressure vessel shells are welded together to toriconical and flat are the common types of heads which
form a structure that has a common rotational axis. Most are discussed in detail on chapter ‎4 of this book. Figure
pressure vessel shells are cylindrical, spherical and conical ‎1-7 shows various types of heads. Ellipsoidal (2:1) would
in shape, which are discussed in detail on chapter ‎3 of be the most common type of heads, which is used during
this book. the designing of pressure vessels.
1.3.2 Head
All pressure vessel shells must be closed at the ends by
heads (or another shell section). Heads are typically
Figure ‎1-7: Typical Types of Heads [4]
 Attach instrument connections, (e.g., level gauges,

1.3.3 Nozzle
thermowells, or pressure gauges).
A nozzle is a cylindrical component that penetrates the
shell or heads of a pressure vessel. The nozzle ends are  Provide access to the vessel interior at manways.
usually flanged to allow for the necessary connections
and to permit easy disassembly for maintenance or  Provide for direct attachment of other equipment
access. Nozzles are used for the following applications: items, (e.g., a heat exchanger or mixer).
 Attach piping for flow into or out of the vessel.
5
Nozzles are also sometimes extended into the vessel The other support is normally free to permit unrestrained
interior for some applications, such as for inlet flow longitudinal thermal expansion of the drum [3]. A typical
distribution or to permit the entry of thermowells [3]. scheme of saddle support is shown on Figure ‎1-8.
Design of openings and nozzles would be discussed on
chapter ‎5 of this book.
1.3.4 Support
The type of support that is used depends primarily on
the size and orientation of the pressure vessel. In all
cases, the pressure vessel support must be adequate for
the applied weight, wind, and earthquake loads [3].
Calculated base loads are used to design of anchorage
and foundation for the pressure vessels. Supporting
design would be discussed in detail on chapter ‎7 of this
book. Typical kinds of supports are as follow:
a) Skirt
Figure ‎1-8: Typical Scheme of Saddle
Tall, vertical, cylindrical pressure vessels (e.g., the

d) Lug
tower and reactor shown in Figure ‎1-4 and Figure ‎1-5
respectively) are typically supported by skirts. A support
Lugs that are welded to the pressure vessel shell, which
skirt is a cylindrical shell section that is welded either to
are shown on Figure ‎1-9, may also be used to support
the lower portion of the vessel shell or to the bottom
vertical pressure vessels. The use of lugs is typically
head (for cylindrical vessels). Skirts for spherical vessels
limited to vessels of small to medium diameter (1 to 10
are welded to the vessel near the mid-plane of the shell.
ft.) and moderate height-to-diameter ratios in the range
The skirt is normally long enough to provide enough
of 2:1 to 5:1. Lug supports are often used for vessels of
flexibility so that radial thermal expansion of the shell
this size that are located above grade within structural
does not cause high thermal stresses at its junction with
steel. The lugs are typically bolted to horizontal structural
the skirt [3].
members to provide stability against overturning loads;
b) Leg however, the bolt holes are often slotted to permit free
radial thermal expansion of the drum [3].
Small vertical drums (See Figure ‎1-3) are typically sup-
ported on legs that are welded to the lower portion of
the shell. The maximum ratio of support leg length to
drum diameter is typically 2:1. The number of legs
needed depends on the drum size and the loads to be
carried. Support legs are also typically used for spherical
pressurized storage vessels (See Figure ‎1-6). The support
legs for small vertical drums and spherical pressurized
storage vessels may be made from structural steel col-
umns or pipe sections, whichever provides a more effi-
cient design. Cross bracing between the legs, as shown in
Figure 1.6, is typically used to help absorb wind or earth-
quake loads [3].
c) Saddle
Horizontal drums (See Figure ‎1-2) are typically sup-

ported at two locations by saddle supports. A saddle
support spreads the weight load over a large area of the Figure ‎1-9: Typical Scheme of lug [3]
shell to prevent an excessive local stress in the shell at
the support points. The width of the saddle, among other 1.3.5 External Attachments
design details, is determined by the specific size and
design conditions of the pressure vessel. One saddle Common external attachments which are connected to
support is normally fixed or anchored to its foundation. pressure vessels are as follow:
6
General
Division 3 establishes neither maximum pressure limits Comparative thickness ratio and suitable pressure
for either Divisions 1 or 2, nor minimum pressure limits ranges for using Divisions 1, 2, and 3 are illustrated in
for Division 3 [3]. Figure ‎1-12.
Figure ‎1-12: Thickness Ratio and Pressure Ranges for Using Divisions 1, 2, and 3
treatment), ULW (layered construction), ULT (pressure

1.5.4 Outline of the ASME Code Sec. VIII, vessel constructed of materials having higher allowable
stresses at low temperature), and UHX (rules for shell and
Division 1 tube heat exchangers).
Division 1 also contains the following appendices:
The ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, is divided into
three subsections as follows: Mandatory Appendices: This part addresses subjects
that are not covered elsewhere in the Code. The re-
Subsection A: This part consists of Part UG, which is the
quirements that are contained in these appendices are
general requirements for all methods of construction and
mandatory when the subject that is covered is included in
materials that apply to all pressure vessels in its scope.
the pressure vessel under consideration. Examples of
Subsection B: This part covers requirements pertaining Mandatory Appendices are [3]:
to various fabrication methods of pressure vessels.
Subsection B consists of Parts UW, UF, and UB that deal  Supplementary Design Formulas
with welded, forged, and brazed fabrication methods,
respectively.  Rules for Bolted Flange Connections with Ring Type
Subsection C: This part covers requirements pertaining Gaskets
to several classes of materials. Subsection C consists of
Parts UCS (carbon and low-alloy steel), UNF (nonferrous  Vessels of Noncircular Cross Section
materials), UHA (high-alloy steel), UCI (cast iron), UCL
(clad and lined material), UCD (cast ductile iron), UHT  Design Rules for Clamped Connections
(ferritic steel with tensile properties enhanced by heat
11
Material
2 Material
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Material Standards
The goal of this chapter is to give knowledge to engi-

2.2.1 North American Metal Standard Desig-
neers to select and specify the most economic material
for pressure vessels considering requirement of the nation Systems
codes.
2.2.1.1 Introduction
There are many parameters which may be investigated
In the world of standardization, metals pioneered the
by practice, calculations and tests, shall be considered in
way at the turn of this century. In 1895, the French
the selection of suitable material for pressure vessels.
government assigned a commission to formulate stan-
These parameters are including the following aspects:
dard methods of testing materials of construction. Later
 Strength for design condition that year, the European member countries of the Inter-
 Strength for desired service life national Association for Testing Materials (IATM) held
 Resistance to corrosion in service environment for their first conference in Zurich and standardization of
desired life metals began. Today, there are numerous national,
 Capabilities for fabrication processes continental, and international standards each with its
 Market availability own cryptic designation system to identify metals and
 Maintenance and repair their alloys. The evolution of the metals industry has left
 Cost (first investment and operation cost) us with numerous designation systems, even within an
Thus, to achieve the goal, metallurgical fundamentals individual standards organization, and these have be-
are initially reviewed. Afterwards, technical and com- come blurred and less meaningful as new generations of
mercial terms, definitions, and designations of materials technical personnel are passed the torch to carry on the
are described. Finally, the code approach and require- task of standardization [6].
ments for materials will be discussed. Introductions of By reviewing some examples of the more prominent
metallurgical fundamentals and corrosion mechanisms metals designation systems, a direction is offered to
are given in appendix 1 and appendix 2 respectively. assist those who use metal standards as a part of their
work or study. This chapter is not all inclusive. The
amount of information on this topic could easily make
up a complete book [6].
23
2.2.1.2 American Metal Standard Organizations curement. One widely used system of specifications has
There are many metals standards organizations in the been developed by the ASTM. The designation consists
United States, a few of the more prominent ones are of a letter (A for ferrous materials) followed by an
listed as follows: arbitrary serially assigned number. These specifications
often apply to specific products, for example A 548 is
AA The Aluminum Association
applicable to cold-heading quality carbon steel wire for
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute tapping or sheet metal screws. Metric ASTM specifica-
ANSI American National Standards Institute tions have a suffix letter M. Some ASTM specifications
AMS Aerospace Material Specifications (SAE) (e.g. bars, wires and billets for forging) incorporate
AISI/SAE designations for composition while others (e.g.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
plates and structural shapes) specify composition limits
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials and ranges directly. Such requirements as strength
AWS American Welding Society levels, manufacturing and finishing methods and heat
CSA Canadian Standards Association treatments are frequently incorporated into the ASTM
product specifications [6].
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
For each North American organization issuing metal 2.2.1.5 Ferrous Metal Definition
specifications and standards, there is a designation Prior to 1993 the ASTM definition for ferrous metals
system used to identify various metal and alloys. These was based on nominal chemical composition, where an
designation systems grew according to the history of iron content of 50% or greater determined the alloy to
each group, and generally identify a metal by use of a be ferrous. Consequently, these standards begin with
coded number or alphanumeric designator. In some the letter "A". If the iron content was less than 50%,
cases, numbers and letters were assigned in a sequential then the next abundant element would determine the
order by the respective listing organization, while in type of nonferrous alloy. Generally these standards
other cases they were given in a manner which directly begin with the letter "B".
identified chemical composition or mechanical proper-
ties. Some of the more popular North American designa- For example, should nickel be the next predominant
tion systems for metals are presented below, with element then the metal would be a nickel alloy. Current-
descriptive examples given [6]. ly, ASTM has adopted the European definition of steel
described in the Euro Norm Standard CEN EN10020 -
2.2.1.3 American Society for Testing and Materials Definition and Classification of Steel, which defines steel
(ASTM) as:
The first complete book of ASTM Standards was pub- "A material which contains by weight more iron than
lished in 1915. Today there are 69 ASTM books of stan- any single element, having carbon content generally less
dards contained in 15 sections on various subjects. For than 2% and containing other elements. A limited num-
the most part, the metals related standards are found in ber of chromium steels may contain more than 2% of
Section 1 - Iron and Steel Products (7 volumes), Section 2 carbon, but 2% is the usual dividing line between steel
- Nonferrous Metal Products (5 volumes), and Section 3 - and cast iron."
Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures (6 The CEN committee responsible for this standard has
volumes). These standards are revised yearly, as an suggested changing the term "by weight" to "by mass" in
example, from 1992 to 1993, 256 of the 631 standards order to stay consistent with the International System of
was revised in Section 1 - Iron and Steel Products. Some Units [6].
standards (e.g. ASTM A 240) change several times a year
and letter suffixes (a, b, c, etc.) are used to track mid- 2.2.1.6 ASTM Steels
year revisions. This represents changes in 40% of these Examples of the ASTM ferrous metal designation sys-
standards, not including the new standards that were tem, describing its use of specification numbers and
issued that year. Consequently, it is an understatement letters, are as follows.
to say that metal standards are very dynamic documents  ASTM A 516/A 516M - 90 Grade 70 - Pressure Vessel
[6]. Plates, Carbon Steel, for Moderate- and Lower-
Temperature Service:
2.2.1.4 ASTM Specification System
o The "A" describes a ferrous metal, but does not sub-
Steel products are categorized according to designa-
classify it as cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel or stain-
tion systems such as the AISI/SAE system or the UNS
less steel.
system described below, and also according to specifica-
o 516 is simply a sequential number without any direct
tion systems. These are statements of requirements,
relationship to the metal’s properties.
technical and commercial, that a product must meet,
and therefore they can be used for purposes of pro-
24
Material
o The "M" indicates that the standard A 516M is or "H", for high temperature service. A second letter
written in SI units (as a soft conversion) (the "M" comes refers to the chromium and nickel contents of the alloy,
from the word "Metric"), hence together A 516/A 516M increasing with increasing nickel content. The two letters
utilizes both inch-pound and SI units. are then followed by a number which gives the carbon
o 90 indicates the year of adoption or revision. content in hundredths of a percent and in some cases a
o Grade 70 indicates the minimum tensile strength in suffix letter or letters to indicate the presence of other
ksi, i.e. 70 ksi (70,000 psi) minimum. alloying elements. It is important to note that the vari-
In the steel industry, the terms Grade, Type and Class ous casting grades of these stainless steels have a unique
have specific meaning. "Grade" is used to describe designation system different from that of their wrought
chemical composition, "Type" is used to define deoxida- counterparts.
tion practice, and "Class" is used to indicate other For example, the designation "cast 304" stainless steel
characteristics such as strength level or surface finish. does not exist within the ASTM (ACI) system and is
However, within ASTM standards these terms were appropriately called grade CF8. Other examples are as
adapted for use to identify a particular metal within a follows.
metal standard and are used without any "strict" defini-  ASTM A 351 Grade CF8M, Grade HK40 - Castings,
tion, but essentially mean the same thing. Some rules-of- Austenitic, Austenitic-Ferritic (Duplex), for Pressure
thumb do exist, with a few examples as follows. Containing Parts:
 ASTM A 106 - 91 Grade A, Grade B, Grade C - Seam- o The "C" in CF8M indicates a Corrosion resistant metal
less Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service: and the "H" in HK40 indicates a Heat resistant metal.
o Typically an increase in alphabet (such as the letters o The numeric portion of the corrosion resistant
A, B, C) results in higher strength (tensile or yield) steels, designations represents the maximum carbon content
and if it is an unalloyed carbon steel, an increase in multipled by 100, and those of the heat resistant desig-
carbon content. in this case: Grade A - 0.25%C (max.), 48 nations represent its nominal carbon content multiplied
ksi tensile strength (min.); Grade B - 0.30%C (min.), 60 by 100. For example: the maximum carbon content of
ksi tensile strength (min.); Grade C - 0.35%C 70 ksi grade CF8M is 0.08% C and the nominal carbon content
tensile strength (min.). of grade HK40 is 0.40%C (its actual carbon content range
 ASTM A 48 - Class No. 20A, 25A, 30A - Gray Iron is 0.35-0.45%C).
Castings: o The "M" after the number represents an intentional
addition of Molybdenum.
o Class No. 20A describes this cast iron material as
having a minimum tensile strength of 20 ksi (20,000 psi). An interesting use of ASTM grade designators is found
o Similarly Class No. 25A has a minimum tensile in pipe, tube and forging products, where the first letter
strength of 25 ksi and Class No. 30A has a minimum "P" refers to pipe, "T" refers to tube, "TP" may refer to
tensile strength of 30 ksi. tube or pipe, and "F" refers to forging. Examples are
found in the following ASTM specifications:
 ASTM A 276 Type 304, 316, and 410 - Stainless and
Heat-Resisting Steel Bars and Shapes:  ASTM A 335/A 335M - 91 grade P22 - Seamless
 Types 304, 316, 410 and others are based on the AISI Ferritic Alloy-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service.
designation system for stainless steels (see AISI descrip-  ASTM A 213/A 213M - 91 grade T22 - Seamless
tion that follows). Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater,
 Some ASTM standards will use more than one term and Heat-Exchanger Tubes.
to describe an individual metal within a group of metals  ASTM A 269 - 90 grade TP304 - Seamless and Welded
from one standard, as shown in the following example. Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General Service.
 ASTM A 193/193M-94 - Alloy Steel and Stainless Steel  ASTM A 312/A 312M - 91 grade TP304 - Seamless
Bolting Materials for High Temperature Service: and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes.
 ASTM A 336/A 336M - 89 class F22 - Steel Forgings,
o Uses the terms “Type”, “Identification Symbol”,
Alloy, for Pressure and High-Temperature Parts [6].
“Grade” and “Class” to describe bolting materials.
o Example, Type: Austenitic steel, Identification Sym- 2.2.1.7 ASTM Reference Standards and Supplemen-
bol: B8, Grade: Unstabilized 18 Chromium - 8 Nickel (AISI tary Requirements
Type 304), is available in four different Classes: 1, 1A, 1D,
ASTM Standards contain a section known as "Refer-
and 2.
ence Documents" that lists other ASTM Standards that
The ASTM designation system for cast stainless steels either becomes a part of the original standard or its
was adopted from the Alloy Casting Institute (ACI) supplementary requirements. Supplementary require-
system. According to this system, the designation con- ments are listed at the end of the ASTM Standards and
sists of two letters followed by two digits and then do not apply unless specified in the order, i.e. they are
optional suffix letters. The first letter of the designation optional [6].
is "C", if the alloy is intended for liquid corrosion service,
25
Material
Table ‎2-11: Heat Treat Conditions and Other Abbreviations [7]
Abbreviation Term
Cond’n (Treated) Condition (Treated)
HT Heat Treated
SHT Solution Heat Treated
Stab Stabilized
PH Precipitation Hardened
HR Hot Rolled
HF Hot Finished
HW Hot Worked
CD Cold Drawn
CR Cold Rolled
CW Cold Worked
SR Stress Relieved
WT Wall Thickness
incl. inclusive
Table ‎2-12: General Requirements and Testing Specifications [7]
Spec. No. Title

SB-248 Specification for General Requirements for Wrought Copper and Copper-Alloy Plate, Sheet, Strip and Rolled Bar
SB-249 Specification for General Requirements for Wrought Copper and Copper-Alloy for Rod, Bar and Shapes
SB-251 Specification for General Requirements for Wrought Seamless Copper and Copper-Alloy Tubes
SB-548 Method and Specification for Ultrasonic Inspection of Aluminum-Alloy Plate for Pressure Vessels
SB-751 Specification for General Requirements for Nickel and Nickel Alloy Welded Tubes
SB-775 Specification for General Requirements for Nickel and Nickel Alloy Seamless and Welded Pipe
SB-824 Specification for General Requirements for Copper Alloy Castings
SB-829 Specification for General Requirements for Nickel and Nickel Alloy Seamless Pipe and Tube
Test Method for Determination of Susceptibility to Stress Corrosion Cracking in Copper Alloys Using an Ammonia
SB-858
Vapor Test
coupon tests in pilot or bench-scale units, laboratory
2.4 Material Selection for Pressure Ves- corrosion-coupon tests in actual process fluids, or corro-
sion-coupon tests in synthetic solutions must be used.
sel Construction Permissible corrosion rates are an important factor
and differ with equipment. Appreciable corrosion can be
Materials are generally selected by the user for whole permitted for tanks and lines if anticipated and allowed
of the plant and specifically, by pressure vessel design- for in design thickness, but essentially no corrosion can
er/supplier according to the following criteria. be permitted in fine-mesh wire screens, orifices, and
 Corrosive or noncorrosive service other items in which small changes in dimensions are
 Contents and its special chemical/physical effects critical.
 Design condition (temperature) In many instances use of nonmetallic materials will
 Design life and fatigue affected events during the prove to be attractive from an economic and perfor-
plant life mance standpoint. These should be considered when
 Referenced codes and standards their strength, temperature, and design limitations are
 Low temperature service satisfactory.
 Wear and abrasion resistance In the selection of materials of construction for a par-
 Welding and other fabrication processes ticular fluid system, it is important first to take into
consideration the characteristics of the system, giving
2.4.1 Generic Material Selection Guide special attention to all factors that may influence corro-
The objective is to select the material which will most sion. Since these factors would be peculiar to a particular
economically fulfill the process requirements. The best system, it is impractical to attempt to offer a set of hard
source of data is well-documented experience in an and fast rules that would cover all situations.
identical process unit. In the absence of such data, other The materials from which the system is to be fabri-
data sources such as experience in pilot units, corrosion- cated are the second important consideration; there-
43
According to the degree of possible sensitization of the

grain boundaries, the austenitic stainless steels can be
divided into three groups [10]:
2.4.2.4.1.1 Group I
These are the normal-composition, so-called 18-8,
chromium nickel steels, such as typical grades 304, 316,
309, and 310. They are susceptible to sensitization, which
means that their corrosion resistance in environments
usually encountered in petrochemical plants is reduced
by welding or by flame cutting, whether used for prepa-
ration of edges that are to be welded or for cutting of
Figure ‎2-2: Schematic Representation of The Grain openings. To regain full resistance to corrosion, it may be
Structure in Type 300 Sensitized Stainless Steel [10] necessary to give the weldment a final full solution
annealing. However, the required quick quenching may
Sensitization of all the material may be caused by slow introduce residual stresses which are too harmful for
cooling from annealing or stress-relieving temperatures. certain applications. To avoid impairing corrosion resis-
For instance, stainless steel parts welded to a carbon- tance, low-temperature stress relieving (below 800°F),
steel vessel shell can be sensitized by stress relief given to holding at that temperature for a relatively long time,
the carbon-steel shell. Welding will result in sensitization and then allowing the weldment to cool slowly, is some-
of a band of material 1/8 – 1/4 in. wide slightly removed times used. Obviously, this procedure is not very effec-
from and parallel to the weld on each side (Figure ‎2-3) tive, since the maximum locked-in stresses after a stress
[10]. relief, are equal to the depressed yield strength at the
stress-relieving temperature. In comparison with carbon
steels, the stainless steels require a much higher stress-
relieving temperature and a longer holding time, since
they retain their strength at elevated temperatures.
To summarize, the standard 18-8 stainless steels in the
solution-annealed state are suitable for parts in corrosive
environments, when no welding or stress relief are
required and the operating temperatures stay below
800°F [10].
2.4.2.4.1.2 Group II
Figure ‎2-3: Heat-Affected Zones, Susceptible to These are the stabilized stainless steels, Types 321 or
Intergranular Corrosion in Austenitic Stainless Steels [10] 347. Grain boundary sensitization is eliminated by using
alloying elements like titanium or columbium which
These two areas are the heat-affected zones where the stabilize the stainless steel by preempting the carbon:
steel has been held in the sensitizing range longer than because of their stronger affinity to carbon, they form
elsewhere and cooled slowly. The material in between, carbides in preference to the chromium, which stays in
including the weld metal, is not sensitized, since its solid solution in iron. The carbides formed do not tend to
temperature is raised well above I600°F and subsequent precipitate at the grain boundaries, but rather remain
cooling is comparatively rapid. Sensitization may not be dispersed through the metal. The creep strength of
harmful in certain environments, for instance if conti- stabilized stainless steels is superior to that of unstabi-
nuous exposure to liquids is not involved and when lized steels. Cb is stronger stabilizing agent than Ti,
operating temperature does not exceed 120°F. making Type 347 superior to Type 321.
The corrosion properties of sensitized steel can be res- Stabilized grades of stainless steel in the annealed con-
tored by desensitization that is, heating above 1600°F to dition are immune to intergranular corrosion. They can
dissolve carbides and subsequent rapid cooling. The be welded and stress relieved and cooled slowly in air.
effect of sensitization on mechanical properties is far less They can be annealed locally without sensitization of the
important, being almost negligible at intermediate adjacent areas. However, under certain special heat
temperatures, and causing some ductility loss at low treating conditions they can be sensitized and become
temperature. susceptible to a corrosion known as knifeline attack. They
present some problems when welded, being susceptible
to cracking. Their cost is quite high, and therefore they
56
Material
are used only for special jobs, such as for operating

temperatures above 800°F. They also tend to lose their
immunity to intergranular corrosion when their surfaces
are carburized by the process environment [10].
2.4.2.4.1.3 Group III

These are extra-low-carbon grades like 304L or 316L.
Grain boundary sensitization can be minimized by using
low-carbon stainless steels with 0.03 percent C maxi-
mum, at the expense of lowered strength. The rate of
chromium carbide precipitation is so retarded that they Figure ‎2-4: Heat-Affected Zone in a Straight Chromium
can be held within the 800-1500°F range for up to several Ferritic Stainless Steel. The Sensitized Zone Extends
hours without damage to their corrosion resistance. Across The Weld Deposit [10]
Extra-low-carbon stainless steels can be stress relieved,
welded, and slowly cooled without significantly increas- Sensitized ferritic stainless steel is much less corrosion
ing their susceptibility to intergranular attack. They are resistant then sensitized austenitic stainless steel. The
very often used in pressure vessel construction, either as methods used to suppress sensitization in austenitic
solid plate or for internal lining material. They are more stainless steels are not effective with ferritic stainless
expensive than normal-composition stainless steels steels. When ferritic stainless steels are heated into the
because of the difficulty and cost of removing the carbon. 750-900°F range for a prolonged period of time, notch
However, they are not equivalent to group II, since they toughness is reduced. This has been termed 885°F em-
are subject to sensitization if the operating temperature brittlement and has been ascribed to the precipitation of
remains in the 800-1 500°F range for a prolonged period a chromium rich -prime phase.
of time. Consequently, the extra-low-carbon grades can Ferritic stainless steels also exhibit lower ductility at
be used for applications at operating temperatures up to low temperatures, which limits their use in the low
800°F [10]. temperature range. In general, ferritic stainless steels are
seldom used in vessel construction, except for corrosion
2.4.2.4.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels resistant lining or cladding (grades 405 or 410S), heat-
Ferritic stainless steels usually include straight chro- exchanger tubing, and vessel internal hardware (trays) for
mium stainless steels with 16-30 percent chromium. They less corrosive environments, since they are not as expen-
are nonhardenable by heat treatment. A typical stainless sive as austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic and
steel of this group is type 430. The grade quite often used finished parts can be checked by a magnet [10].
for corrosion resistant cladding or lining is type 405,
which contains only 12 percent chromium; however, 2.4.2.4.3 Martensitic Stainless Steels
addition of aluminum renders it ferritic and nonhardena- Martensitic stainless steels include straight chromium
ble. When type 405 cools from high welding tempera- steels, usually with 11 to 16 percent chromium as alloying
tures there is no general transformation from austenite element. They are hardenable by heat treatment, that is,
to martensite and it does not harden in air. However, it their strength and hardness can be increased at the
may become brittle in heat-affected zones because of expense of ductility. Type 410 is typical of this group. In
rapid grain growth. Ferritic steels may become notch the annealed condition at room temperature it has
sensitive in heat-affected weld zones, and they are also ferritic structure. When heated from 1500°F to 1850°F its
susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Ferritic stainless microstructure changes to austenitic. If the steel is then
steels are sensitized by heating to a temperature of cooled suddenly, for instance as in deposited weld metal
I1700°F and then air cooled at normal rates. If they are with adjacent base metal zones in air, part of the auste-
cooled slowly (in a furnace) their resistance to intergra- nite changes into martensite, a hard and brittle material.
nular corrosion is preserved. Annealing of a sensitized If the cooling is very rapid from 1850°F, the final marten-
ferritic stainless steel at 1450°F allows chromium to sitic content will be at a maximum. Post-weld heat
diffuse into depleted parts to restore the corrosion treatment with controlled cooling will reduce residual
resistance. stresses and will allow the austenite to transform to
Welding of ferritic stainless steels sensitizes the weld ductile ferrite. With normal carbon content, the harde-
deposit and the immediately adjacent narrow bands of nability of straight chromium stainless steels is markedly
base material on both sides of the weld, as shown in reduced with above 14 percent chromium. With in-
Figure ‎2-4. The composition of electrodes used for weld- creased carbon content, they remain hardenable above
ing ferritic stainless steels is often such as to produce 14 percent up to 18 percent chromium. With 18 percent
austenitic or air-nonhardening high alloy weld metal [10]. chromium content they become non-hardening and their
57
Figure ‎2-7: Marerial Properties of Selected Materials in PV-Elite [13]
 Allowable stress: Enter the allowable stress for the yield stress from the yield stress database and automati-
element material at ambient, operating and hydro test cally fills in this value.
temperature. Under normal circumstance, the program  UCS-66 curves: Select the curve value for the material
will look up this allowable stress for you. If you enter a if required. Note that the material database returns the
valid material name in the material input field, the pro- non-normalized curve number (unless you check the box
gram will look into its database and determine the to return the normalized value) - adjust the curve number
allowable stress for the material at ambient, operating if you are using normalized material produced to fine
and hydro test temperature, and enter it into this cell. grain practice. If normalized material is used press the
The program will also determine this stress when you "Normalized" button and PV-Elite will automatically look
select a material name from the material selection up the curve if the chosen material is in the ASME data-
window. base.
 Nominal material density: Enter the nominal density  External pressure chart name: The program uses the
of the material. Note that the program will use this value chart name to calculate the B value for all external
to calculate component weigh. pressure and buckling calculations. It is important that
 P number thickness: Enter the thickness for this P this name be entered correctly.
number. Impact tested material: If you are using an impact tested
 Table UCS-57 of the ASME Code, Section VIII, Division material and no MDMT calculations are required, and
1 lists the maximum thickness above which full radiogra- then choose this selection. Some material specifications
phy is required for welded seams. This thickness is base such as SA-350 are impact tested when produced. In this
on the P number for the material listed in the allowable case, the value shown in the pull-down will be "Impact
stress tables of the Code. Tested".
 Yield stress: Enter the yield stress for the material at
the operating temperature. You can find this value in the
ASME Code, Section 2 Part D, they are not stored in the
material database. On selecting a material from the
material database, the program looks up its operating
62
Shell Design
3 Shell Design
vessels technology. Aircrafts, missiles, rockets, ships, and

3.1 Definition of Shells submarines are examples of the use of shells in aeronaut-
ical and marine engineering. Another application of shell
The shell is the primary component that contains the engineering is in the field of biomechanics: shells are
pressure. Pressure vessel shells are welded together to found in various biological forms, such as the eye and the
form a structure that has a common rotational axis. Most skull, and plant and animal shapes. This is only a small list
pressure vessel shells are cylindrical, spherical, or conical of shell forms in engineering and nature [15].
in shape. Horizontal drums have cylindrical shells and are Shells are curved load-bearing structures. Their geome-
fabricated in a wide range of diameters and lengths. Tall try is entirely defined by specifying the form of the mid-
vertical towers are constructed in a wide range of shell plane and the thickness of the shell at each point. Exter-
diameters and heights [3]. nal loads act on the upper and lower surface of the shell
Most of the shells are generated by the revolution of a and in the mid-plane on its boundary. The internal forces
plane curve [14]. The term shell is applied to bodies consist of membrane forces, transverse shears, bending
bounded by two curved surfaces, where the distance moments and twisting moments. External loads are
between the surfaces is small in comparison with other transmitted to the supports mainly by forces that are
body dimensions (Figure ‎3-1). The vessel geometries can continuously distributed over the thickness and act in
be broadly divided into plate- and shell-type configura- mid-plane of the shell [16].
tions. The shell-type construction is the preferred form Cast, Forged, Rolled, or Die Formed Nonstandard Pres-
because it requires less thickness (as can be demonstrat- sure Parts such as shells that are wholly formed by
ed analytically) and therefore less material is required for casting, forging, rolling, or die forming may be supplied
its manufacture. Shell-type pressure components such as basically as materials [4].
pressure vessel and heat exchanger shells and heads of
Shell structures support applied external forces effi-
different geometric configurations resist pressure primar-
ciently by virtue of their geometrical form, i.e., spatial
ily by membrane action. Cylindrical shells are used in
curvatures; as a result, shells are much stronger and
nuclear, fossil and petrochemical industries [2].
stiffer than other structural forms [15].
Thin shells as structural elements occupy a leadership
There are two different classes of shells: thick shells
position in engineering and, in particular, in civil, mechan-
and thin shells. A shell is called thin if the maximum value
ical, architectural, aeronautical, and marine engineering
of the ratio (where is the radius of curvature of the
(Figure ‎3-2). In mechanical engineering, shell forms are
middle surface) can be neglected in comparison with
used in piping systems, turbine disks, and pressure
unity. For an engineering accuracy, a shell may be re-
63
Figure ‎3-3: Elastic Shell Element
If a general external (surface) load is acting on the shell, There are only six equation of static equilibrium availa-
the loading on the shell element can be divided into three ble and this problem is four times indeterminate.
components; as shown in Figure ‎3-3a. A Membrane shell theory solves shell problems where
thin, elastic shell element resist loads by means of inter- the internal stresses are due only to membrane stress
nal (body) stress resultant and stress couples, acting at resultants . The shear stress resultants
the cross sections of the differential element, as shown ( ) for axisymmetrical loads such as internal
separately in Figure ‎3-3b, c and d. The surfaces forces act pressure are equal to zero, which further simplifies the
on the surfaces, outside or inside, while the body forces solution. The membrane stress resultants can be com-
act over the volume of the element. Since the element puted from basic static equilibrium equations and the
must be in equilibrium, static equilibrium equations can resultant stresses in the shell are:
be derived.
Longitudinal stress:
There are ten unknown parameters:
(‎3-1)
Membrane forces acting in the plane of the shell sur-
face: Tangential stress:
Transverse shear: (‎3-2)
Bending stress couple:
Bending shell theory, in addition to membrane stresses,
Twisting stress couple: including bending stress resultants and transverse shear
66
Shell Design
forces (Figure ‎3-3 c). Here the number of unknowns In the development of thin shell theories, simplification
exceeds the number of static equilibrium conditions and is accomplished by reducing the shell problems to the
additional differential equations have to be derived from study of deformations of the middle surface.
the deformation relations. Once the membrane stress A theory that takes into account finite or large defor-
resultants and and the resultant moments and mations is referred to as a geometrically nonlinear theory
are determined the stresses in shell are: of thin shells. Additionally, a shell may be physically
Longitudinal stress: nonlinear with respect to the stress–strain relations. In
this case, the efficiency of thin shells can be reduced
(‎3-3) considerably.
Tangential stress: To avoid the possibility of buckling, a shell structure
should be designed in such a way that a dominant part of
(‎3-4)
the structure is in tension [15].
Shear stress:
(‎3-5)
3.3 ASME Code & Handbooks Formulas
3.3.1 Nomenclature
Longitudinal/meridional stress (MPa)
circumferential/latitudinal stress (MPa)
radial stress (MPa)
Membrane forces acting in the plane of the shell surface (N)
Transverse shear (MPa)
Bending stress couple (MPa)
Twisting stress couple (MPa)
Joint efficiency for, or the efficiency of, appropriate joint in cylindrical or spherical shells, or the efficiency
of ligaments between openings, whichever is less.
Internal design pressure (see [4] UG-21) (MPa)
Outside radius of the shell course under consideration (mm)
Maximum allowable stress value (see [4] UG-23 and the stress limitations specified in [4] UG-24) (MPa)
Minimum required thickness of shell (mm)
Factor determined from Figure ‎3-9 and used to enter the applicable material chart in Subpart 3 of Section
II, Part D. For the case of cylinders having values less than 10, see [4] UG-28(c) (2).
Factor determined from the applicable material chart or table in Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D for maxi-
mum design metal temperature [see [4] UG-20(c)]
outside diameter of cylindrical shell course or tube (mm)
Modulus of elasticity of material at design temperature. For external pressure design in accordance with
this Section, the modulus of elasticity to be used shall be taken from the applicable materials chart in
Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D. (Interpolation may be made between lines for intermediate temperatures.)
(MPa)
Total length, of a tube between tube sheets, or design length of a vessel section between lines of support
(see Figure ‎3-4) (mm)
external design pressure (MPa)
Calculated value of maximum allowable external working pressure for the assumed value of . (MPa)
outside radius of spherical shell (mm)
Minimum required thickness of cylindrical shell or tube, or spherical shell (mm)
nominal thickness of cylindrical shell or tube (mm)
2
cross-sectional area of the stiffening ring (mm )
available moment of inertia of the stiffening ring cross section about its neutral axis parallel to the axis of
4
the shell (mm )
Available moment of inertia of combined shell-cone or ring-shell-cone cross section about its neutral axis
parallel to the axis of the shell. The nominal shell thickness shall be used, and the width of the shell
which is taken as contributing to the moment of inertia of the combined section shall not be greater than
and shall be taken as lying one-half on each side of the cone-to- cylinder junction or of the
centroid of the ring. Portions of the shell plate shall not be considered as contributing area to more than
4
one stiffening ring. (mm )
required moment of inertia of the stiffening ring cross section about its neutral axis parallel to the axis of
67
4
the shell (mm )
required moment of inertia of the combined shell-cone or ring-shell-cone cross section about its neutral
4
axis parallel to the axis of the shell (mm )
one-half of the distance from the centerline of the stiffening ring to the next line of support on one side,
plus one-half of the centerline distance to the next line of support on the other side of the stiffening ring,
both measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder. (mm)
Or
3.3.2 Cylindrical Shell under Internal Pressure
These formulas related to the ASME Code Section VIII, (‎3-9)
Division 1 that applies for pressures that exceed 15 psi
(100 KPa) and through 3,000 psi (20 MPa). At pressures 2. Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints):
below 15 psi (100 KPa), the ASME Code is not applicable. When the thickness does not exceed one-half of the
At pressures above 3,000 psi (20 MPa), additional design inside radius, or P does not exceed 1.25SE, the following
rules are required to cover the design and construction formulas shall apply:
requirements that are needed at such high pressures at
ASME Code Section VIII, Division 2 that will be explained (‎3-10)
in detail in chapter ‎10.
The idealized equations for the calculation of hoop and Or
longitudinal stresses, respectively, in a cylindrical shell
under internal pressure are as follows: (‎3-11)
(‎3-6) These formulas will govern only when the circumferen-

tial joint efficiency is less than one-half the longitudinal
(‎3-7) joint efficiency, or when the effect of supplementary
loadings ( [4] UG-22) causing longitudinal bending or
These equations assume a uniform stress distribution tension in conjunction with internal pressure is being
through the thickness of the shell. Note that the longitu- investigated [4].
dinal stress is half the hoop stress. Since this is an idea- Usually the stress in the long seam is governing.
lized state, the ASME Code formulas have been modified When the wall thickness exceeds one half of the inside
to account for no ideal behavior that is mentioned below. radius or P exceeds 0.385 SE, the formulas given in the
The minimum required thickness of shells under inter- Code [4] Appendix 1-2 shall be applied [14].
nal pressure shall not be less than that computed by the When necessary, vessels shall be provided with stiffen-
following formulas. In addition, provision shall be made ers or other additional means of support to prevent
for any of the loadings listed in [4] UG-22, when such overstress or large distortions under the external load-
loadings are expected. The provided thickness of the ings listed in [4] UG-22 other than pressure and tempera-
shells shall also meet the requirements of [4] UG-16, ture.
except as permitted in [4] Appendix 32.
A stayed jacket shell that extends completely around a
The symbols defined below are used in the formulas of cylindrical or spherical vessel shall also meet the re-
inside dimensions at this paragraph. quirements of [4] UG-47(c).
Any reduction in thickness within a shell course or
For welded vessels, use the efficiency specified in [4] spherical shell shall be in accordance with [4] UW-9 [4].
UW-12. The internal pressure at which the weakest element of
For ligaments between openings, use the efficiency the vessel is loaded to the ultimate permissible point,
calculated by the rules given in [4] UG-53. when the vessel is assumed to be [14]:
The minimum thickness or maximum allowable working  In corroded condition
pressure of cylindrical shells shall be the greater thickness  Under the effect of a designated temperature
or lesser pressure as given by (1) or (2) below.  In normal operating position at the top
1. Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints):  Under the effect of other loadings (wind load, exter-
When the thickness does not exceed one-half of the nal pressure, hydrostatic pressure, etc.) which are addi-
inside radius, or P does not exceed 0.385SE, the following tive to the internal pressure.
formulas shall apply: The symbols defined below are used in the formulas of
outside dimensions at this paragraph.
(‎3-8)
68
Figure ‎3-6: Various Arrangement of Stiffening Rings for Cylindrical Vessels Subjected to External Pressure [4]
d) When internal plane structures perpendicular to the NOTE: Attention is called to the objection to supporting
longitudinal axis of the cylinder (such as bubble trays or vessels through the medium of legs or brackets, the
baffle plates) are used in a vessel, they may also be arrangement of which may cause concentrated loads to
considered to act as stiffening rings provided they are be imposed on the shell. Vertical vessels should be
designed to function as such. supported through a substantial ring secured to the shell
e) Any internal stays or supports used as stiffeners of the (see [4] appendix G-3). Horizontal vessels, unless sup-
shell shall bear against the shell of the vessel through the ported at or close to the ends (heads) or at stiffening
medium of a substantially continuous ring. rings, should be supported through the medium of
74
Figure ‎4-4: Heads Attached to Shell (Head is Thinner Part) [4]
When a taper is required on any formed head thicker enough so that the required length of taper does not
than the shell and intended for butt welded attachment extend beyond the tangent line.
[Figure ‎4-5, sketches (l) and (m)], the skirt shall be long
Figure ‎4-5: Heads Attached to Shell (Shell is Thinner Part) [4]
When the transition is formed by removing material cone design. In this section it will be illustrated for inter-
from the thicker section, the minimum thickness of that nal pressure depending on [4] APP.1-5 and for external
section, after the material is removed, shall not be less pressure depending on [4] APP.1-8.
than that required by other rules of vessel thickness General notes are established here and for complete
calculation. The centerline misalignment between shell procedures see related part in section ‎4.7.
and head shall be no greater than one-half the difference
The nomenclature for the related procedures is shown
between the actual shell and head thickness, as illu-
on ‎4.2.1.
strated in Figure ‎4-4, Figure ‎4-5 [4].
Values of for different values of are listed in Table ‎4-3
4.4 Rules for Reinforcement of Cone-To- to Table ‎4-5.
Cylinder Junction
Because of the large stresses that occur in the cone-to-
cylinder junction, this part shall be considered as a part of
102
Head Design
Type
[4] App. L-2.3
Cone
[4] app.1-5 (g) No   30
Yes
50 * 2 * 100 50 * 2 * 50
t  0.389 t  0.194
2 * 0.86617500 * 0.85  0.6 * 50 2 * 0.86617500* 0.85  0.6 * 50
t(assumed)=0.438 in
50 50
 0 . 00286 Large end L. OR S. Small end
17500 * 11
 0 .00286
17500 * 1 Table 4-3 END Table 4-4
  4 .57
  17 . 58
Reinforcement
17.58  30 YES is not required YES 4.57  30
NO NO
Ring Ring
Y  17500 * 30e6 On shell
Location
On cone Y  SC EC Y  17500 * 30e6 On shell Location
On cone Y  SC EC
17500 * 30e6
k
14500 * 30e6
 1.21 k  1.21
50*100
QL   250 QS 
50 * 50
 62.5
2 2
1.21*2750*100 17.58 1.21*1312.5 * 50  4.57 
ArL  1 *.577 4.54 ArS  1   * 0.577  2.22
17500*1  30  K=1
17500*1  30 
K=1
AeS  0.78 50 * 0.1880.188  0.143  0.438  0.195 / 0.866  0.78
AeL  0.3130.286 100*0.3130.4380.389 100*0.438/ 0.866 0.5
St.Ring shall be
As >= 4.54-0.5 added.
=4.04 in^2
Select a profile
Yes 4.54  0.5 As >= 2.22-0.78
Yes 2 .22  0 .78
=1.44
with above As
Select a profile
No With As,I
No
k 1 No
k 1 No
Junction is stiffened Yes Junction is stiffened Yes
Figure ‎4-12: Head Design Example (Conical Section under Internal Pressure)
Example that is shown on Figure ‎4-13 is related to [4]

APP. L-6.1. Given:
Some data of this example are such as below:
Required: Head thickness under external pressure
111
External Pressure
2 Conical & Toriconical Head Type
Ellipsoidal / Torispherical/spherical
PR Ellipsoidal / Torispherical
t  NO
2 SE  0 .2 P [4] App. L-6.1
Yes
t  0 .5625
0 . 125
Select larger t FactorA   4 . 622 e  4
152 . 1 / 0 . 5625
ASME SEC.II-PART D-3 charts

No
0 . 625  E
Pa 
R o 2
Yes A is falling left side of mat.line
/ t
No
(Read Factor B)
5100
18 . 9  15 Pa   18 . 9 psi
152 . 1 / 0 . 5625
Yes
Round t to commercial size
MAWP is calculated.? No
Yes
t & MAWP is calculated.
Figure ‎4-13: Head Design Example (Ellipsoidal, Torispherical, Hemispherical Head under External Pressure)
Examples shown on Figure ‎4-14 are related to [4] APP.

L-6.4 and L-3.3.1 respectively. Shell (ID, req.thk, nominal thk.) at large end of cone =
Some data of these examples are such as below: (200, 1.22, 1.25) in
Given: Shell (ID, req.thk, nominal thk.) at small end of cone =
(50, 0.33, 0.375) in
Cone req. thk. At large end=1.22 in
Cone req. thk. At small end=0.55 in
Nominal cone thk. =1.25 in,
112
Design of Openings and Nozzles
5 Design of Openings and Nozzles
 Nozzles attached to pipes to convey the working fluid

5.1 Definition and Classification of Open- inside and outside of the vessel
 Instrument nozzles
ings  Compartment for other equipments
For all openings, however, nozzles may not be neces-
5.1.1 Description of Openings and Applica- sary. In some cases we have nozzles and piping that are
attached to the openings, while in other cases there
tions could be a manway cover plate or a handhole cover plate
A nozzle is a cylindrical component that penetrates the that is welded or attached by bolts to the pad area of the
shell or heads of a pressure vessel. The nozzle ends are opening. Nozzles or openings may be subjected to inter-
usually flanged to allow for the necessary connections nal or external pressure, along with attachment loads
and to permit easy disassembly for maintenance or coming from equipment and piping due to differential
access. Nozzles are used for the following applications: thermal expansion and other sources.
 Attach piping for flow into or out of the vessel The design of openings and nozzles is based on two
 Attach instrument connections, (e.g., level gauges, considerations:
thermowells, or pressure gauges)  Primary membrane stress in the vessel must be within
 Provide access to the vessel interior at manways the limits set by allowable tensile stress.
 Provide for direct attachment of other equipment  Peak stresses should be kept within acceptable limits
items, (e.g., a heat exchanger or mixer) to ensure satisfactory fatigue life.
Nozzles are also sometimes extended into the vessel Because of removal of material at the location of the
interior for some applications, such as for inlet flow holes, there is a general weakening of the shell. The
distribution or to permit the entry of thermowells. amount of weakening is of course dependent on the
Openings in pressure vessels in the regions of shells or diameter of the hole, the number of holes, and how far
heads are required to serve the following purposes: the holes are spaced from one another. One of the ways
 Manways for letting personnel in and out of the the weakening is accommodated for is by introducing
vessel to perform routine maintenance and repair material either by weld deposits or by forging. The
 Holes for draining or cleaning the vessel aspects of stress intensification as well as reinforcement
 Hand hole openings for inspecting the vessel from will be addressed in this chapter [4].
outside
117
2. Opening(s) may be located in the rim space sur-

rounding the central opening. See Figure ‎5-10. Such (‎5-29)
openings may be reinforced by area replacement in
accordance with the formula in b) 1) above using as a (‎5-30)
required head thickness the thickness that satisfies rules
of [4] Appendix 14. Multiple rim openings shall meet Where
spacing rules of b) 2) and b) 3) above. Alternatively, the = average diameter of the same two adjacent
head thickness that meets the rules of [4] Appendix 14 openings
may be increased by multiplying it by the square root of = smallest ligament efficiency of adjacent opening
two (1.414) if only a single opening is placed in the rim pairs in the head
space or if spacing p between two such openings is twice
= center-to-center spacing of two adjacent openings
or more than their average diameter. For spacing less
than twice their average diameter, the thickness that 5. Spacings of less than the average diameter of
satisfies Appendix 14 shall be divided by the square root adjacent openings shall be treated by rules of [4] U-2(g).
of efficiency factor e, where e is defined in (e)(2) below. 6. In no case shall the width of ligament between two
The rim opening(s) shall not be larger in diameter than adjacent openings be less than one-quarter the diameter
one-quarter the differences in head diameter less central of the smaller of the two openings in the pair.
opening diameter. The minimum ligament width U shall 7. The width of ligament between the edge of any one
not be less than one-quarter the diameter of the smaller opening and the edge of the flat head (such as U3 or U5
of the two openings in the pair. A minimum ligament in Figure ‎5-10) shall not be less than one-quarter the
width of one-quarter the diameter of the rim opening diameter of that one opening [4].
applies to ligaments designated as U2, U4, U3, and U5 in
Figure ‎5-10.
3. When the large opening is any other type than that
described in c) 1) above, there are no specific rules given.
Consequently, the requirements of [4] U-2(g) shall be
met.
d) As an alternative to b1 above, the thickness of flat
heads and covers with a single opening with a diameter
that does not exceed one-half the head diameter may be
increased to provide the necessary reinforcement as
follows:
1. In Formula (1) or (3) of UG-34(c), use 2C or 0.75 in
place of C, whichever is the lesser; except that, for
sketches (b-1), (b-2), (e), (f), (g), and (i) of Figure ‎5-9, use
2C or 0.50, whichever is the lesser.
2. In Formula (2) or (5) of UG-34(c), double the quanti-
ty under the square root sign.
e) Multiple openings none of which have diameters
exceeding one-half the head diameter and no pair having
an average diameter greater than one-quarter the head
diameter may be reinforced as follows:
3. When the spacing between a pair of adjacent
openings is equal to or greater than twice the average
diameter of the pair, and this is so for all opening pairs,
the head thickness may be determined by rules in d)
above.
4. When the spacing between adjacent openings in a
pair is less than twice but equal to or greater than
the average diameter of the pair, the required head Figure ‎5-10 : Multiple Openings in Rim of Heads with a
thickness shall be that determined by d) above multiplied Large Central Opening [4]
by a factor h, where
128
Figure ‎5-14 continued: Some Acceptable Types of Small

Standard Fittings [4]
5.3.7 Welded Connections

a) Nozzles, other connections, and their reinforcements
may be attached to pressure vessels by arc or gas weld-
ing. Sufficient welding shall be provided on either side of
the line through the center of the opening parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the shell to develop the strength of
the reinforcing parts as prescribed in ‎5.2.6 through shear
or tension in the weld, whichever is applicable. The
strength of groove welds shall be based on the area
subjected to shear or to tension. The strength of fillet
weld shall be based on the area subjected to shear
(computed on the minimum leg dimension). The inside
Figure ‎5-14 : Some Acceptable Types of Small Standard diameter of a fillet weld shall be used in figuring its
Fittings [4]
length.
b) Strength calculations for nozzle attachment welds for
pressure loading are not required for the following:
1. Figure ‎5-13 sketches (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f-1), (f-2),
(f-3), (f-4), (g), (x-1), (y-1), and (z-1), and all the sketches
in Figs. UHT-18.1 and UHT-18.2;
2. Openings that are exempt from the reinforcement
requirements by ‎5.2.1(3);
3. Openings designed in accordance with the rules for
ligaments in [4] UG-53.
c) The allowable stress values for groove and fillet welds
in percentages of stress values for the vessel material,
which are used with ‎5.2.6 calculations, are as follows:
1. groove-weld tension, 74%
2. groove-weld shear, 60%
3. fillet-weld shear, 49%
NOTE: These values are obtained by combining the
following factors:
% for combined end and side loading, 80% for
shear strength and the applicable joint efficiency factors
[4].
5.3.8 Specification of Weld Loads and Weld

Figure ‎5-14 continued: Some Acceptable Types of Small Strength Path
Standard Fittings [4] To specify weld loads and weld strength path see Fig-
ure ‎5-15.
For nozzle neck inserted through the vessel wall:
138
Design of Openings and Nozzles
Table ‎5-4: Sign Convention for Stresses Resulting from Radial and Moment Loading on a
Cylindrical Shell [19]
LOADING
STRESS LOCATION
- -
Membrane - +
& - -
- +
- -
+ +
- +
Bending + -
- -
+ +
- +
+ -
- -
+ +
- +
Bending + -
- -
+ +
- +
+ -
Notes for Table ‎5-4: 2. Attachment Parameter : For cylindrical shells,
1. Sign convention for stresses: + tension, - compression. either round or rectangular attachments may be consi-
2. If load or moment directions reverse, all signs in applica- dered in the following manner:
ble column reverse.
 Round Attachment: For a round attachment the
5.9.4.2 Parameters parameter β is evaluated using the expression:
The results of Bijlaard’ s work have been plotted in
terms of nondimensional geometric parameters by use of (‎5-85)
an electronic computer. Hence, the first step in this
procedure is to evaluate the applicable geometric para-  Square Attachment: For a square attachment the
meters and [19]. parameter is evaluated by:
1. Shell Parameter : The shell parameter is given by (‎5-86)
the ratio of the shell mid-radius to shell thickness thus:
 Rectangular Attachment Subject to Radial Load :
(‎5-84) For this case is evaluated as follows:
155
Flange and Gasket Design
flange. In these cases, holes have to be punched in the

6.2 Gaskets gasket to permit the installation of the bolts. For this
reason flat faced flanges are sometimes called full faced
A gasket is used to create a seal between mating sur- flanges. Unconfined flat faced and raised face flanges are
faces of machines or piping assemblies. The seal is neces- shown in Figure ‎6-3.
sary to prevent leakage of gas, liquid, or dust into or out Semiconfined
of these assemblies. The gasket must be able to with-
Semiconfined flange faces are designed for circular
stand the pressures applied to it and to be unaffected by
shapes where the gasket is located accurately by the
the temperature or materials that it comes in contact
flange. Several types of semiconfined flange faces are
with.
shown in Figure ‎6-4.
When a gasket is clamped between the mating surfaces
of a joint it must deform enough to compensate for the
imperfections in the finish of the mating surfaces.
It would not be economical to machine all surfaces to a
mirror finish, and the bumps, scrapes, and corrosion of
normal use would soon reduce the quality of the finish.
Tool marks are usually evident on the surfaces of most
machine pieces. The clamping pressure applied to these
joints does not create enough distortion in the flanges to
effect a seal, so a gasket, placed between these surfaces,
deforms to fill in the valleys and compress on the high
points. The gasket must be soft enough to deform, yet
strong enough to resist being squeezed out by the pres-
sure carried in the machinery.
It is desirable to have some roughness (tool markings)
on most flange surfaces to help grip the gasket and
prevent it from creeping under internal pressure. These
tool marks should run the same way as the lay of the
gasket; that is, a circular gasket should have circular tool
marks in the flange face. Figure ‎6-3: Unconfined Flange Faces
There are two types of tool marks (ridges) on flanges:
1. Concentric: where the ridges and hollows are in
concentric rings around the flange face.
2. Phonographic: where one continuous groove spirals
around many times until it reaches the opposite edge of
the flange (similar to a phonograph record).
In theory, concentric is more desirable because each
tool mark is a separate, closed ring thereby reducing leak
paths. In practice, phonographic rings seem to work just
as well. Care should be taken to prevent scratches or
dents which run cross-grain to these ridges, as a leak
channel could be established.
6.2.1 Flange Faces

Gaskets fit between mating surfaces or flanges. It is
these flanges that provide the sealing surfaces and the
means of bolting the surface together. Flange faces fall
into three main groups: unconfined, semiconfined, and
confined.
Unconfined
Unconfined flange faces as those used for machine case
joints and large circular joints. Sometimes the gasket in a
flat faced flange extends to the outside edge of the Figure ‎6-4: Semiconfined (Male-Female) Flange Faces
195
Confined
Confined flange faces are used for circular flanges with
narrow gaskets located in grooves. These flange configu-
rations are used for high pressure applications. Figure ‎6-5
shows a groove to flat flange face and a tongue and
groove flange face.
Figure ‎6-7: RTJ Oval, Solid Metal, Heavy Cross-Section

Gasket
Figure ‎6-8: Cross Sections of Various Heavy Metal RTJs

Figure ‎6-5: Confined Flange Faces
Figure ‎6-6 shows a confined flange configuration for a

6.2.2 Gasket Compatibility
ring type joint commonly known as RTJs with an oval, It's necessary for the gasket in any joint to be compati-
solid metal, heavy cross-section type gasket. These ble with the service that it is being used for. Since the
gaskets are used for high pressure applications. gasket comes in contact with the process and the envi-
ronment, several considerations must be made before
using just any material for a gasket.
Some gasket material could be dissolved by solvents
carried in the process. Corrosive action could attack the
wrong gasket material. The gasket must be able to stand
the pressure of the process. Temperature increases the
solvent or corrosive action of some materials. Another
temperature consideration is that the gasket material
may become soft or plastic enough to creep under the
load exerted by the flange bolts. At extreme tempera-
tures some gaskets may be oxidized.
Table 6-6 indicates the maximum temperatures of
Figure ‎6-6: Confined, Ring Type Joint
common metals used for gaskets.
The RTJ gaskets are machined from various types of
metal into rings (Figure ‎6-7). These rings have different Table ‎6-6: Maximum Temperatures for Common
cross-sectional areas (Figure ‎6-8) depending upon appli- Metals
cation and manufacturer.
Lead 100°C 212°F
Common Brasses 260°C 500°F
Copper 315°C 600°F
Aluminum 427°C 800°F
Stainless Steel, Type 304 538°C 1000°F
196
Supporting Design
Table ‎7-8: Seismic Source Type [21]
Seismic Source Type Seismic Source Description

Faults that are capable of producing large magnitude events and that have a high rate of seismic
A
activity
B All faults other than Types A and C
Faults that are not capable of producing large magnitude earthquakes and have a relatively low
C
rate of seismic activity
Table ‎7-9: Near-Source Factors ( & ) [21]
Closest Distance to Known Seismic Source

Seismic Source Type ≤2 km 5 km 10 km ≥15 km
A 1.5 2.0 1.2 1.6 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.0
B 1.3 1.6 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Notes for Table ‎7-9: 3. The closest distance to seismic source shall be taken as
1. The Near-Source Factor may be based on the linear the minimum distance between the site and the area described
interpolation of values for distances other than those shown in by the vertical projection of the source on the surface (i.e.,
the table. surface projection of fault plane). The surface projection need
2. The location and type of seismic sources to be used for not include portions of the source at depths of 10 km or great-
design shall be established based on approved geotechnical er. The largest value of the Near-Source Factor considering all
data (e.g., most recent mapping of active faults by the United sources shall be used for design.
States Geological Survey or the California Division of Mines and Each structure shall be assigned two seismic coeffi-
Geology). cients, and , in accordance with Table ‎7-10.
Table ‎7-10: Seismic Coefficients ( & ) [21]
Seismic Zone Factor, Z

Soil Profile Type Z=0.075 Z=0.15 Z=0.2 Z=0.3 Z=0.4
0.06 0.06 0.12 0.12 0.16 0.16 0.24 0.24 0.32 0.32
0.08 0.08 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.40
0.09 0.13 0.18 0.25 0.24 0.32 0.33 0.45 0.40 0.56
0.12 0.18 0.22 0.32 0.28 0.40 0.36 0.54 0.44 0.64
0.19 0.26 0.30 0.50 0.34 0.64 0.36 0.84 0.36 0.96
Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be performed to
determine seismic coefficients for Soil Profile Type .
R is numerical coefficient representative of the inhe- force-resisting systems that can be obtained from Table
rent over strength and global ductility capacity of lateral- ‎7-11 [21].
Table ‎7-11: R Factor For Nonbuilding Structures [21]
Structure Type R
Self-supporting stacks 2.9
Vertical vessels on skirts 2.9
Vessels, including tanks and pressurized spheres, on braced or unbraced legs 2.2
Horizontal vessels on piers 2.9
213
Seismic zone, soil profile, and are usually given in 9. Summary of deflection at top:
Design Basis.
First period of vibration ( (sec)) should be determined (‎7-17)
according to the following procedure. This procedure is
used for finding period of vibration at various planes for
10. Summary of deflection at center:
non-uniform vessels. A “non-uniform” vertical vessel is
one that varies in diameter, thickness, or weight at
different elevations. This procedure distributes the
(‎7-18)
seismic forces and thus base shear, along the column in
proportion to the weights of each section. The results are
a more accurate and realistic distribution of forces and
11. Natural period of vibration:
accordingly a more accurate period of vibration.
1. The column should be divided into sections of
uniform weight and diameter not to exceed 20% of the (‎7-19)
overall height. Sections are numbered from bottom to
top. A uniform weight is calculated for each section. The dimension of should be in meter.
2. The following parameters should be determined for The top deflection ( for section n) must not exceed
each section:
total vessel length/200.
3. Shear force at the top of each section:
The above procedure is suitable for determining period
(‎7-7) of vibration for vessels supported on skirt, lug and saddle.
For vessels supported on leg the following formulas shall
be used:
(‎7-8)
(‎7-20)
(‎7-9)
4. Moment by shear force:

(‎7-21)
(‎7-10)
Deflection must not exceed .
(‎7-11)
Now the total design base shear in a given direction
shall be determined from the following formula:
(‎7-12)
(‎7-22)
5. Moment of inertia of individual section:
For rigid structures (those with period T less than 0.06
(‎7-13) second) the following formula should be used instead:
6. Deflection at top of individual section: (‎7-23)
The total design base shear need not exceed the fol-
(‎7-14) lowing:
(‎7-24)
7. Deflection at center of individual section :
The total design base shear shall not be less than the
following:
(‎7-15)
(‎7-25)
8. Rotation of individual section: Additionally, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear
shall also not be less than the following:
(‎7-16) (‎7-26)
214
Supporting Design
For vessels supported on lug or other supports when 7.6 Design of Skirt
the vessel is situated on a structure, the total base shear
is determined using the following formulas:
7.6.1 Nomenclature
(‎7-27) period of vibration (Sec.)
internal pressure (Pa)
external pressure (Pa)
(‎7-28)
total weight of vessel at bottom tangent line (N)
mean shell diameter=mean skirt diameter (m)
(‎7-29) corroded shell thickness (m)
overturning moment at bottom tangent line (max
Where is the vessel support elevation with respect due to wind or seismic) (N-m)
to grade and is the structure roof elevation with joint efficiency of shell
respect to grade. is the in-structure component joint efficiency of skirt-head attachment weld
code allowable compressive stress (Pa)
amplification factor that its value is for all supports
code allowable tensile stress (Pa)
except leg and lug when lug is located under the center of minimum yield stress (Pa)
gravity of the vessel that its value is . The value of width of unreinforced opening in skirt (m)
is usually [21]. total vessel weight at base (N)
Since allowable stress is used instead of yield stress, modulus of elasticity (Pa)
the total base shear obtained from the above formulas number of anchor bolts
2
should be divided by 1.4. required area of anchor bolts (m )
allowable tension stress of anchor bolts (Pa)
This seismic shear is applied at base, so this total force mean skirt radius (m)
shall be distributed over the height of the structure in corroded thickness of skirt (m)
conformance with following formulas in the absence of a top ring thickness (m)
more rigorous procedure. top ring width (m)
3
section modulus of skirt (m )
height of anchor chair (m)
(‎7-30) bolt circle diameter (m)
maximum of wind and seismic top deflection (m)
The concentrated force at the top, which is in addi- overall vessel height (m)
tion to , shall be determined from the formula: distance between the top plate bolt hole and the
end of top plate (m)
diameter of hole in top plate (m)
(‎7-31)
distance between two adjacent gussets which
contains bolt (m)
(‎7-32) allowable bending stress (Pa)
top plate width (m)
base plate width (m)
When T is 0.7 second or less, . For saddle T is
Poisson’s ratio, 0.3 for steel
usually less than 0.7. distance between the top plate bolt hole and the
The remaining portion of the base shear shall be distri- junction of top plate to skirt (m)
buted over the height of the structure, including Level n, washer dimension according to its shape (m)
according to the following formula: compressive stress (obtained from anchor bolt
part) (Pa)
minimum of and (m)
(‎7-33)
concrete allowable compressive stress (Pa)
ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to concrete
Where is the height of center of gravity of each sec- overturning moment at base (max due to
tion from the base and is the weight of each section. wind or seismic) (N-m)
is applied at center of gravity of each level designated shear force at base (N)
as . bolt circle radius (m)
2
If the weight is distributed uniformly, and selected root area of anchor bolts (m )
width of base plate (m)
is applied at center of gravity of equipment.
allowable bearing pressure (Pa)
distance between two adjacent bolts (m)
7.6.2 Skirt Design Procedure

The following notes should be considered:
215
Supporting Design
Design of saddle supports and properties (Figure ‎7-13) [11]:
Figure ‎7-13: Dimensions of horizontal vessels and saddles [11]
 Longitudinal force per saddle:

(‎7-184)
(‎7-178)
 Total longitudinal load per saddle:
 Transversal force per saddle:
(‎7-185)
(‎7-179)
 Maximum load per saddle:
 Load per saddle, operating:
(‎7-186)
(‎7-180)
Saddle properties [11]:
 Load per saddle, test:  Preliminary web ( ) and rib ( ) thicknesses:
(‎7-181) (‎7-187)
 Vertical load per saddle due to longitudinal loads:  Number of ribs required:
(‎7-188)
(‎7-182)
The obtained from above formula shall be rounded
up to the nearest even number.
 Vertical load per saddle due to transversal loads:
 Minimum width of saddle at top:
(‎7-183)
(‎7-189)
 Total transversal load per saddle:
233
Where is the allowable bending stress and

(‎7-194)
is the elevation of saddle plus shell thickness.
 Minimum wear plate width: Cross-sectional area of saddle (excluding shell):
(‎7-190)
(‎7-195)
 Minimum wear plate thickness:
Web [11]:
(‎7-191) Saddle splitting forces and bending in saddle due to
these splitting forces are shown in Figure ‎7-15 and Figure
 Moment of inertia of saddle: ‎7-16 respectively.
First Table ‎7-19 shall be completed according to Figure
‎7-14 in which
 =area of section
 =distance from axis to center of section
 =moment of inertia of section (for rectangles:
)
Figure ‎7-15: Saddle Splitting Forces [11]
Figure ‎7-14: Cross-Sectional Properties of Saddles [11]
Table ‎7-19: Cross-Sectional Properties of Saddles [11]
Figure ‎7-16: Bending in Saddle Due to Splitting Forces

[11]
Web is in tension and bending as a result of saddle

splitting forces. The saddle splitting forces, , are the
sum of all the horizontal reactions on the saddle.
Now moment of inertia can be obtained from the fol-
lowing formulas.  Saddle coefficient:
(‎7-192) (‎7-196)
is in radians ( ).
(‎7-193)
 Saddle splitting force:
234
Supporting Design
Assumes uniform load fixed in center.

(‎7-197)
Base plate analysis for offset web [11]:
 Tension stress: Loading Diagram and Dimensions for Base Plate with an
Offset Web is shown in Figure ‎7-18.
(‎7-198)
shall not exceed . For tension assume saddle

depth, , as maximum.
 Bending moment:
(‎7-199)
is in radians.
(‎7-200)
 Bending stress:
(‎7-201)
shall not exceed .

Base plate with center web [11]:
Loading diagram of base plate is illustrated in Figure
‎7-17. Figure ‎7-18: Loading Diagram and Dimensions for Base
Plate with an Offset Web [11]
Overall length:
 Web:
(‎7-205)
 Ribs:
(‎7-206)
(‎7-207)
 Unit linear load:
(‎7-208)
Figure ‎7-17: Loading Diagram of Base Plate [11]
 Distances and :
 Area:
(‎7-209)
(‎7-202)
 Bearing pressure: (‎7-210)
 Loads moment:
(‎7-203)
(‎7-211)
 Base plate thickness:
(‎7-212)
(‎7-204)
 Bending stress:
235
(‎7-213) (‎7-215)
shall not exceed .  Axial load:

Ribs [11]:
1. Outside Ribs (Figure ‎7-19): (‎7-216)
 Compressive stress:
(‎7-217)
 Radius of gyration:
(‎7-218)
(‎7-219)
Figure ‎7-19: Dimensions of Outside Saddle Ribs and  Slenderness ratio:

Webs [11]
(‎7-220)
 Area of rib and web:
can be obtained from Figure ‎7-20 using slenderness
(‎7-214)
ratio.
 Pressure area:
Figure ‎7-20: Allowable Compressive Stress for Columns, Fa [11]
236
Total shear force and moment at base due to wind or

(‎7-317) seismic is the maximum of the sum of the upper and
lower parts shear force at base and the maximum of the
(‎7-318) upper and the lower parts moment at base.
Where is or .
(‎7-319)
(‎7-320)
Figure ‎7-32 shows lug dimensions.
Figure ‎7-32: Lug Dimensions
 Horizontal shear per lug:

Outer: (‎7-326)
(‎7-321)
Sides: (‎7-327)
 Vertical load per lug:
Inner: (‎7-328)
(‎7-322)
 Circumferential moment:
 Vertical loads at lugs:
Sides: (‎7-329)
Outer: (‎7-323)
Inner lug is the lug that applies to it. When there are
Sides: (‎7-324) two lugs, if doesn’t apply to any lug, the two lugs are
side lugs and items related to outer and inner lugs will be
zero ( ), else items re-
Inner: (‎7-325)
lated to side lugs will be zero ( )
 Longitudinal moment: [11].
248
Supporting Design
Figure ‎7-33 illustrates typical dimensions data, forces, and load areas for a vertical vessel supported on lugs.
Figure ‎7-33: Typical Dimensions Data, Forces, And Load Areas for a Vertical Vessel Supported on Lugs [11]
Analysis without Reinforcing Pad:

(‎7-333)
 Geometric parameters:
Equivalent values:
(‎7-330)
Values of , , and shall be obtained from the
following tables (Table ‎7-21 and Table ‎7-22) using the
(‎7-331) calculated and .
(‎7-332)
Table ‎7-21: Coefficients for Circumferential Moment, [11]
for for for for

15 0.31 0.49 1.31 1.84
50 0.21 0.46 1.24 1.62
0.25 100 0.15 0.44 1.16 1.45
200 0.12 0.45 1.09 1.31
300 0.09 0.46 1.02 1.17
15 0.64 0.75 1.09 1.36
50 0.57 0.75 1.08 1.31
0.5 100 0.51 0.76 1.04 1.16
200 0.45 0.76 1.02 1.20
300 0.39 0.77 0.99 1.13
15 1.17 1.08 1.15 1.17
50 1.09 1.03 1.12 1.14
1 100 0.97 0.94 1.07 1.10
200 0.91 0.91 1.04 1.06
300 0.85 0.89 0.99 1.02
15 1.70 1.30 1.20 0.97
50 1.59 1.23 1.16 0.96
2 100 1.43 1.12 1.10 0.95
200 1.37 1.06 1.05 0.93
300 1.30 1.00 1.00 0.90
15 1.75 1.31 1.47 1.08
50 1.64 1.11 1.43 1.07
4 100 1.49 0.81 1.38 1.06
200 1.42 0.78 1.33 1.02
300 1.36 0.74 1.27 0.98
249
Supporting Design
0.5
0.05
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
10
0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Figure ‎7-36: Membrane Force in a Cylinder Due to Circumferential Moment on an External Attachment [11]
253
Supporting Design
Lug
1) Site Condition
2) Lug properties
3) Vessel Geometry
4) Lug material
Dividing the vessel

into two parts:
upper the lug &
lower the lug
Fwn Wn (operating
Dividing each part
(wind force at weight for each
Wind into uniform sections Weight
each section for section for each
(n section)
each part) part)
Seismic
Fsn
(seismic force at
each section for
each part)
1) Wsw (7-317)
2) MTw (7-318)
3) Wss (7-317)
4) MTs (7-318)
1) Fh (7-319)
2) MT (7-320)
3) Vh (7-321)
4) Vv (7-322)
Q1 (7-323)
Q2 (7-324)
Q3 (7-325)
ML2 (7-327)
ML1 (7-326)
Mc (7-329) Case 1 (2 lugs) Load diagrams Case 2 (2 lugs)
ML3 (7-328)
f2 (7-361) (with pad)
f1 (7-360) (with pad)
f4 (7-363) (with pad)
f3 (7-362) (with pad)
Case 3 (4 lugs)
Q1 (7-323)
Q2 (7-324)
Q3 (7-325)
ML1 (7-326)
ML2 (7-327)
ML3 (7-328)
Mc (7-329)
f1 (7-360) (with pad)
f2 (7-361) (with pad)
f3 (7-362) (with pad)
f4 (7-363) (with pad)
using reinforcing
2 Yes No 1
pad
Figure ‎7-52: Lug Design Flowchart
277
Supporting Design
works by calculating the static deflection of the vessel

(for vertical, the vessel as a horizontal cantilever beam).
The natural frequency is proportional to the square root
of the deflection. As of version 4.3 PV Elite uses the
matrix solution methods (Eigen Solution) to determine
the modes of vibration. Horizontal vessels are assumed to
be rigid and as such are assigned a frequency of 33 hertz,
which is coincident of a ZPA for a rigid structure [13].
7.11.4 Skirt
Skirt can be added to vessel by clicking the skirt icon in
above toolbar of PV-Elite (Figure ‎7-56) if the vessel (heads
and shell) has not been made first or by clicking the insert
bottom ( ) and inserting skirt before bottom head.
Figure ‎7-56: Skirt Icon in PV-Elite 2007 [13]
The requested properties of skirt such as diameter,

Figure ‎7-55: Seismic Data Entry Table in PV-Elite 2007 length, material, finished thickness, etc shall be input. It is
[13]
preferred that the mean diameter of skirt be equal to the
mean diameter of shell. If the value of “Skirt Diameter at
Seismic shear and moment on supporting anchor bolts
Base” is greater than the value of “Inside Diameter”, this
can be obtained in Report List of PV-Elite after running
value shall be so that “Computed Skirt ½ Apex Angle” will
according to following procedure:
not be greater than 15° (according to Bednar Pressure
1. Skirt: Wind/Earthquake Shear, Bending → from Vessel Handbook). Joint efficiency for skirt is usually 0.7.
node 10 to 20
Then “Perform Base ring Analysis” shall be checked and
2. Leg: Shear: Earthquake Load Calculation → The UBC
a page will open in order to inputting base ring data
Total Shear (V), Moment: (The UBC Total Shear) x (oper-
(Figure ‎7-57). First Base ring Type shall be selected,
ating center of gravity of vessel+ length of leg)
usually continues ring type is used. Base ring and bolt
3. Lug: Shear: Earthquake Load Calculation → The UBC
material and design temperature shall be input. It is
Total Shear (V), Moment: Support Lug Calculations →
preferred to select “User Root Area” for “Type of
Results for Support Lugs → Overturning Moment at
Threads” so that Bolt Root Area will be input manually.
Support Lug
Nominal Bolt Diameter and Number of Bolts shall be
4. Saddle: Shear: Horizontal Vessel Analysis (Ope.) →
input, Number of Bolts shall be multiple of four. Other
Intermediate Results: Saddle Reaction Q due to Wind or
properties of base ring such as Base ring ID, Base ring OD,
Seismic → max (earthquake Ft, earthquake Fl), Moment:
Bolt Circle Diameter, etc can be obtained from Standard
(seismic shear) x (center of gravity from ground)
Drawing. If Design is selected for “Base ring Design
5. In “Earthquake Load Calculation” in Report List,
Option”, some items such as number of bolts, size of
earthquake analysis results and formulas can be seen.
bolts, bolt circle diameter, outside diameter of base ring
Natural frequency can be obtained in “Natural Fre- and inside diameter of base ring may be changed by PV-
quency Calculation” in Report List. PV Elite uses two Elite. In “Base ring Calculations” in Report List, base ring
classical solution methods to determine the first order and anchor bolts analysis and formulas can be seen. If
natural frequencies of vessels. For vertical vessels, the thickness of skirt is not enough, there will be errors in
program uses the Freese method, which is commonly “Longitudinal Stresses Due to …” in Report List. Skirt
used in industry. For horizontal vessels a similar method thickness should be a minimum of R/200 in which R is the
attributed to Rayleigh and Ritz is used. Each method skirt radius [13].
281
Figure ‎7-57: Basering Data Entry Table in PV-Elite 2007 [13]
when the shell has been selected and a page will open in
7.11.5 Saddle order to inputting saddle properties (Figure ‎7-59).
Saddle can be added to vessel (shell) by clicking the
saddle icon in above toolbar of PV-Elite (Figure ‎7-58)
Figure ‎7-58: Saddle Icon in PV-Elite 2007 [13]
The size and location of the saddles are important for saddles may be defined and they do not have to be
the Zick calculations of local stresses on horizontal vessels symmetrically placed about the center of the vessel axis.
with saddle supports. For proper Zick analysis, only two
282
Welding
8 Welding
In order to know the welding processes, it is important

8.1 Introduction to know the different types of common joints and welds.
Today welding is the most commonly used method in 8.2 Terms and Definitions of Welds
fabrication of pressure vessel parts and defined as a
process of permanent joining two materials (usually
metals) through localized union by using a suitable 8.2.1 General Terms
combination of temperature, pressure and metallurgical There are some general terms and definitions in weld-
conditions. Depending upon the combination of tempera- ing as follows:
ture and pressure from a high temperature with no Joint: A Configuration of Members (To be welded).
pressure to a high pressure with low temperature, a wide
Types of Joints: Butt Joint, Lap Joint, T Joint, open cor-
range of welding methods has been developed [22].
ner joint, closed corner joint.
Therefore, there are three welding methods [10]:
Weld: A Union of Materials Caused by Heat and/or
Forge welding: As the oldest method, it is applicable to Pressure (The Process of Welding).
low-carbon steel. It is performed by heating two pieces of
Types of Welds: Butt Weld, Fillet Weld, Tack Weld,
metal to a high temperature and then hammering them
Spot/Seam Weld, Plug/Slot Weld, Edge Weld
together. The joint is not particularly strong.
Weld Preparation: Preparing a joint to allow access and
Fusion welding: This process does not require any
fusion through the joint faces.
pressure to form the weld. The seam to be welded is
heated, usually by burning gas or an electric arc to fusion Types of Preparation: Bevel’s, V’s, J’s, U’s, single and
temperature and additional metal, if required, is applied double sided.
by melting a filler rod of suitable composition.
8.2.2 Types of common joints
Pressure welding: It is used in processes such as resis-
tance welding, which utilized the heat created by an The most commonly used welded joints are shown
electric current passing against high resistance through below [23]:
the two pieces at the contact interface.  The welded Butt joint, as shown in Figure ‎8-1, is a
The most widely used industrial welding method is arc joint in which two or more parts are joined end to end or
welding, which is any of several fusion welding processes edge to edge.
wherein the heat of fusion is generated by an electric arc
[10].
297
A consumable continuous wire is used as an electrode gas flame. The commonly used gases are acetylene,
which melts and supplies the filler metal for the welded natural gas and hydrogen in combination with oxygen
joint (Figure ‎8-34).A protective shield of insert gases [22].
(helium, argon, CO2, or a mixture of gases) is used. The Oxyhydrogen (OHW) was the first commercially used
process produces excellent welds at less cost than the gas process which gave a maximum temperature of
GTAW process with higher weld deposition rate [10]. 1980°C at the tip of the flame [22]. It is suitable for
metals with low melting points, such as aluminum [10].
The most commonly used gas combination is oxyacety-
lene (OAW) process which produces a flame temperature
of 3500°C [22].It is suitable for welding most commercial
metals. It is almost always used manually for small shop
or maintenance welding and suitable for all positions.
Although weld deposition rate is relatively low, weld
quality is good [10].
The oxyacetylene flame is also used for flame cutting or
flame machining, which are important processes in the
Figure ‎8-34: Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
fabrication of steel. Flame cutting is basically a chemical
process. Oxygen is fed to the heated metal area through
8.6.1.4 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
a central orifice in the cutting torch; it oxidizes the
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) (Figure ‎8-35), also heated metal, and the gas pressure forces the oxidized
known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc and melted metal out of the cut. Flame cutting, either
welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten manual or automated, can achieve high accuracy. When
electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is pro- low carbon steel is flame cut, no detrimental effect in the
tected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding heat affected zone can be assumed [10].
gas (usually an inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal
is normally used, though some welds, known as autogen- 8.6.3 Resistance Welding
ous welds, do not require it. Inert gas flows around the
Resistance welding is one of the oldest types of weld-
arc and weld puddle to protect the hot metal. Weld
ing. The heat of fusion is generated by the resistance at
deposition rate is comparatively low [10]. A constant-
the interface to the flow of electric current. No filler
current welding power supply produces energy which is
material or shielding is required. Pressure must be ap-
conducted across the arc through a column of highly
plied for good metal joining. Usually the process is con-
ionized gas and metal vapors known as plasma.
fined to certain jobs and special equipment is provided
This process is used when the highest-quality welding [10].
with difficult to weld metals is required [10].
There are usually five different types of resistance
welding [25]:
 Spot welding
 Seam welding
 Projection welding
 Resistance butt welding
 Flash welding
Resistance spot welding (RSW) or resistance seam
welding (RSEW) are used to fix corrosion-resistant linings
to the wall of a vessel shell [10].
8.6.4 Selection of a welding process

Welding is basically a joining process. A weld should
ideally achieve a complete continuity between the parts
being joined such that the joint is indistinguishable from
Figure ‎8-35: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) the metal in which the joint is made. Such an ideal situa-
tion is unachievable but welds giving satisfactory service
8.6.2 Gas Welding can be made in several ways. The choice of a particular
welding process will depend on the following factors [22].
Gas welding includes all the processes in which fuel
gases are used in combination with oxygen to obtain a a) Type of metal and its metallurgical characteristics
310
Welding
b) Type of joint, its location and welding position a) To control the structure of the weld metal and HAZ on
c) End use of a joint cooling.
d) Cost of production b) To improve the diffusion of gas molecules through an
atomic structure.
e) Structural (mass) size
c) To control the effects of expansion and contraction
f) Desired performance
(i.e. When welding Cast Irons)
g) Experience and abilities of manpower
The heat of welding may assist in maintaining preheat
h) Joint accessibility temperatures after the start of welding and for inspec-
i) Joint design tion purposes, temperature checks can be made near the
j) Accuracy of assembling required weld. Normally when materials of two different P-
Number groups are joined by welding, preheat used will
k) Welding equipment available
be that of the material with the higher preheat specified
l) Work sequence on the procedure specification. The preheating tempera-
m) Welder skill tures for different P-Numbers are listed in [4] Appendix R.
Frequently several processes can be used for any par- The pre-heat temperature should be reached, as shown
ticular job. The process should be such that it is the most in Figure ‎8-37, at a minimum of 75 mm from the edge of
suitable in terms of technical requirements and cost. the bevel and on both sides (A & B) of each plate [23].
These two factors may not be compatible, thus forcing a
compromise [22].
8.7 Welding Heat treatment

All heat treatments are basically cycles of three ele-
ments, as shown in Figure ‎8-36, which are:
a) Heating Figure ‎8-37: Preheat Distance Range
b) Holding or soaking
8.7.2 Post weld Heat Treatment
c) Cooling
8.7.2.1 General
a) Post weld heat treatment (PWHT), defined as any
heat treatment after welding, and is often used to im-
prove the properties of a weldment.
b) Post weld heat treatment is the most widely used
form of stress relieving on completion of fabrication of
welded structures. The principle is that as the tempera-
Figure ‎8-36: Three Elements of Heat Treatment ture is raised, the yield stress and the elastic modulus of
the material fall. A point is reached when the yield stress
Heat treatment is used to change properties of metal, no longer supports the residual stresses and some loca-
or as a method of controlling formation of structures, or lized plastic deformation occurs.
expansion/contractional forces during welding [23]. c) The purpose of post weld heat treatment is to relax
Weld heat treatment includes two methods which may residual stresses that have become trapped inside the
be used before and after welding. These methods are weld during welding and to improve the properties of a
preheating and Post weld heat treatment. weldment. During post weld heat treatment, vessel may
be heated from between 200-950°C, although it is mostly
8.7.1 Pre-heating carried out on steel vessels between the temperatures of
550-800°C, depending on steel type and amount of stress
Preheating may be employed during welding to assist
to be relieved [26].
in completion of the welded joint. The need for and
temperature of preheat are dependent on a number of d) In post weld heat treatment of pressure vessels, the
factors, such as the chemical analysis, degree of restraint minimum required range which should be post weld heat
of the parts being joined, elevated physical properties, treated is determined by soak band. The soak band is
and heavy thicknesses [4]. defined as the volume of metal required to meet or
exceed the minimum PWHT temperatures. As a mini-
Preheating may be used when welding steels primarily
mum, the soak band shall contain the weld, heat affected
for one of the following:
zone, and a portion of base metal adjacent to the weld
311
Examination and Test
9 Examination and Test
In any type on NDT, two aspects are important:

9.1 Nondestructive Testing a) The witnessing of the test as and when needed
b) Review of reports and records of the test
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a term used to desig-
nate those inspection methods that allow materials to be For most commonly used NDT methods except RT,
examined without changing or destroying their useful- testing is to be witnessed by a competent person, as
ness. there is no resulting positive evidence or records for the
performance of the test [10].
Nondestructive tests are used on weldment for the
following reasons [31]:
9.1.1 Visual Testing (VT)
 Improved product reliability
Visual inspection is a nondestructive testing method
 Accident prevention by eliminating faulty products used to evaluate an item by observation, such as: the
 Determination of acceptability in accordance with a correct assembly, surface conditions, alignment of mating
code or specification surfaces, shape and cleanliness of materials, parts, and
 Information for repair decisions components used in the fabrication and construction.
 Reduction of costs by eliminating further processing Furthermore, it is used to evaluate the quality of weld-
of unacceptable components ment. Visual inspection is easily done, relatively inexpen-
There are many methods of NDT some of which require sive, does not use special equipment, and gives important
a very high level of skill both in application and analysis information about conformity to specifications. One
and therefore NDT operators for these methods require a requirement for this method of inspection is that the
high degree of training and experience to apply them inspector has good vision.
successfully [23]. Visual inspection should be the primary evaluation
The five principle methods of NDT used are: method of any quality control program. Therefore, in
 Visual testing (VT) weld examinations all surfaces of welds to be further
 Penetrant testing (PT) examined are first thoroughly visually inspected.
 Magnetic particle testing (MT)
 Ultrasonic testing (UT)
9.1.2 Penetrant Testing (PT)
 Radiographic testing (RT) Liquid penetrant testing (PT) is a method that detects
and reveals open discontinuities by bleed out of a liquid
315
penetrant medium against a contrasting background 1. Clean the test surface (To have a smooth surface
developer [31]. Typical discontinuities detected by this finish).
method are cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts, laminations, 2. Apply the penetrant.
and porosity. 3. Wait for the prescribed dwell time (allow to enter
The technique is based on the ability of a penetrating discontinuities).
liquid to wet the surface opening of a discontinuity and to 4. Remove the excess penetrant (wipe with a clean lint
be drawn into it. If the flaw is significant, penetrant will free cloth and finally wiped with a soft paper towel
be held in the cavity when the excess is removed from moistened with liquid solvent).
the surface [31]. 5. Apply the developer (The developer functions both
as a blotter to absorb penetrant that has been trapped in
9.1.2.1 Methods: discontinuities, and as a contrasting background to
Liquid penetrant methods can be divided into two ma- enhance the visibility of penetrant indications) (any
jor groups: penetrant that has been drawn into any defect by capil-
lary action will be now be drawn out by reverse capillary
a) Fluorescent penetrant testing (visible under ultravio-
action).
let light)
6. Examine the surface for indications and record
b) Visible (Dye) penetrant testing (visible under white results.
light) 7. Clean, if necessary, to remove the residue.
The major differences between the two types of tests is
that for the first one, the penetrating medium is fluores-
cent meaning that it glows when illuminated by ultravio-
let or "black" light. The second one utilizes visible pene-
trant, usually red in color; that produces a contrasting
indication against the white background of a developer.
The sensitivity may be greater using the fluorescent
method; however, both offer extremely good sensitivity
when properly applied [31].
9.1.2.2 Basic Procedure: Figure ‎9-1: Liquid Penetrant Testing Procedure
The basic steps involved in the application of a liquid

9.1.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages:
penetrant test are relatively simple. The following se-
quence, as shown in Figure ‎9-1 , is normally used in the The advantages and disadvantages of liquid penetrant
application of a typical penetrant test [31]: testing are shown in Table ‎9-1 .
Table ‎9-1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

Advantages Disadvantages
Low operator skill level Careful surface preparation
Used on non-ferromagnetic Surface breaking flaws only
Low cost Not used on porous material
Simple, cheap and easy to interpret No permanent record
Portability Hazardous chemicals
9.1.3 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 9.1.3.1 Methods

There are different methods of magnetic particle test-
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a nondestructive me-
ing based on the examination medium (ferromagnetic
thod used to detect surface or near surface discontinui-
particles) and magnetization techniques.
ties in magnetic materials.
The ferromagnetic particles used as an examination
The method is based on the principle that magnetic
medium shall be either wet or dry and may be fluores-
lines of force, when present in a ferromagnetic material,
cent or nonfluorescent.
will be distorted by an interruption in material continuity,
such as a discontinuity or a sharp dimensional change The combination of an alternating current (AC), elec-
[31]. tromagnetic yoke (to detect surface discontinuities) and
half-wave direct current (HWDC) (to detect subsurface
discontinuities) or a permanent magnetic yoke (for
detection of surface and subsurface discontinuities) is
suitable for localized longitudinal magnetization of small
316
Examination and Test
 Rockwell scale (Diamond or steel ball) 9.2.2 Impact Testing

 Vickers pyramid “HV” or “VPN” (Diamond) Impact or toughness testing may be used to measure
 Brinell “BHN” (5 or 10 mm diameter steel ball) resistance to fracture under impact loading. Types of
Most hardness tests are carried out, as shown in Figure impact test include:
‎ -5, by first impressing a ball or a diamond into the
9  Charpy V. (Joules) Specimen held horizontally in test
surface of a material under a fixed load and then measur- machine, notch to the rear
ing the resultant indentation and comparing it to a scale  Izod (Ft.lbs) Specimen held vertically in test machine,
of units (BHN/HV etc.) relevant to that type of test. notch to the front
Hardness surveys are generally carried out across the
 CTOD (mm) Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing
weld as shown below. In some applications it may also be
required to take hardness readings at the weld junction There are many factors that affect the toughness of the
or fusion zone [23]. weldment and weld metal. One of the important effects
is testing temperature [23].
One type of test is the Charpy V-notch impact test,
which uses a specimen in the form of a notched beam. It
is important that impact test temperature shall not be
warmer than MDMT. The notch may be in the base
metal, the weld metal, or the heat-affected zone. The
specimen is cooled to the desired test temperature and
then quickly placed on two anvils with the notch centered
between them. The specimen is struck at a point opposite
the notch by the tip of a swinging pendulum. The amount
of energy required to fracture the specimen represents
the notch toughness of the metal at the test temperature
[31]. Therefore, in the Charpy V (and Izod test), as shown
in Figure ‎9-6 , the toughness is assessed by the amount of
Figure ‎9-5: Hardness Test
impact energy absorbed by a small specimen of 10 mm²
during fracture by a swinging hammer. A temperature
transition curve can be produced from the results [23].
Figure ‎9-6: Impact Test
 Transverse reduced section which is used to measure

9.2.3 Tensile Testing the tensile strength of the weldment.
Tensile testing is used to measure tensile strength and  Longitudinal all weld metal tensile test which is used
ductility of a weldment. There are two types of tensile to measure tensile strength, yield point and elongation (E
test: %) of deposited weld metal.
321
Design by Analysis
10 Design by Analysis
10.1 Nomenclature
Radius of hot spot or heated area within a plate or the depth of a flaw at a weld toe, as applicable.
Thermal expansion coefficient of the material at the mean temperature of two adjacent points, the thermal
expansion coefficient of material evaluated at the mean temperature of the cycle, or the cone angle, as applica-
ble.
Thermal expansion coefficient of material 1 evaluated at the mean temperature of the cycle.
Thermal expansion coefficient of material 2 evaluated at the mean temperature of the cycle.
Material factor for the multiaxial strain limit.
Capacity reduction factor.
Factor for a fatigue analysis screening based on Method B.
Factor for a fatigue analysis screening based on Method B.
Is cumulative fatigue damage.
Is fatigue damage for the cycle.
Cumulative strain limit damage.
Strain limit damage from forming.
Strain limit damage for the loading condition.
Change in total strain range components minus the free thermal strain at the point under evaluation for the
cycle.
Local nonlinear structural strain range at the point under evaluation for the cycle.
Elastically calculated structural strain range at the point under evaluation for the cycle.
Equivalent strain range for the cycle, computed from elastic-plastic analysis, using the total strain less the
free thermal strain.
Equivalent strain range for the cycle, computed from elastic analysis, using the total strain less the free
thermal strain.
Component strain range for the cycle, computed using the total strain less the free thermal strain
Equivalent plastic strain range for the loading condition or cycle.
Effective Strain Range for the cycle.
Change in plastic strain range components at the point under evaluation for the loading condition or cycle.
Maximum design range of pressure associated with .
Primary plus secondary equivalent stress range.
Range of primary plus secondary plus peak equivalent stress for the cycle.
Local thermal equivalent stress for the cycle.
325
Design by Analysis
b) Limit-Load Method: A calculation is performed to onset of gross plastic deformations (plastic collapse) will
determine a lower bound to the limit load of a compo- not occur [12].
nent. The allowable load on the component is established Load case combinations and load factors for a limit load
by applying design factors to the limit load such that the analysis are listed in Table ‎10-5.
Table ‎10-5: Load Case Combinations and Load Factors for a Limit Load Analysis [12]
Design condition
Criteria Required Factor Load Combinations
1.5 (P+Ps+D)
1.3 (P+Ps+D+T) +1.7L+0.54 Ss
Global Criteria 1.3 (P+D) + 1.7 Ss + max[1.1L, 0.86W)
1.3 (P+D) + 1.7 W +1.1L +0.54 Ss
1.3 (P+D) + 1.1E +1.1L +0.21 Ss
Local Criteria Per Table ‎10-6
Serviceability Criteria Per Users Design Specification, if applicable, see Table ‎10-6
Hydrostatic Test Conditions
Global Criteria Max [1.43, 1.25 ]. (P+Ps+D)+2.6 Wpt
Serviceability Criteria Per User’s Design Specification, if applicable.
Pneumatic Test Conditions
Global Criteria 1.5 . (P+Ps+D)+2.6 Wpt
Notes:
1. The parameters used in the Design Load Combination column are defined in Table ‎10-2.
2. S is the allowable membrane stress at the design temperature.
3. ST is the allowable membrane stress at the pressure test temperature.
c) Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis Method: A collapse load is established by applying design factors to the plastic
is derived from an elastic-plastic analysis considering collapse load [12]. Load case combinations and load
both the applied loading and deformation characteristics factors for an elastic-plastic analysis are listed in Table
of the component. The allowable load on the component ‎10-6.
Table ‎10-6: Load Case Combinations and Load Factors for an Elastic-Plastic Analysis [12]
Design condition
Criteria Required Factor Load Combinations
2.4 (P+Ps+D)
2.1 (P+Ps+D+T) +2.6L+0.86 Ss
Global Criteria 2.1 (P+Ps+D) + 2.6 Ss + max[1.7L, 1.4W)
2.4(P+Ps+D)+ 2.6 W +1.7L +0.86 Ss
2.4 (P+Ps+D)+ 1.7E +1.7L +0.34 Ss
Local Criteria 1.7 (P+Ps+D)
Serviceability Criteria Per Users Design Specification, if applicable, see paragraph
Hydrostatic Test Conditions
Global Criteria Max [2.3, 2.0 ]. (P+Ps+D)+ Wpt
Pneumatic Test Conditions
Global Criteria 1.8 . (P+Ps+D)+ Wpt
Notes:
1. The parameters used in the Design Load Combination column are defined in Table ‎10-2.
2. S is the allowable membrane stress at the design temperature.
3. ST is the allowable membrane stress at the pressure test temperature.
335
Design by Analysis
fatigue is made on the basis of the number of applied Protection against ratcheting shall be considered for all
cycles of a stress or strain range at a point in the compo- operating loads listed in the User’s Design Specification
nent. The allowable number of cycles should be adequate and shall be performed even if the fatigue screening
for the specified number of cycles as given in the User’s criteria are satisfied.
Design Specification. Protection against ratcheting is satisfied if one of the
Screening criteria are can be used to determine if fati- following three conditions is met [12]:
gue analysis is required as part of a design. If the compo-  The loading results in only primary stresses without
nent does not satisfy the screening criteria, a fatigue any cyclic secondary stresses.
evaluation shall be performed.  Elastic Stress Analysis Criteria: Protection against
Fatigue curves are typically presented in two forms: ratcheting is demonstrated by satisfying the rules of
fatigue curves that are based on smooth bar test speci- Ratcheting Assessment – Elastic Stress Analysis.
mens and fatigue curves that are based on test speci-  Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis Criteria: Protection
mens that include weld details of quality consistent with against ratcheting is demonstrated by satisfying the rules
the fabrication and inspection requirements of [12]. of Ratcheting Assessment – Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis.
 Smooth bar fatigue curves may be used for compo-
nents with or without welds. The welded joint curves 10.7.5.2 Screening Criteria for Fatigue Analysis
shall only be used for welded joints. The provisions of screening criteria can be used to de-
 The smooth bar fatigue curves are applicable up to termine if a fatigue analysis is required as part of the
the maximum number of cycles given on the curves. The vessel design. The screening options to determine the
welded joint fatigue curves do not exhibit an endurance need for fatigue analysis are described below. If any one
limit and are acceptable for all cycles. of the screening options is satisfied, then a fatigue analy-
 If welded joint fatigue curves are used in the evalua- sis is not required as part of the vessel design.
tion, and if thermal transients result in a through thick- The fatigue exemption is performed on a component or
ness stress difference at any time that is greater than the part basis. One component (integral) may be exempt,
steady state difference, the number of design cycles shall while another component (non-integral) is not exempt. If
be determined as the smaller of the number of cycles for any one component is not exempt, then a fatigue evalua-
the base metal established using either Fatigue Assess- tion shall be performed for that component. Further-
ment – Elastic Stress Analysis and Equivalent Stresses or more, if the specified number of cycles is greater than
6
Fatigue Assessment – Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis and 10 , then the screening criteria are not applicable and a
Equivalent Strains, and for the weld established in accor- fatigue analysis is required.
dance with Fatigue Assessment of Welds – Elastic Analy- Fatigue Analysis Screening Based On Experience with
sis and Structural Stress. Comparable Equipment:
Stresses and strains produced by any load or thermal If successful experience over a sufficient time frame is
condition that does not vary during the cycle need not be obtained and documented with comparable equipment
considered in a fatigue analysis if the fatigue curves subject to a similar loading histogram, then a fatigue
utilized in the evaluation are adjusted for mean stresses analysis is not required as part of the vessel design. When
and strains. The design fatigue curves of Fatigue Assess- evaluating experience with comparable equipment
ment – Elastic Stress Analysis and Equivalent Stresses and operating under similar conditions as related to the
Fatigue Assessment – Elastic-Plastic Stress Analysis and design and service contemplated, the possible harmful
Equivalent Strains are based on smooth bar test speci- effects of the following design features shall be eva-
mens and are adjusted for the maximum possible effect luated.
of mean stress and strain; therefore, an adjustment for
mean stress effects is not required. The fatigue curves of  The use of non-integral construction, such as the use
Fatigue Assessment of Welds – Elastic Analysis and of pad type reinforcements or of fillet welded attach-
Structural Stress are based on welded test specimens and ments, as opposed to integral construction
include explicit adjustments for thickness and mean  The use of pipe threaded connections, particularly for
stress effects. diameters in excess of 70 mm (2.75 in.)
 The use of stud bolted attachments
Under certain combinations of steady state and cyclic
 The use of partial penetration welds
loadings there is a possibility of ratcheting. A rigorous
 Major thickness changes between adjacent members
evaluation of ratcheting normally requires an elastic-
 Attachments and nozzles in the knuckle region of
plastic analysis of the component; however, under a
formed heads
limited number of loading conditions, an approximate
analysis can be utilized based on the results of an elastic
stress analysis.
341
Appendices
A. Appendices
A.1 Geometrical Properties
A.1.1 Properties of Head
349
Appendices
Figure ‎A-9: The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram [6]
If the system is subjected to a rapid change of temper- Phase diagrams can also be used to predict the
ature the atoms may be unable to diffuse fast enough to changes (transformations) which occur during heating
keep up with any phase changes which are demanded by and cooling, as long as the temperature changes are
the phase diagram. As a result, during rapid temperature slow. For example, one typical heat treatment given to a
changes the phase diagram does not accurately predict 0.2%C steel consists of slowly cooling from a tempera-
the phase behavior; a different type of diagram is used ture in the austenite region of the phase diagram; say
for rapid changes of temperature, as discussed below. 900°C (1650°F). In this case, the phase diagram predicts
Understanding of all these diagrams is of great impor- that when the austenite temperature falls below the line
tance since steels are virtually always heat treated in GH, about 865°C (1590°F), ferrite begins to form in the
some manner to develop their properties, and the austenite. As the temperature continues to decrease,
diagrams allow the consequences of heat treatment to more and more ferrite forms so that by the time the
be predicted and understood. The phase diagram is steel reaches a temperature just above the horizontal
basically a map which predicts which phases are stable 725°C (1337°F) boundary, line HP, about three-quarters
for any alloy with a given carbon content at a given of it has transformed to ferrite, while the rest remains
temperature, i.e. as represented by a point on the phase austenite. On cooling through the 725°C (1337°F) tem-
diagram. Each such point lies either in a single-phase perature line, the ferrite remains unaffected, while all of
region, e.g. the austenite region, or in one of the two- the remaining austenite transforms to a mixture of
phase regions which exist between the single-phase ferrite and cementite. There is little change during
regions. further slow cooling to room temperature so that the
final microstructure of the steel consists mainly of
ferrite, with a small amount of cementite.
359
It is important to remember that all of these heat gram. Their formation occurs by processes which rely
treatments which involve the cooling of austenite occur only partially (bainite), or alternatively not at all (mar-
completely in the solid state. Austenite is a solid, as are tensite), on the diffusion of atoms. Thus martensite and
its transformation products when it is cooled. This type bainite are able to form even at rapid cooling rates [6].
of heat treatment is typically carried out after the ma- Bainite Formation
terial has been formed into its final or near-final shape
Bainite is a constituent which forms from austenite in
[6].
a temperature range below about 535°C (1000°F) and
above a critical temperature (the Ms temperature,
A.2.3 Heat Treating of Steel -The Effects of
discussed below) which depends on carbon content and
Carbon Content and Cooling Rate is about 275°C (525°F) for eutectoid steel.
Martensite Formation
The heat treating of steel normally begins with heating If austenite can be cooled to a sufficiently low temper-
into the austentite temperature range and allowing the ature, for example by cooling very rapidly, its diffusion-
pre-existing microstructure to transform fully to auste- controlled transformation to ferrite, pearlite or even
nite as required by the phase diagram. This austenitizing bainite will not be possible. Instead, the austenite
process may be carried out in any one of a number of becomes so unstable that it is able to change its crystal
atmospheres including air, inert gas, vacuum or molten structure by a diffusionless shearing transformation
salt. The hot austenitic steel is then cooled at some rate which moves blocks of atoms by small distances simulta-
ranging from rapid (e.g. thousands of degrees per neously. The transformation product is then martensite,
second by quenching in chilled brine) to slow (e.g. as a metastable phase which, like bainite, does not appear
little as a few degrees per hour by furnace cooling in a on the phase diagram since it does not exist under
hot furnace which is allowed to cool with the steel equilibrium conditions.
inside). It is important to remember that the cooling rate
Tempered Martensite
is normally not uniform throughout the cross-section of
the steel object, particularly at rapid cooling rates. The Although martensite is a very hard, strong, wear resis-
inside of a thick section can only cool by conducting its tant material it lacks ductility and toughness, so much so
heat to the surface, where it is removed into the cooling that in all but low carbon steels brittle failure of marten-
medium; this is always a relatively slow process. The site is so easily initiated that its strength cannot normally
consequence is that if a thick section of steel is even be measured. Thus, a steel through-hardened
quenched, its surface undergoes a much higher cooling (transformed to martensite throughout its thickness) is
rate than its center. Therefore, the surface and the not a satisfactory engineering material for most applica-
center can have different microstructures and proper- tions. However, a surface layer of martensite on a
ties. Furthermore, there will be residual stresses in the tougher ferrite-pearlite base can provide useful proper-
material associated with this situation. These effects can ties. Furthermore, and even more usefully, martensite
be beneficial or detrimental to the application of the can be heat treated by tempering to obtain a tempered
material. martensite microstructure with properties which are
appropriate for industrial purposes. The extent of tem-
During cooling the austenite becomes unstable, as
pering and hence the mechanical properties can be
predicted by the phase diagram, and decomposes or
controlled by varying the tempering time and tempera-
transforms to form a different microstructure, the
ture.
characteristics of which depend on the austenitization
conditions, the carbon content and the cooling rate. Hardenability
There are also effects due to the presence of other It is important to distinguish clearly between the terms
alloying elements. "hardness" and "hardenability". Hardness is the resis-
Several effects of increased cooling rate on the forma- tance of a surface to being indented by an indenter
tion of ferrite pearlite microstructures have already been under standard conditions, such as in the Rockwell or
alluded to, namely the different morphologies of proeu- Brinell hardness tests. The hardness of steel is deter-
tectoid ferrite, and the increasing fineness of the pear- mined by its composition and its microstructure (i.e. its
lite. However, if cooling rates are increased still further, thermo-mechanical processing). Hardenability, on the
the limited time available during cooling is insufficient to other hand, refers to the ability of a steel to harden, i.e.
permit the atom diffusion which is necessary for pearlite to form martensite to depth. This corresponds to the
to form. As a result, microstructural constituents other steel having a low critical cooling rate, i.e. having the
than pearlite form when the austenite, which has be- ability to form martensite at low cooling rates. Steels
come unstable below the A1 temperature, transforms. with low hardenability are those which form only a thin
These transformation products, including bainite and surface layer of martensite when quenched from the
martensite, are nonequilibrium constituents which are austenite.
therefore not present on the (equilibrium) phase dia-
360
Appendices
100 10
10 1
1 0.1
0.1 0.01
0.01 0.001
0.001 0.0001
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3
Figure ‎A-18: Stresses in Spherical Shell Due to Radial Load on a Nozzle Connection
373
100 100
10 10
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3
Figure ‎A-19: Stresses in Spherical Shell Due to Radial Load on a Nozzle Connection
374
10 10
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
0.0001 0.0001
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3
Figure ‎A-33: Stresses in Spherical Shell Due to overturning moment on a Nozzle Connection
388
Appendices
10 10
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0.001 0.001
0.0001 0.0001
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3
Figure ‎A-34: Stresses in Spherical Shell Due to overturning moment on a Nozzle Connection
389
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Figure ‎A-39: Membrane Force Due to an External Circumferential Moment on a Circular Cylinder
394
Appendices
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
Figure ‎A-40: Moment Due to an External Longitudinal Moment on a Circular Cylinder (Stress on the
Longitudinal Plane of Symmetry)
395
Figure ‎A-62: Processing Nodal Force Results with the Structural Stress Method Using the Results from a Finite Element
Model With Three Dimensional Second Order Shell Elements [12]
A.11.6 Structural Stress Method Based on

Stress Integration
As an alternative to the nodal force method above,
stress results derived from a finite element analysis
utilizing two-dimensional or three-dimensional conti-
nuum elements may be processed using the Structural
Stress Method Based on Stress Integration. This method
utilizes the Stress Integration Method of Selection of
Stress Classification Lines, but restricts the set of ele-
ments that contribute to the line of nodes being
processed. The elements applicable to the SCL for the
region being evaluated shall be included in the post-
processing, as is illustrated in Figure ‎A-63 [12].
Figure ‎A-63: Processing Nodal Force Results with the

Structural Stress Method Using the Results from a Fi-
nite Element Model With Three Dimensional Second
Order Shell Elements [12]
422
<Bibliography
Bibliography
1. Matthews, Clifford. Engineers’ Guide to Pressure 10. Bednar, Henry H. Pressure Vessel Design Handbook.
Equipment. London : Professional Engineering Publishing, 2nd Edition. Malabar, Florida : Krieger Publishing
2001. Company, 1986.
2. Chattopadhyay, Somnath. Pressure Vessel Design and 11. Moss, Dennis R. Pressure Vessel Design Manual. 3rd
Practice. s.l. : CRC Press, 2005. Edition. Burlington : Gulf Professional Engineering, 2004.
3. Carruci, Vincent A. Overview of Pressure Vessel Design. 12. ASME, The American Society of Mechanical
s.l. : ASME International, 1999. Engineers. Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels-
4. ASME, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Alternative Rules (Sec. VIII, Division 2). ASME Boiler and
Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels (Sec. VIII, Pressure Vessel Code. New York : ASME (The American
Division 1). ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. New Society of Mechanical Engineers), 2007.
York : ASME (The American Society of Mechanical 13. COADE, Engineering Physics Software. 2007 PV-Elite
Engineers), 2007. User Guide. Huston, Texas : COADE/Engineering Physics
5. Ellenberger, J. Phillip, Chuse, Robert and Carson, Software, 2007.
Bryce E. Pressure Vessels: The ASME Code Simplified. 8th 14. Megyesy, Eugene F. Pressure Vessel Handbook. 10th
Edition. s.l. : McGraw-Hill, 2004. Edition. s.l. : Pressure Vessel Handbook Publishing, Inc.,
6. Bringas, John E. The Metals Black Book. Edmonton, 2001.
Alberta : CASTI Publishing Inc, 1995. 15. Ventsel, Eduard and Krauthammer, Theodor. Thin
7. Moen, Richard A. Practical Guidebook Series™ ASME Plates and Shells, Theory, Analysis, and Applications. New
Section II 1997 Materials Index. Edmonton, Alberta : York : Marcel Decker, Inc., 2001.
CASTI Publishing Inc., 1996. 16. Steffens, Franz-Joseph Barthold & Alexander.
8. Perry, R. H., and Chilton, C. H. Perry’s Chemical Introductory Course in Structural Analysis.
Engineer’s Handbook, 5th ed. New York : McGraw-Hill, 17. Timoshenko, Stephen P. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S.
1973. Theory of Plates and Shells. 2nd Edition. LA : Mc-Graw
9. White, R. A. and Ehauke, E. F. Materials Selection for Hill, 1975.
Refineries and Associated Facilities. San Francisco, 18. Jawad, Maan H. and Farr, James R. Structural
California : s.n. Analysis and Design of Process Equipment. s.l. : John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1984.
423
19. Wichman, K. R., Hopper, A. G. and Mershon, J. L. 29. —. API 945 (Avoiding Environment Cracking in Amine
Welding Research Council (bulletin No.107), Local Stresses Units). Washington D.C. : API Publishing Services
in Spherical and Cylindrical Shells due to External (American Petroleum Institute), 2003.
Loadings. New York : Welding Research Council, Inc., 30. ASME, The American Society of Mechanical
1979. Engineers. Welding and Brazing Qualifications (Sec. IX,
20. ASCE, American Society of Civil Engineers. Minimum Division 1). ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. New
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Reston, York : ASME (The American Society of Mechanical
Virginia : American Society of Civil Engineers, 2006. Engineers), 2007.
21. UBC, Uniform Building Code. Structural Design 31. AWS, American Welding Society. AWS Welding
Requirements (Chapter 16). Uniform Building Code. 1997. Handbook, Engineering, Costs, Quality, and Safety. 7th
22. Ibrahim Khan, Md. Welding Science and Technology. Edition. Miami : AWS, 1997.
New Delhi : New Age International, 2007. 32. ASME, PCC-2. Repair of Pressure Equipment and
23. TWI, The Welding Institute. TWI WIS 5, Welding Piping. New York : ASME (The American Society of
Inspection of Steels. Cambridge : TWI Ltd, 2007. Mechanical Engineers), 2006.
24. Hicks, John. Welded joint design. New York : 33. Taylor N., etal. The design-by-analysis manual CEC.
Industrial Press, Inc, 1999. Report EUR 19020 EN, DG-JRC/IAM, Petten. s.l. : EPERC,
1999.
25. Weman, Klas. Welding Processes Handbook.
Cambridge : Woodhead Publishing Ltd, 2003. 34. Shiraga, Scott. Design and Development Guide for
NNSA Type B Packages SG-100 Revision 2, Appendix K
26. Pullarcot, Sunil. Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel
“Differences in Vessel Design by Rule and Design by
Manufacturing. New York : Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002.
Analysis”. s.l. : NNSA, 2005.
27. Funderburk, R. Scott. Key Concepts in Welding
35. ASM. Handbook Vol. 1, Properties and Selection:
Engineering, Postweld Heat Treatment. Welding
Irons, Steels, and High Performance Alloys. s.l. : ASM
Innovation. 1998.
International, 2005.
28. API. API 941 (Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated
36. Bradford, Samuel A. Practical Self Study Guide to
Temperatures and Pressures in Petroleum Refineries and
Corossion Control. Edmonton, Alberta : CASTI Publishing
Petrochemical Plants). Washington D.C. : API Publishing
Inc, 1998.
Services (American Petroleum Institute), 2004.
424
Index
Index
Bending stress · 66, 143, 148, 152, 157, 215, 223, 230, 231,
234, 239, 242, 244, 245, 259, 326, 327, 331, 334, 416, 417,
A 418, 420
Bijlaard · 148, 149, 150, 152, 155, 209, 261
AISC Steel Construction Manual · 207, 208 Bins · 207
Anchor bolt · 18, 215, 219, 220, 222, 224, 238, 239, 246, 284 Body flange · 86
Annealing · 362 Bolt load · 184, 188, 189, 203, 218
Apex angle · 97, 98, 101, 103, 115, 143, 350 Bolt stress · 184
Arc Welding · 308 Braces · 207
ASCE · 12, 14, 206, 330 Brackets · 13, 28, 41, 74, 169, 332
ASME section II · 35, 77 Brittle fracture · 58, 323, 329
ASME section IX · 41, 42, 314 Buckle · 52, 65, 69, 80
ASME section VIII · 13, 14, 60, 61 Buckling load · 340
Attachments · 6, 7, 17, 130, 134, 147, 150, 152, 153, 155, Butt weld · 99, 101, 126, 129, 185, 297, 298, 299, 300, 304,
158, 159, 208, 211, 300, 309, 312, 313, 331, 341, 342 307, 320
Austenitic · 25, 27, 33, 35, 40, 42, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,
57, 60, 61, 169, 339, 360, 361, 362, 407
AWS · 12, 24, 28 C
Axial stress · 242, 259
Carbon steel · 10, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 44, 47, 51, 52, 53, 115,
197, 203, 297, 310, 312, 313, 356, 357, 361, 364
B Carbon steel plate · 51
Center of gravity · 16, 17, 215, 239, 242, 246, 247, 261, 280,
Baffle · 52, 74 281
Bainite · 360 Charpy V · 321
Base plate · 52, 208, 209, 215, 222, 223, 224, 235, 238, 239, Circumferential moment · 156, 157, 248, 249, 253, 254, 391,
244, 245, 246, 260, 284 392, 393, 394
Beams · 208, 232, 261, 317 Circumferential stress · 68, 121, 216, 352
Bend testing · 320, 322 Circumferential welded joints · 305
Bending moment · 143, 148, 151, 152, 156, 157, 219, 230, Clips · 14, 51, 54, 208
260, 261, 326, 333, 334, 352 Coefficient · 34, 52, 53, 149, 210, 213, 227, 241, 249, 250,
327, 342, 350
425
Coils · 3 Elasticity · 34, 39, 40, 65, 67, 87, 96, 97, 148, 194, 211, 215,
Collapse · 65, 69, 80, 212, 329, 330, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 224, 239, 246, 286, 326, 352, 353
340, 414, 415 Elastic-plastic · 325, 326, 328, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341,
Columns · 4, 6, 33, 37, 38, 39, 207, 208, 323, 339 415
Composite · 188, 209 Electrode · 9, 28, 32, 57, 299, 300, 308, 309, 310, 324, 407
Compression plate · 209, 218, 219, 220, 246, 260, 261 Ellipsoidal head · 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 109, 121
Compression ring · 208, 218, 223 Elliptical · 86, 109, 115, 120, 147, 168, 210, 224, 228, 229,
Concentration factor · 148, 149, 153, 254, 258 338, 340
Cone to cylinder · 98, 101 Empty weight · 205, 280
Conical · 5, 63, 71, 77, 86, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 109, 118, Erection · 17, 18, 205, 207, 280
119, 120, 129, 143, 207, 333 Euler · 80
Corrosion · 12, 15, 25, 32, 40, 43, 100, 286, 329, 362, 363, Examination · 3, 9, 12, 42, 143, 146, 307, 308, 315, 316, 318
364, 367 Expansion · 6, 31, 34, 39, 48, 51, 52, 53, 65, 117, 174, 208,
Corrosive · 44, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 196, 361 209, 311, 325, 327, 332, 334, 342
Creep · 31, 47, 53, 56, 196, 329, 362 External pressure · 10, 13, 16, 17, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 62,
Critical · 27, 43, 58, 61, 69, 80, 207, 317, 323, 329, 340, 360 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 80, 83, 84, 86, 87, 90,
Cross brace · 207 91, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108,
CTOD · 321 109, 112, 113, 114, 117, 125, 142, 150, 154, 171, 194, 209,
Cyclic · 51, 60, 65, 207, 208, 239, 303, 326, 330, 334, 336, 215, 216, 219, 224, 232, 286, 307, 331, 340
340, 341, 342, 343, 413 External ring · 75
Cylindrical · 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 77,
80, 86, 98, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 124, 129, 143, 148,
149, 150, 153, 154, 155, 172, 207, 224, 225, 226, 228, 229, F
230, 231, 331, 340
Fabricated weight · 205, 280
Fabrication · 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 23, 36, 37, 43, 47, 51,
D 58, 115, 143, 207, 223, 297, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313,
315, 322, 323, 339, 341
Damping · 206, 260, 261 Failures · 69, 211, 322
Data sheet · 16, 17 Fatigue analysis · 325, 326, 328, 329, 341, 342, 343, 344
Defect evaluation · 412 Ferritic · 11, 25, 27, 33, 42, 47, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 58, 230,
Deflection · 149, 154, 214, 215, 247, 280, 281, 338 313, 339, 407
Density · 34, 40, 62, 87, 205, 286, 318, 319, 353, 357, 418 Ferrous Materials · 41
Design pressure · 13, 44, 60, 65, 67, 69, 72, 80, 86, 96, 97, Filler metal · 9, 28, 32, 301, 309, 310, 314
100, 121, 135, 142, 184, 188, 194, 202, 224, 327, 332, 342, Fillet weld · 75, 76, 124, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, 171, 176,
343 297, 299, 303, 417, 420, 421
Design procedure · 19, 72, 77, 81, 100, 104, 105, 106, 107, Finite element analysis · 13, 16, 413, 414, 416, 417, 418, 420,
108, 159, 197, 208, 215, 224, 239, 247, 261, 287, 334 422
Design temperature · 38, 44, 45, 52, 53, 61, 67, 71, 72, 77, Fitting · 10, 32, 35, 36, 41, 42, 59, 133, 134, 135, 138, 145,
80, 86, 87, 96, 98, 101, 184, 188, 194, 211, 224, 229, 230, 146
232, 246, 281, 286, 322, 327, 335 Flanges · 2, 12, 13, 15, 32, 41, 52, 53, 60, 134, 146, 169, 183,
Dew point · 47, 146 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 305
Discontinuity · 80, 103, 104, 115, 207, 209, 312, 316, 323, Flat head · 15, 86, 101, 120, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 305,
326, 331, 333, 414, 415 329, 333
Dished head · 13, 15, 98, 115, 333, 342 Flat plate · 342
Displacement · 60, 65, 211, 321, 330, 333, 336, 337, 352 Flowchart · 21, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,
Division 1 · 3, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 33, 34, 38, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 97, 198, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270,
68, 87, 328 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 288, 289, 290,
Division 2 · 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 33, 34, 38, 39, 58, 59, 60, 61, 68 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348
Division 3 · 9, 10 Force method · 211, 422
Downcomer · 80 Formulas · 10, 11, 65, 67, 68, 71, 72, 77, 87, 96, 98, 99, 122,
Draining · 69, 117 123, 125, 153, 159, 189, 193, 194, 206, 211, 214, 215, 216,
Drums · 2, 3, 6, 63 223, 224, 234, 242, 247, 250, 255, 256, 258, 261, 280, 281,
Ductility · 320 283, 284, 285, 308, 329, 350
Dynamic · 14, 24, 65, 210, 213, 353 Friction · 208, 232, 237, 261, 283
Friction factor · 232
E
G
Elastic deformation · 65, 329, 337
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) · 309
426
Index
WPS · 17, 18, 313, 314

V WRC · 12, 13, 15, 19, 148, 149, 166, 167, 174, 175, 182, 209,
244, 258, 284, 285, 368
Valve · 2, 32, 41, 53, 189
Vertical vessel · 74, 213, 214, 249
Vibration · 208, 211, 214, 215, 216, 239, 242, 247, 281, 330
Visual · 14, 18, 133, 315, 322
X
Visual Testing (VT) · 315
Vortex · 7, 210 X-ray · 319, 320, 407
W Y
Weld neck · 199 Yield · 25, 30, 31, 33, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 47, 52, 53, 56, 62, 65,
Weld overlay · 51, 52 69, 80, 142, 208, 215, 239, 246, 287, 311, 321, 322, 327, 328,
Welding · 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 24, 28, 32, 33, 38, 39, 41, 329, 331, 336, 337, 338, 339, 367
42, 43, 47, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 72, 75, 80, 101, 133,
134, 138, 145, 146, 148, 185, 205, 207, 208, 209, 297, 299,
300, 301, 303, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 320, Z
323, 324, 407
Wind · 6, 13, 14, 16, 17, 65, 68, 69, 79, 80, 97, 206, 209, 210, Zick’s analysis · 208, 224
211, 215, 216, 224, 242, 247, 248, 261, 263, 280, 281, 286, Zick’s stress · 208
290, 329, 330
429

Pressure Vessel Design - Guides and Procedures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pressure Vessel Design - Guides and Procedures

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pressure Vessel Design - Guides and Procedures

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pressure

Pressure Vessel Design, Guides & Procedures

www.pv-book.com Guides & Procedures

Mr. Ghader Ghanbari, MSc. In Solid Mechanics

Mr. Ali Sadeghian, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics

Mr. Alireza Mahootchi, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics

Mr. Iman Sokouti, MSc. In Solid Mechanics

Mr. Roohollah Heidary, MSc. In Solid Mechanics

Mr. MohammadHassan Mohammadi, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics

Mr. Amir Ansarifard, MSc. In Solid Mechanics

Mr. Mohammad Seraj, BSc. In Fluid Mechanics

The editorial committee is as follow:

Mr. Mohammad Ali Liaghat

Mr. Ali Sadeghian

Mr. Ghader Ghanbari

Mr. Alireza Saraei.

Authors committee &

Coordinating manager (info@pv-book.com)

7.11.4 Skirt ........................................................ 281 9.3.3 Leak Testing ............................................ 323

A.11.6 STRUCTURAL STRESS METHOD BASED ON STRESS INDEX......................................................................425

Figure ‎1-3: Vertical Drum on Leg Support [3]

Figure ‎1-7: Typical Types of Heads [4]

 Attach instrument connections, (e.g., level gauges,

Tall, vertical, cylindrical pressure vessels (e.g., the

Horizontal drums (See Figure ‎1-2) are typically sup-

treatment), ULW (layered construction), ULT (pressure

2.1 Introduction 2.2 Material Standards

The goal of this chapter is to give knowledge to engi-

Table ‎2-11: Heat Treat Conditions and Other Abbreviations [7]

Table ‎2-12: General Requirements and Testing Specifications [7]

Spec. No. Title

According to the degree of possible sensitization of the

are used only for special jobs, such as for operating

2.4.2.4.1.3 Group III

Figure ‎2-7: Marerial Properties of Selected Materials in PV-Elite [13]

vessels technology. Aircrafts, missiles, rockets, ships, and

Figure ‎3-3: Elastic Shell Element

3.3 ASME Code & Handbooks Formulas

(‎3-6) These formulas will govern only when the circumferen-

Figure ‎4-4: Heads Attached to Shell (Head is Thinner Part) [4]

Figure ‎4-5: Heads Attached to Shell (Shell is Thinner Part) [4]

[4] app.1-5 (g) No   30

Junction is stiffened Yes Junction is stiffened Yes

Example that is shown on Figure ‎4-13 is related to [4]

2 Conical & Toriconical Head Type

ASME SEC.II-PART D-3 charts

Round t to commercial size

t & MAWP is calculated.

Examples shown on Figure ‎4-14 are related to [4] APP.

5 Design of Openings and Nozzles

 Nozzles attached to pipes to convey the working fluid

2. Opening(s) may be located in the rim space sur-

Figure ‎5-14 continued: Some Acceptable Types of Small

5.3.7 Welded Connections

5.3.8 Specification of Weld Loads and Weld

flange. In these cases, holes have to be punched in the

6.2.1 Flange Faces

Figure ‎6-7: RTJ Oval, Solid Metal, Heavy Cross-Section

Figure ‎6-8: Cross Sections of Various Heavy Metal RTJs