Afinación Órganos

A Passable and Good
Temperament
A New Methodology for Studying Tuning
and Temperament in Organ Music
J O H A N N O R R BACK
A Passable and Good Temperament
A Passable and Good Temperament
– A New Methodology for Studying
Tuning and Temperament
in Organ Music
JOHAN NORRBACK
Cover: Anders Bodebeck
Cover Art: The organ in Abbenrode built by Cristoph Contius, 1708 (photo: Reinhard Menger); the manu-
script to the Prelude in B minor, BWV 544 (Universal Edition, no. 7005); engraving for a monochord from An-
dreas Werckmeister’s Musicalische Temperatur, 1691 (Nederlands Muziek Instituut, The Hague).
Layout: Johan Norrback
Printed by
Copyright © 2002 by Johan Norrback
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the author.
Göteborg University
Department of Musicology
Box 200
405 30 Göteborg
Sweden
Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga institutionen, Göteborgs universitet, nr 70, 2002

Studies from the Department of Musicology, Göteborg University, no. 70, 2002
ISBN 91 85974 66-8

ISSN 1650-9285
Contents
List of Illustrations vii

Notes on the Text ix
Preface 1
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Problem and aim 3
1.2. Previous research 5
1.3. Methodological considerations 8
2. The Written Sources 13

2.1. Descriptions of tunings and temperaments 15
2.1.1. Michael Praetorius (1571–1621) 15
2.1.2. Wolffgang Caspar Printz (1641–1717) 16
2.1.3. Andreas Werckmeister (1645–1706) 18
2.1.4. Johann Philipp Bendeler (1654–1709) 29
2.1.5. Johann Georg Neidhardt (c. 1680–1739) 31
2.2. Related writings 44
2.2.1. Johann Gottfried Walther (1684–1748) 44
2.2.2. Johann Mattheson (1681–1764) 46
2.2.3. Jakob Adlung (1699–1762) 48
2.2.3. Lorenz Christoph Mizler (1711–1778) 52
2.2.4. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714–1788) 56
2.3. Discussion 58
3. Instrument Sources 61
3.1. The “Bach organ” 61
3.1.1. St. Katharinen, Hamburg – Johann Friedrich
Besser/Joachim Richborn, ca. 1682 68
3.1.2. St. Andreas, Abbenrode –
Christoph Contius, 1708 74
3.1.3. Cathedral, Freiberg – Gottfried
Silbermann, 1711–14 77
3.1.4. Chapel, Altenburg Castle – Heinrich
Gottfried Trost, 1735–39 82
v
Contents
3.1.5. St. Wenzel’s church, Naumburg –

Zacharias Hildebrandt, 1743–46 85
3.1.6. A special case – The organ in the chapel of
the Weißenfels Castle, 1673 87
3.2. Discussion 91
4. A New Methodology 95
4.1. Description of the methodology 95
4.2. Critical discussion 101
5. The Music 103

5.1. Consonance and dissonance 103
5.2. Music examples 105
5.2.1. O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656) 105
5.2.2. Canzona (BWV 588) 111
5.2.3. Prelude in B Minor (BWV 544) 114
5.2.4. Toccata in F Major (BWV 540) 117
5.2.5. Prelude in Eb Major (BWV 552) 119
5.2.6. Fantasia in G Minor (BWV 542) 121
5.3. Discussion 122
6. Conclusions 127
Cadenza 130
Appendix A – Introduction to Temperament 131
Appendix B – Digital Sound 133
Appendix C – Neidhardt’s Temperaments (1732) 135
Appendix D – Index of CD 137

Sound examples 137
BWV 540 137
BWV 542 137
BWV 544 137
BWV 552 138
BWV 588 138
BWV 656 138
Other material 138
Tuning & temperament bibliography 138
Bibliography 139
Primary sources 139
Secondary literature 142
Letters, non-prited sources 152
WWW-resources 152
Index 153
vi
List of
illustrations
Fig. 1: Excerpt from O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656) 3

Fig. 2: The process of interpretation 9
Fig. 3: Map over Bach-related places, places discussed, and,
places for reference 12
Fig. 4: 1/4-comma mean-tone 16
Fig. 5: Title page, Orgelprobe (1681). (Nederlands Muziek Instituut,
The Hague) 18
Fig. 6: Division of the monochord, Musicalische Temperatur (1691).
(Nederlands Muziek Instituut, The Hague) 20
Fig. 7: Werckmeister III 21
Fig. 8: Werckmeister IV 21
Fig. 9: Werckmeister V 21
Fig. 10: Description of temperaments, Orgelprobe (1681).
Fig. 11: Description of temperaments, Musicalische Temperatur (1691).
Fig. 12: Title page, Musicalische Temperatur (1691).
Fig. 13: Bendeler I 29
Fig. 14: Bendeler II 29
Fig. 15: Bendeler III 29
Fig. 16: Title page, Organopoeia (c. 1690).
(Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz,
Musikabteilung mit Mendelssohn-Archiv) 30
Fig. 17: Title page, Beste und leichteste Temperatur (1706).
Fig. 18: Title page, Sectio canonis harmonici (1724).
Fig. 19: Title page, Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische Abtheilungen (1732).
Fig. 20: Neidhardt for the court (1732) 38
Fig. 21: Neidhardt for a large city (1732) 38
vii
List of illustrations
Fig. 22: Neidhardt for a small city (1732) 38

Fig. 23: Neidhardt for a village (1732) 38
Fig. 24: Division of the monochord, Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische
Abtheilungen (1732). (Leipziger Städtische Bibliotheken –
Musikbibliothek). 39
Fig. 25: Map over Altenburg (mid 18th-century).
(ThStA Altenburg, Karten- und Plansammlung, Nr. 6413) 43
Fig. 26: Detail: legend in magnification 43
Fig. 27: The organ in St. Katharinen, Hamburg (from Cortum 1928) 69
Fig. 28: The organ in St. Jacobi, Hamburg. (Photo: Henrik Tobin) 71
Fig. 29: The console in St. Jacobi, Hamburg. (Photo: Henrik Tobin) 73
Fig. 30: Vogel’s reconstruction of Praetorius/Scheidemann 74
Fig. 31: The organ in Abbenrode. (Photo: Reinhard Menger) 75
Fig. 32: The console in Abbenrode. (Photo: Reinhard Menger) 77
Fig. 33: The large organ in the Cathedral, Freiberg.
(Photo: Sandra Petojevic) 79
Fig. 34: The console in the Cathedral, Freiberg. (Photo: Sandra Petojevic) 80
Fig. 35: Silbermann’s 1/6-comma mean-tone according to Sorge 81
Fig. 36: The organ in the chapel of the Altenburg Castle.
(Photo: Ulrich Kneise) 82
Fig. 37: The console in the chapel of the Altenburg Castle.
(Photo: Ulrich Kneise) 84
Fig. 38: The organ in Naumburg. (Photo: Hermann Eule Orgelbau, Bautzen) 86
Fig. 39: The console in Naumburg. (Photo: Hermann Eule Orgelbau, Bautzen) 88
Fig. 40: Comparison of “Silbermann–temperaments” 94
Fig. 41: Graphical representation of the methodology 96
Fig. 42: Linear representation of the methodology 97
Fig. 43: The five MIDI-tracks down to the right contain the
Canzona (BWV 588). 98
Fig. 44: Samples assigned to keys form keygroups 99
Fig. 45: Director Musices. 100
Fig. 46: O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig, 3 versus (BWV 656) 106
Fig. 47: Canzona, mm. 1–31 (BWV 588) 112
Fig. 48: Prelude in B Minor, mm. 1–7 (BWV 544) 115
Fig. 49: Toccata in F major, mm. 168–76 (BWV 540) 118
Fig. 50: Prelude in Eb major, mm. 40–50 (BWV 552) 119
Fig. 51: Fantasia in G minor, mm. 25–35 (BWV 542) 121
Fig. 52: Prelude in B Minor, m. 33 (BWV 544) 123
Fig. 53: Prelude in B Minor, m. 64 (BWV 544) 123
Fig. 54: Prelude in B Minor, end (BWV 544) 124
All pictures printed with due permission.
viii
Notes on
the text
Abbreviations
BD Bach Dokumente
BJ Bach Jahrbuch
BWV Bach Werke Verzeichnis
NBR The New Bach Reader
Orthography
To simplify the identification, names of churches are usually not translated. In
cases when a church is designated “Dom” or “Domkirche” it is translated (Cathe-
dral in Freiberg).
References
References are given according to the author-date system, where the full biblio-
graphical information is given in the bibliography. Manuscript sources are re-
ferred to with the name of the library and the signum of the source. References to
web pages are given with date of download.
Pitch and keys

Note names are given in capital letters when not referring to a specific pitch (C#).
When referring to a specific pitch the note name is italicized (C# and c#1). Keys
are referred to as follows: B major and B minor.
ix
Notes on the text
& w
w #w
? bw
w
w
C c bb c1 c#1 c2
Translation of German quotes

All translations of the German quotes are by the author if not otherwise stated.
The aim has not been to provide a literal translation, but rather an interpretative
translation needed for the present work. The original quote is provided to give
the reader a possibility of comparison.
Presentation of Tunings and Temperaments

Temperaments are presented in tables of cents and with a circle of fifths where
applicable. A circle of fifths is only provided if it represents the construction of
the temperament. Temperaments based on the idea of proportional beating are
therefore not provided with a circle of fifths.
The Sound Examples on the CD

The sound examples on the CD are AIF-files (16-bit) which can be played with for
example the Quicktime player (freeware available for both PC and Mac from Ap-
ple Computer). The CD is not a music CD and can therefore not be played in a
normal CD-player. A separate sub-woofer is recommended for the best listening
result.
x
Preface
Towards the end of my studies at the Sibelius-Academy in Helsinki (Finland) I

also worked as organist in a parish west of Helsinki. The organ I played on every
Sunday was tuned according to John Barnes’ temperament.1 This drew my atten-
tion to the question of temperament, and its role in organ music. I noticed that
the temperament of the organ had to be taken into account when choosing rep-
ertoire for concerts and postludes. I chose to write about this subject in my MA-
thesis at the Sibelius-Academy under the supervision of Professor Enzio Fors-
blom. When I came to Göteborg (Sweden) I was introduced to the Brombaugh
organ in the Haga Church, tuned to 1/4-comma mean-tone. The time I spent at
the organ was revealing to me, especially for the music from the seventeenth
century, which I previously had experienced as flat and rather boring. Against the
contrast of the wolf and the expressive semitones the shining pure thirds of the
temperament made the music come to life. Since my thesis dealt with the organ
music of Johann Sebastian Bach2 it was natural to continue on that track.
A dissertation is not a result of one person’s work. I would first like to thank
the Department of Musicology (Göteborg University) and Professor K. Olle Ed-
ström for providing the formal context for the present work. I owe much to my
advisors: in the first phase, Hans Bernskiöld and Hans Davidsson, and in the final
stage, Johannes Landgren as main adviser and Kerala J. Snyder as external advi-
ser. Without my colleagues and friends at GOArt this work could not have been
possible. I cannot thank them all, but some of them must be mentioned. Paul
Peeters with his deep knowledge about organs and organ literature has been in-
valuable to my work. Ibo Ortgies, offered his expertise in the field of tuning and
temperament, both regarding theory and practice, and I also owe him thanks for
helping me with the transcription and translation of the German quotes, as well
as to Joel Speerstra who helped me with the English translation. I am also grate-
ful to Sverker Jullander for reading the final text and chasing imperfections. A
1 Barnes 1979.
2 Norrback 1991.
1
Preface
special thank you goes to Karen Speerstra for fast and professional English editing
of the text.
Without the assistance and knowledge of Per-Anders Nilsson and Björn Asp-
lind at the Lindblad Studio, School of Music and Musicology, the technical part
of the work would not have succeeded. A special thank you goes to Magnus El-
dénius who kindly offered to read the manuscript in a rather late stage, providing
me with many good thoughts.
Several organ builders have helped me during the years by pointing me to lit-
erature, letting me take up their time, teaching me about organs, or sharing their
research and experience with me: Helmut Gripentrog, Kalevi Mäkinen, Pentti
Pelto, Herwin Troje, Munetaka Yokota, and John Brombaugh.
I am also grateful to Mendel Kleiner, Vincent Rioux, and Pontus Larsson at
Chalmers University of Technology (Göteborg), and Anders Friberg and Roberto
Bresin at the Royal Institute of Technology (Stockholm) who patiently listened
and answered my naïve question on acoustics and technology, and for helping
me along.
For help with providing me with photographs I am grateful to Reinhard
Menger, Armin Zuckerriedel at Hermann Eule Orgelbau, Ulrich Kneise, Henrik
Tobin, and Sandra Petojevic.
The staffs at many libraries have been kind and helpful through the years by
providing me with unusual material and rare sources: the Sibelius-Academy (Hel-
sinki), School of Music and Musicology (Göteborg), Göteborg University Library,
Lund University Library, Statens musikbibliotek (Stockholm), Staatsbibliothek zu
Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz (Berlin), Nederlands Muziek Instituut (The
Hague), Altenburg Schloßarchiv, Leipziger Städtische Bibliotheken – Musikbiblio-
thek.
Without the economical support from several foundations, I could not have
accomplished this task: Kungl. Musikaliska Akademien (Stockholm), Kungliga
Vetenskapsakademin (Stockholm), Filosofiska fakulteternas gemensamma
donationsnämd (Göteborg).
Finally, I wish to thank the two people who actually should be heading this
list. I look forward to the day when I can spend my time with the ones who are
the most important in my life: my wife Benedikta and my son Natanael.
2
1. Introduction
1.1. Problem and aim

Within historically informed performance practice the context is regarded as very
important for the music – both the context in which the music was composed,
and the context in which the music was performed. Consequently, the instru-
ments and the performance practice of the past have gained much interest, re-
sulting in recordings and scholarly works. In my opinion the aim has not been to
reconstruct the experiences of the listeners during the Baroque, but to use avail-
able, historic information with all its deficiency, to inspire and govern a perfor-
mance today. An interpretation is a temporal act, and thus made in the moment,
now. Since the composition is the product of a different historic situation from
that of the performance today, it can be said that we actually have two contexts.
A historically informed performance can therefore be described as a pendulum
between then and now, but never really travelling in time. Information and in-
spiration is sought from historical sources and applied in the present.
Approaching music under new conditions often raises new questions. An ex-
ample is playing on an organ tuned in an historic temperament. An illustrative
passage with regard to temperament, which exemplifies this, is the last verse of
Johann Sebastian Bach’s organ chorale O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (see Fig. 1)
from the Eighteen Chorales (BWV 656) that corresponds to the text “…sonst
müßten wir verzagen…” (otherwise we would be in despair).
### 3 œ n œ œ œ # œ œ n œ n œ n œœ n œ˙ ˙ # œ ˙˙ œœ œœ œœ n œ œœ b œ œ w Ó
& 2 œ #œ#œ œ œ œ nœ œ#œ œ œ
œ œ # œ œ œ #œ # w
œ Ó
Ó
? # # # 32 ˙ . œ œ &
œ œ œ #œ#œ ˙ œœ ˙ ˙ ˙
Œ œ # œ n œ # œ n œ # œœ œ˙ # œ œœ œ # œ ww Ó
˙
? ### w ˙ nœ œ #œ œ n˙ w. w. w ˙
Fig. 1: Excerpt from O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656)
3
1. Introduction
It is quite clear that Bach introduces the chromatic texture to express the words
of the text. As an organist I might ask, “What is the role of temperament in this
music?”
Except for the unusual chromatic texture, the final chord is crucial from the
point of temperament. The C# major triad would in itself not stand out in equal
temperament. In mean-tone on the other hand, the triad would be a clash of dis-
sonance 3 since the major third c#1–e#1 would be extremely out of tune in relation
to the pure thirds of the temperament. A well-tempered tuning would, on the
other hand, be milder, but still clearly making the passage stand out.
According to di Veroli the most convenient way to analyze temperament is
through intervals expressed in cents.4 Such an analysis would tell us that in 1/4-
comma mean-tone the fifth C#–G# is 696,5 cents, and that the wolf-third is 427
cents (actually a diminished fourth)5 – 27 cents wider than an equal-tempered
major third (400), and another 14 cents wider than a pure third (386). It does not
say how we might experience this third, and it does not show that the beat rate
changes when the interval is transposed. Transposing up or down an octave dou-
bles or halves the beat rate respectively. The musical setting is important, and the
placing of a dissonant chord or interval has relevance for the experience of it.
Adding information about the beat rate to an analysis based on intervals in cents
gives further information and would take the pitch into account; but beat rates
for individual intervals does not say much about this context. In 1/4-comma
mean-tone and at a1=440 Hz the major third c#1–e#1 in the example would have a
beat rate of 33 Hz. The major third in equal temperament has a beat rate of 11
Hz. In a well-tempered tuning such as Neidhardt “for a village” (1732) the inter-
val maintains its dissonance, but remains acceptable as a major third with a beat
rate of 14 Hz, and being one of the more dissonant major thirds. Still, after all
these numbers an aural impression is lacking.
In the history of temperament the Baroque experienced a transition from
mean-tone via well-tempered systems to equal temperament in the tuning of
keyboard instruments. There was a very eventful period during Bach’s lifetime,
with leading figures like Andreas Werckmeister (1645–1706) and Johann Georg
Neidhardt (ca. 1680–1739). The issue of temperament was subject to discussion
into the nineteenth century, and is even so today. Taking this into consideration,
several additional questions are raised. Is it unessential which historic tempera-
ment is used, with regard to the acoustical outcome? What is the connection be-
tween theory and practice? Do the treatises about, for example, composition
3 In the present work the words “dissonance” and “consonance” are used according to the rules of
counterpoint but also referring to the quality of for example a chord. From the context in the text
it should be clear which one is referred to.
4 Veroli 1978: 29.
5 A wolf-third in a less strict sense can be any major third with a large enough deviation from the
just major third. An example are the thirds on B, F#, C#, and G# in 1/6-comma mean-tone temper-
ament which are 416 cent.
4
1.2. Previous research
mention temperament as a factor to take into consideration? Were Werckmeis-

ter’s or Neidhardt’s temperaments applied in practice? How do different tempera-
ments affect organ music, and how can this be described?
Organs with two different temperaments within the same instrument have
been constructed, and give the musician the possibility to experience the music
in two different sounding contexts.6 If one would like to involve more tempera-
ments in the comparison, one has to travel, since re-tuning an actual organ takes
time and exposes the instrument to unnecessary mechanical wear. Historic organ
pipes are not equipped with tuning slides or tuning rolls, but usually cut to the
desired length/pitch, and the caps for stopped metal flutes and Quintadenas are
often soldered. In the case of an historic instrument, re-tuning is thus out of the
question.
Within the frame of the present work it is not possible to address all the ques-
tions posed above. Focusing on the problem of comparing temperaments, we can
formulate the point of departures of the present work: to investigate the histori-
cal background and context of, in the present work, Johann Sebastian Bach’s or-
gan music 7 with regard to temperament, and to develop a new methodology to
provide means to investigate a temperament’s role and effect in organ literature
based on the preconditions given by the historical investigation. This approach
can be used for studying any composer’s organ music where the question of tem-
perament is important.

One of Europe’s principal Bach-researchers, Hans-Joachim Schulze, asks for re-
search in the field of temperament in relation to the music. He writes in the arti-
cle “Zum Themenbereich der neueren Bach-Forschung,” after criticizing the ade-
quacy of the research in the field of number-symbolisms by Bach, as follows:
Gleiches gilt beispielsweise für die Untersuchung der “Wohltemperierung”, die ihren
Namen zu Recht trug und keine gleichschwebende Temperierung war. Sie war offenbar
ein Produkt praktischer Erfahrung und pragmatischen Umgangs mit den Tonarten.
Bachs Schüler Kirnberger versuchte jahrzehntelang Bachs “Geheimnis” auf mathemati-
schem Wege zu enträtseln, mancher heutige Forscher tut es ihm nach – und so steckt
auch hier die Forschung trotz eines entwaffnenden Aufwandes an mathematischer
Spitzfindigkeit und theoretischer Spekulation noch immer in den Kinderschuhen. Bis
heute fehlt eine systematische Aufarbeitung des Gebrauchs und der Vermeidung be-
stimmter Intervalle, Akkorde, harmonischer Abfolgen mit dem Ziel einer Deutung und
Bewertung der Tonartencharaktere bei Bach, einschließlich der Toleranz bei Transposi-
6 For example at the Stanford University, USA, the organ built by Charles Fisk, and in Wilschdorf,
Dresden, Germany, the organ built by Kristian Wegscheider.
7 The organ in continuo use is not considered in the present work even if the discussions in the
sources naturally touch upon the matter, especially when addressing the difference between
choir- and chamber-pitch.
5
1. Introduction
tionen (es-Moll-Fuge des Wohltemperierten Klaviers I ursprünglich in d-Moll). So ist auch

der Weg noch weit bis zur aufführungspraktischen Umsetzung entsprechender Erkennt-
nisse, etwa in Hinsicht auf die Temperierung von Cembali und Orgeln sowie die Spiel-
weise von Streich- und Blasinstrumenten. 8
The same applies, for example, in the examination of “well-tempering,” which carried
its name rightly and was no equal temperament. It apparently was a product of practi-
cal experience and pragmatic dealings with the keys. Bach’s student Kirnberger tried for
decades to solve Bach’s “secret” in mathematical ways, as do today’s researchers, and
the research is still caught in its infancy, despite a disarming expenditure for mathemati-
cal hairsplitting and theoretical speculation. Research still lacks a systematic survey of
the use and the avoidance of certain intervals, chords, harmonic sequences with the
goal of an interpretation and evaluation of the key characteristics by Bach, including the
tolerance in transpositions (the Eb minor fugue of the Well-tempered clavier I was origi-
nally in D minor). Performance practice, regarding the tuning and temperament of
harpsichords and organs as well as the playing technique of string- and wind instru-
ments, needs further observation.
How have these challenges been met? In his organ method Orgelschule zur his-
torischen Aufführungspraxis Jon Laukvik dedicates only two pages to the question
of temperament, exemplifying the problem with the chorale O Lamm Gottes, un-
schuldig (BWV 656). 9 In 1997 Mats Åberg’s Orgelskola 10 was published, but with-
out mentioning temperament.11 And, in the The Cambridge Companion to the Or-
gan 12 we find a good introduction to tuning and temperament, but no musical
examples.
In “A Trial of Unequal Temperaments on the Organ”13 Charles Padgham et al.
perform an interesting experiment. By choosing historically appropriate tempera-
ments for the repertoire, and re-tuning necessary stops in an instrument (with all
the work it carries), they performed a listening test. The results show, among oth-
er things, that the reception is clearly affected by the composition of the refer-
ence group and their background, telling more about the reference group and
their preferences and musical training than the temperaments’ effect on the mu-
sic and eventual appropriateness.
The experiment performed by Padgham et al. clearly shows some of the meth-
odological problems of this question. How can one compare different tempera-
ments using the same instrument?
In his dissertation Joseph V. Pollard develops and uses a method to analyze
the temperament in Johann Jacob Froberger’s music.14 The method is based on
the deviation (in cents) of an interval from just intonation. In a triad the devia-
tion of the separate intervals are added. Consequently the deviation varies with
8 Schulze 1985: 32.

9 Laukvik 1990: 94-95.
10 Åberg 1997.
11 Nor do Kooiman et al. 1992; Newman 1985; or Ritchie and Stauffer 2000.
12 Kent 1998.
13 Padgham et al. 1979.
14 Pollard 1985.
6
different temperaments. Music with a small deviation is, according to Pollard, a

sign that the temperament is more suited for that music. Exploring a tempera-
ment’s dissonances in a composition for musical reasons, would, with Pollard’s
method, judge that temperament less appropriate than another temperament. In
my opinion, this method cannot account for a performer’s intentional use of dis-
sonances to reach a certain expression. It excludes dissonance as a musical ex-
pression resulting from a temperament’s characteristics. The play between disso-
nance and consonance with regard both to counterpoint and intonation is of
utmost importance to music, and the dissonance cannot be regarded as some-
thing primarily negative for the music.
An attempt at analyzing Bach’s music with respect to temperament is Franz
Josef Ratte’s article “Die Temperatur als Mittel der musikalischen Rhetorik am
Beispiel des Orgelbüchleins von Johann Sebastian Bach”.15 Ratte comes to the con-
clusion that the wolf-thirds are not used as a rhetorical means, picturing words
like “Sünde” and “Kreuze”. However, Ratte sees the choice of key as deliberate,
and important for the overall affect. This implies that the temperament affects
the music in another way, e.g. creating an atmosphere or mood, the rhetorical af-
fect. In his article “Die Temperaturen der Bach-Orgeln und die Konsequenzen für
Johann Sebastian Bachs choralgebundene Orgelmusik”16 the same arguments are
used. The analysis is mainly based on the frequency of occurrence of
“Wolfterzen”, audibility through occurrence in inner or outer voices, and the rel-
ative length of the note values in relation to tempo.17 Such an analysis becomes
rather subjective.
In a recent article by one of the leading authorities in the field of tuning and
temperament, “A Quest for Bach’s Ideal Style of Organ Temperament,” Mark
Lindley approaches the subject from a stylistic point of view.18 Stylistic means
here the way historic temperaments were described. Here we have mathematical
reasoning combined with musical analysis. The temperament that will be chosen
as “ideal” will depend heavily on the composition of the reference group or the
analyst, and thus we have the same principal problem of reception as with
Padgham’s experiment mentioned above.
Martin Jira’s Musikalische Temperaturen und musikalischer Satz in der Klavier-
musik von J. S. Bach 19 is of special interest for the present work. In many aspects
his work has the same approach as the present study. However, Jira focuses on
the keyboard works and not the organ works, and thus encounters problems
when it comes to the discussion of relevant historic temperaments.20 He uses
15 Ratte 1989.
16 Ratte 2000.
17 Ratte 2000: 51f.
18 Lindley 1997.
19 Jira 2000.
20 Re-tuning harpsichords is very easy, and consequently no information about temperaments used
can be found in historic instruments. With the organ the situation is different. Jira 2000: 27ff.
7
1. Introduction
temperaments known from historic organs and historic sources.21 However, some
relevant sources are not discussed. Heinrich Gottfried Trost22 (1681–1759) for ex-
ample, is not represented. Further, Jira defines four groups of temperaments: ma-
jor third mean-tone; modified mean-tone; a “good” open temperament; a closed
temperament. The first three are “open” temperaments, with at least one fifth
considerably too large, and, the last one is a temperament with no fifth so large
that it limits its use in a triad. The work is based on analysis of the musical text,
where certain criteria indicate the suitability for a specific group of tempera-
ments. An example given is the wolf-fifth, which in “major third mean-tone”
usually is avoided, or used as an effect, or by stepwise movement “disguised”.23
The book is accompanied by a compact disc with sound examples from the reper-
toire under survey, interpreted by the author. This is the strong point of the
work. The otherwise, by necessity, very abstract discussion about temperament is
exemplified with sounding examples, the actual goal of a temperament. Unfortu-
nately the instrument used is not documented, which is necessary since the
sound and the effect of the temperament are greatly influenced by the instru-
ment. Not all of the music in the investigation is recorded, but the music on the
compact disc is mostly presented in two different temperaments. Playing and re-
cording, then re-tuning and recording again, limits the amount of material and is
a limitation of the method. All known historic temperaments could therefore not
be used; consequently Jira decided to use two “working-temperaments” – two
temperaments that represent the two different groups of open and closed tem-
peraments. 24 The open temperament contains a wolf, while the closed does not.
Considering the methodologies reported above, developing a methodology
for comparing temperament in music becomes an essential part of the present
work. The methodology should facilitate the comparison of several tempera-
ments within actual organ music of, in this case, Johann Sebastian Bach.
1.3. Methodological considerations

The present work is based on source studies of written sources and instruments as
sources. The results of the source studies are the points of departure for the inves-
tigation of the music.
Since we are dealing with music, the question about reception has to be dis-
cussed. As the earlier mentioned experiment performed by Padgham tells us, the
use of a reference group does not provide us with more general rules about the
21 Jira 2000: 30ff.

22 Trost’s connection to Bach is discussed below, chapter 3.1.4.
23 Jira 2000: 42ff.
24 “Arbeitstemperaturen”. Jira 2000: 37ff.
8
appropriateness of a certain temperament for a particular category of repertoire.

The background of the members and their musical training will highly influence
their answers. A further question is raised: Is it the general audience and their re-
ception one tries to investigate? There are several groups or categories of listen-
ers. Göran Hermerén structures the event well in his article “The Full Voic’d
Quire: Types of Interpretations in Music.”25 Hermerén points out the different
agents involved in the process of interpretation: the composer, the musician(s),
the conductor/producer, the listener, and the critic/researcher.26 The process can
be outlined as follows:
Composer – Notation – Performer – Instrument – Listener

Fig. 2: The process of interpretation
These all have different functions, and within the category of listeners, critics
and researchers listen in a different way compared to the average concert visitor.
In addition to the sociological context there are also physical factors between the
different agents: between the composer and the musician, the notated music;
and between the musician and the listener, the instrument. These two physical
factors function in some sense as filters, setting limits for what they can represent
and present. In the instrument, the temperament is a kind of filter. The interpre-
tation is always made under differing conditions regarding time and place, natu-
rally giving more or less different results. Furthermore, the performance in itself
cannot be repeated exactly from one occasion to another. In the present work,
the focus is primarily on the organist of today as agent, and the means for
him/her to investigate the significance of the temperament as a part of the in-
strument, and thus a part of the music.27 In other words, the focus is on the situ-
ation when a performer, in this case the organist, is preparing a piece for a perfor-
mance. Besides the technical part of the preparations, the organist listens
critically to several factors such as registration, touch and articulation, tempo,
acoustics of the room. All of these factors are extremely important for the media-
tion of the music. The result of an interpretation, a performance, is naturally of
interest, but in the present work we focus on a specific stage in the process of in-
terpretation.
In this situation the performer is also reacting to the temperament, evaluating
consonances and dissonances. Hermeneutically speaking, these matters are expe-
rienced differently from person to person, and from time to time. The performer
25 Hermerén 1993.
26 Hermerén 1993: 14.
27 The compositional process during the period under investigation was strongly linked to improvisa-
tion which took place at an instrument. Consequently the instrument becomes an integral part of
the musical context. The composer did not aim at composing an autonomous composition, but
composed music in an existing context with its limitations (instrument idiomatic). The tempera-
ment of the instrument should therefore be regarded as a part of the music.
9
1. Introduction
is, in this instant, the only recipient, and it is on these experiences interpretative
decisions are made. Evaluating one person’s experiences is not useful, since there
is no right or wrong answer. A person’s perception cannot be wrong. Here musi-
cal training in general, and knowledge about temperament in particular are im-
portant factors. This subjective part of the situation is important to acknowledge.
Brian C. J. Moore formulates the role of the musical training in The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, s. v. “consonance”, as follows:
“Sensory consonance” refers to the immediate perceptual impression of a sound as be-
ing pleasant or unpleasant; it may be judged for sounds presented in isolation (without
a musical context) and by people without musical training. “Musical consonance” is re-
lated to judgments of the pleasantness or unpleasantness of sounds presented in a musi-
cal context; it depends strongly on musical experience and training, as well as on
sensory consonance. These two aspects of consonance are difficult to separate, and in
many situations judgments of consonance depend on an interaction of sensory process-
es and musical experience. 28
The most frequent way of comparing and evaluating temperaments in the lit-
erature is to create tables with the cent values for the chromatic scale, the fifths,
major thirds, and, minor thirds. Very often some kind of graphical representation
and a circle of fifths presenting the tempering of the fifths accompany the ta-
ble. 29 Cents express the relation between frequencies – an interval. The beat rate
is relative to the pitch-level, which means that the same interval will beat twice
as fast when transposed up an octave. It is the beat rate a listener relates to when
judging whether an interval is consonant or dissonant.30 A table with the beats of
the fifths and the major thirds, usually related to the tenor octave or the octave
above middle C, is sometimes provided.31 This gives you the possibility of com-
paring a certain chord, e.g., the last chord in Fig. 1 (C# major), in different tem-
peraments. It does not allow you to hear what the differences in the numbers im-
ply, and it does not take into account the different pitch-levels or positioning of
the chord. Analyzing music with these means is not very expedient. To my
knowledge, there is no methodology that approaches a piece of music taking all
these factors into account.
As mentioned above, the basic material for the present work consists of a) the
written sources, and the preserved and documented instruments; and b) the mu-
sic. In the present work, the music is regarded as an equally valuable source since
the question of temperament is apparent in the sounding material. To be able to
say something about the music, one must investigate the preconditions provided
by the context. The following questions define the aim of the different parts of
the present work:
28 <http://www.grovemusic.com> (2002-07-24)
29 See for example Padgham 1986.
30 Rasch and Plomp 1999: 108.
31 See for example Ratte 1994a: 409ff.
10
(1) What do written sources, relevant to the study of Bach’s organ music, say
about temperament? This gives us information about what temperaments are
historically relevant for his music.
(2) What can we find out about tuning and temperament in the organs in the con-
text of Bach? This approach is used to select historic temperaments that actu-
ally were applied in practice in Bach’s time, and thus were relevant to his
music.
(3) How does tuning and temperament affect the organ music of Bach? To provide
the means to perform the comparison necessary to answer this question with
the limitations imposed by a historical instrument, a new methodology has
been developed.
11
1. Introduction
10 12 14 16
Kiel
54 54
Lübeck
Hamburg
Hamburg
Lüneburg
Berlin
Berlin
Hannover Potsdam
52 Abbenrode Halberstadt
52
Quedlinburg Köthen
Halle
Leipzig
Leipzig
Weißenfels
Görlitz
Naumburg
Altenburg Dresden
Weimar
Eisenach Jena Freiberg
Ohrdruf Arnstadt
Gehren
Kassel Hof
Prague
Prague
50 50
Nurnberg
10 12 14 km 16
© Martin Weinelt, http://www.aquarius.geomar.de/omc/
0 50 100
Fig. 3: Map over Bach-related places, places discussed, and, places for reference
12
2. The Written
Sources
As mentioned above, the source material for the present work are: the written
sources; the preserved and documented instruments; and, the music. The sources
taken together are believed to give a fuller picture than apart. They also balance
each other and function as filters. For example, if a writer says that a certain tem-
perament was used all over a region, but we do not find any corroborating evi-
dence in instruments or in other writings, we have to consider whether the wri-
ter’s statement is an overstatement, or maybe more of a wish or preference. The
material we have might also be insufficient for answering the question, and final-
ly the order of events must be taken into account. When Neidhardt promotes
equal temperament in 1706 it does not automatically mean that this is the year it
was introduced in the region. This is also clear from his later writings, where he
continues to argue for equal temperament and discusses its advantages and dis-
advantages. Equal temperament was not yet generally accepted, so Neidhardt
had to continue to argue for the introduction of equal temperament. The discus-
sion about equal temperament in organs started before 1706 (c. f. Werckmeister:
1697 and 1707) and surely continued long after Neidhardt had died.
Traces of the discussions on temperament can be seen in the history of some
organs. In cases where we have a thorough documentation of preserved historic
instruments we can find information about the instruments’ temperament. A
good example is the organ in Altenburg, Thuringia. Heinrich Gottfried Trost built
the instrument 1735–39. 32 In 1738 there was a lively discussion about the tem-
perament of the organ, which we can follow through the archival material. The
arguments were mainly musical and practical, not technical or mathematical.
The organists wanted to be able to modulate freely through all keys, and they
usually had to transpose when playing with instrumentalists due to the different
pitches.
The question of if, and how, the temperament affects the music is addressed
through the new methodology. A possibility to compare different temperaments
32 The case is discussed further below, chapter 3.1.4.
13
2. The Written Sources
and their function in music, and whether it has implications for the organist is
sought.
When it comes to Johann Sebastian Bach and theoretical writings most of us
are familiar with the following two quotations:
Bach did not, it is true, occupy himself with deep theoretical speculations on music, but
was all the stronger in practice of the art. 33
(Bach), like myself or any true musician, was no lover of dry, mathematical stuff. 34
The first quotation is from the obituary, written by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
and Johann Friedrich Agricola (with a short passage by Lorenz Christoph Mizler),
and the second is from at letter by C. Ph. E. Bach to Johann Nicolaus Forkel while
Forkel was working on his biography of J. S. Bach. This issue has been discussed
many times. 35 Even if J. S. Bach did not produce any theoretical texts in the strict
sense, many of his students did.36 According to Christoph Wolff, J. S. Bach
owned the following theoretical books: Angelo Berardi (c. 1636–1694), Documenti
armonici from 1687 (a systematic description of contrapuntal composition); Jo-
hann Joseph Fux (1660–1741), Gradus ad Parnassum from 1725 (and the German
edition by Lorenz Christoph Mizler 1742); Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729),
Der General-Bass in der Composition (1728); Friedrich Erhardt Niedt (1674–1708),
Musicalische Handleitung (1710); Johann Gottfried Walther (1684–1748), Musi-
calisches Lexicon (both the 1729 and the 1732 version); Andreas Werckmeister
(1645–1706), Orgelprobe (1698). 37 It comes as no surprise that the field of contra-
puntal composition is well represented, considering J. S. Bach’s oeuvre. The ques-
tion of temperament is not the main focus for him as it was, perhaps, for Johann
Georg Neidhardt. On the other hand, it cannot be neglected since it was a reality
for the sounding music, in particular the organ music. We find in the different
manuals for organ examination, by, for example, Andreas Werckmeister and Ja-
kob Adlung, instructions to check the tuning and the temperament. A complete
disregard of theory is not likely to have been the standpoint of J. S. Bach. Rather,
he was a practical musician, and thus was not primarily interested in highly the-
oretical reasoning. Still, practice can be described with theory, as the writings on
contrapuntal composition prove.
33 David et al. 1998: 307.

34 David et al. 1998: 398.
35 See for example Butt 1997a; Christensen 1998; and, Wolff 2000.
36 Christensen 1998: 23; Wolff 2000: 330f.
37 Wolff 2000: 333f. There is also a possibility that Johann Sebastian Bach was acquainted with
Andreas Werckmeister’s Die Nothwendigsten Anmerckungen und Regeln wie der Bassus Continuus
oder General=Baß wol könne tractiret werden since an edition from 1715 of the publication was in
the possession of Johann Christoph Bach, Gehren. The part with tuning instruction, Kurtzer Unter-
richt und Zugabe, wie man ein Clavier stimmen und wohl temperiren könne, was copied into a collec-
tion of music (Kobayashi 1983: 168).
14
2.1. Descriptions of tunings and temperaments
The sources on tuning and temperament38 can be divided into two groups:
theoretical descriptions and practical descriptions. A theoretical description con-
tains a description of the distribution of a comma, while the practical description
usually does not. The practical description usually gives only an instruction
about how to adjust a certain interval, or several. Often the practical descriptions
are difficult to interpret, and provide several possible reconstructions.
The present work also includes relevant sources not directly discussing tuning
and temperament.
2.1.1. Michael Praetorius (1571–1621)

Michael Praetorius was born in Creuzburg (Thuringia) in 1571. In the 1590s he
went as organist into the service of Duke Heinrich Julius of Braunschweig-
Wolfenbüttel. After the death of the Duke he worked at the court in Dresden, as
well as in Magdeburg. Praetorius also worked with Esaias Compenius, one of the
most famous organ builder of that time.
Michael Praetorius writes rather extensively about subsemitones in the sec-
ond part of his Syntagma Musicum: De Organographia (1619). 39 Therefore it is no
surprise when he describes tuning mean-tone with pure thirds and tempered
fifths (1/4-comma mean-tone).40 Subsemitones and mean-tone are strongly con-
nected since the tonal content of 1/4-comma mean-tone can be extended by in-
troducing subsemitones. Praetorius describes three tuning procedures, two of
them starting from F and the third starting from C. The criteria for setting a tem-
perament are 1) to choose a key to start from; 2) all octaves and major thirds
must be perfectly pure; and 3) all fifths must not be pure but beat somewhat. The
tuning procedures include check points where one should check the previously
tempered section.
In connection with the second tuning procedure, Praetorius discusses modify-
ing the temperament by adjusting two fifths.
Die Quinten “c#–g#” und “f#–c#1”, müssen nicht so gar falsch, und nicht so gar reine
seyn, sondern nur etzlicher massen… 41
The fifths c#–g# and f#–c#1 must not be so much out of tune, and not so pure either,
only somewhat [tempered]...
This is an early example of a practical description. The amount of tempering is
not defined mathematically; only a practical description of how to proceed is
38 For a general overview of the history of tuning and temperament see Lindley 1987.
39 Praetorius 1619a: 63ff.
41 Praetorius 1619a: 155.
15
provided. A feasible interpretation would be to try to make the fifths similar,

evening out the wolf between G#–Eb. Praetorius does not change his 1/4 syntonic
comma description; he just discusses the possibility to modify the temperament.
In the discussion about the “Clavicymbalum Universale,”42 a so-called enhar-
monic instrument with 19 keys per octave, Praetorius notes that viola da gambas
and lutes have equal sized semitones.43 This means that such fretted instruments
are tuned according to equal temperament, while most of the organs probably
were tuned to 1/4-comma mean-tone.44
- 1 SC - 1 SC
4 C 4
- 1 SC F G - 1 SC
4 4
Bb D
- 1 SC - 1 SC
4 4
Eb A
Wolf - 1 SC
4
G # E
- 1 SC - 1 SC
4 4
C# B
#
- 1 SC
F - 1 SC
4 4
Fig. 4: 1/4-comma mean-tone
Table 1: 1/4-comma mean-tone

C C# D Eb E F F# G G# A Bb B
0,00 76,05 193,16 310,26 386,31 503,42 579,47 696,58 772,63 889,74 1006,84 1082,89
2.1.2. Wolffgang Caspar Printz (1641–1717)

An often quoted, and obviously a very important late 17th-century German writ-
er, was Wolffgang Caspar Printz. He was born 1641 in Waldthurn (east of Nurem-
berg, by the Czech border), Upper Palitanate, and died 1717 in Sorau, Lower Lus-
atia (now Zary, Poland, northeast of Dresden). Wolffgang Caspar Printz lived a
very eventful life, and worked as musician in several places, both as a Kantor and
at the court of Promnitz. During his visit to Italy he met Athanasius Kircher, and
in Sorau he also met Georg Philipp Telemann.
Printz’ most important work is his Phrynis Mitilenaeus, oder Satyrischer Com-
ponist, published in Quedlinburg (partly 1676–77, complete in 1696). Its three

43 “Dieweil uff den Violen de Gamba, und den Lauten die Bünde alle gleich weit (doch je näher dem
Steig, je enger, welches sich ohne das verstehet) von einander abgetheilet, und also die Semitonia,
weder majora noch minora, sondern vielmehr intermedia können und müssen genennet werden.”
Praetorius 1619a: 65f.
44 Vogel 1986b.
16
parts contain much information about music theory, and is frequently cited by
Johann Gottfried Walther.45
When discussing transposition Printz notes that D# is missing in organs,
which means that the major third on B is not available. To have a pure major
third on B and a pure minor third on C you need to virtually split the keys be-
tween D and E. 46 This would imply an organ tuned to mean-tone, where the
sharps and flats are not enharmonically interchangeable.
Later, when discussing temperament Printz describes only one way of tuning.
Es werden aber meines Erachtens, die jenigen am besten mit dieser Temperatur zu rech-
te kommen, welche am allerersten c und e2 ganz rein, hernach die Qvinten, c g, g d1,
d a, niedrig schwebend, daß man es kaum mercke, zusammen stimmen, und so sie
dann befinden, daß die Qvinta a1 e2 weder mehr noch weniger schwebe, als die vorge-
meldeten, welche doch auch gleichmäßig schweben müssen, so wird die Temperatur
ihre ziemliche Richtigkeit haben. Ferner stimmen sie der erwehneten Clavium Octaven,
und dann die Tertias majores, fs zum d, es zum g, gs zum e, f zum a, as [ais] zum fs, h
zum g, as zum c1, cs zum a, b zum d, und ds1 zum h rein, und endlich ihre Octaven auch
gantz rein zusammen, so wird das gantze Instrument seine möglichste Reinigkeit haben.
Mercket man aber über dieses noch einige Unreinlichkeit, so müssen selbige so lange
corrigiret werden, biß alles gut und rein scheinet. Denn, wenn einer ieden Qvinte nicht
mehr als ein Viertheil eines Commatis genommen wird, kann das Gehöre solches gar
wohl vertragen, und wird es fast gar nicht mercken, wie auff dem Monochordo solches
klärlich dargethan werden kan. 47
However, in my opinion, those will do best with this temperament who begin to tune c
and e2 pure, and then tune the fifths c–g, g–d1, d–a narrower than pure, so you hardly
notice it. They will then find that the fifth a1–e2 beats no more or less than the before
mentioned, which must beat equally, giving the temperament its fair accuracy. Then
you tune the usual octaves to the mentioned keys, and then the major thirds f#–d, eb–g,
g#–e, f–a, a#–f#, b–g, ab–c1, c#–a, bb–d, and d#1–b pure, and finally their octaves pure. In
this way the instrument will be as pure as possible. If, however, you notice any impuri-
ties, they must be corrected until everything seems good and pure. Because if not more
than 1/4 of the comma is taken from a fifth, the ear can tolerate it well and will hardly
notice it, as can clearly be demonstrated on the monochord.
The tuning procedure has similarities with Praetorius’, and is a clear description
of 1/4 syntonic comma mean-tone.48 Since Printz also is distinguishing between
Eb–D#, G#–Ab, and A#–Bb, he presupposes subsemitones.
45 Walther 1708.
46 “Es fehlet aber in denen Orgeln das Ds, so mit dem H eine Tertiam majorem macht. Dannenhero
muß, im Fall diese Transposition recht rein solle seyn, die Clavis zwischen dem D und E gebrochen
seyn, daß deren eine mit dem H eine reine Tertiam majorem, die andere mit dem C eine Tertiam
minorem mache.” Printz 1696, part i: 42.
47 Printz 1696, part iii: 68f.
48 Later: 87ff, Printz discusses other divisions of the comma, but issues no new recommendations.
See also Lindley 1987: 218.
17
Fig. 5: Title page, Orgelprobe (1681). (Nederlands Muziek Instituut,

The Hague)
2.1.3. Andreas Werckmeister (1645–1706)

Andreas Werckmeister is a well-known name in the history of temperaments. He
was born 1645 in Benneckenstein, Thuringia, and died 1706 in Halberstadt. Wer-
ckmeister is best known as a theorist, but he was also an organist and composer.
As an organist he worked in Quedlinburg and Halberstadt.
Werckmeister’s best-known writings are perhaps Orgelprobe (1681) 49 and Musi-
calische Temperatur (1691). His writings were obviously read by other musicians
18
and theorists. Johann Gottfried Walther and Johann Mattheson, among others,
frequently quote Werckmeister’s writings in their own works. Even Dieterich
Buxtehude was a friend of Werckmeister’s, and wrote a dedicatory poem for the
“preface” to Werckmeister’s Harmonologia Musica (1702). Other well-known per-
sons in this context are Arp Schnitger50 and Johann Philipp Bendeler.51 It seems
that Werckmeister’s writings and opinions were rather well known, but it is diffi-
cult to judge how influential Werckmeister was. At least he can be said to be one
of the authors who started the vast discussion about mean-tone temperament
and the different well-tempered tunings, which continued through the eigh-
teenth century.
Werckmeister came forward as a strong opponent to the ruling mean-tone
temperament, and presented his own well-tempered tunings in the Orgelprobe
and the Musicalische Temperatur. 52 Today most organists have heard about Werck-
meister III, and may have also heard or played an organ tuned to it.
In the Musicalische Temperatur (1691) Werckmeister gives his most extensive
presentation of his temperaments. In the drawing for the monochord (see Fig. 6)
he presents six divisions of the octave, where the first is the just intonation and
thus no temperament. Then follows 1/4-comma mean-tone (called the incorrect
temperament), and then the correct temperaments. The list is numbered from I
to VI, and it is from here the first correct temperament got its name Werckmeister
III. In the Orgelprobe (1681) Werckmeister gives two definitions, which are the
same as numbers III and IV in the Musicalische Temperatur (1691). 53
Werckmeister III and V are divisions based on 1/4 Pythagorean comma, and
Werckmeister IV is based on 1/3 Pythagorean comma division. With the intro-
duction of tables in the writings of Werckmeister we get a clearer picture of the
structure of the temperaments. Werckmeister VI is not based on the division of a
comma, but on the number seven (7). Therefore no circle of fifths are given for
Werckmeister VIa and VIb. These temperaments are thus more an approach in
the manner of musica poetica to the question of temperament. Werckmeister does
not give a tuning instruction to these temperaments, strengthening the impres-
sion that they are primarily theoretical. The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are called
“musical numbers” 54 since they represent the octave, fifth, fourth, major third
and the minor third (2:1, 3:2, 4:3, 5:4, 6:5). Added together these numbers equal
21, which is 3x7; hence the number 7. Werckmeister continues and gives two ta-
bles with string lengths, 55 where the first is 21x7=147 for C. The second is
49 A second edition was the Erweiterte und verbesserte Orgel=Probe (1698).

50 Werckmeister 1698, preface.
51 Werckmeister 1697, preface and Werckmeister 1698, preface.
52 Werckmeister 1681 and Werckmeister 1691.
53 Werckmeister 1681: 35.
54 Werckmeister 1691: 69ff.
55 String-length is a common way to define or describe a temperament, directly connected to the
use of a monochord. If the length of a string is set to x, then x/2 is the octave.
19
20
Fig. 6: Division of the monochord, Musicalische Temperatur (1691). (Nederlands Muziek Instituut, The Hague)
- 1 PC
- 1 PC
C 4 C 3
F G - 1 PC F G
- 1 PC 3
4
Bb D Bb D
+ 1 PC - 1 PC
- 1 PC 3 3
4
Eb A Eb A
+ 1 PC
3
E G# E
G#
- 1 PC
3
C# B C# B
F# - 1 PC
F#
- 1 PC 3
4
Fig. 7: Werckmeister III Fig. 8: Werckmeister IV
- 1 PC
4 C
F G
Bb D
- 1 PC
4
Eb A
+ 1 PC - 1 PC
4 4
G# E
- 1 PC
4
C# B
- 1 PC
F#
4
Fig. 9: Werckmeister V
7x7=49, which is further multiplied with 4 (49x4=196 for C). Then follows an-
other table giving the amount by which the fifths are tempered. There are 7 tem-
pered fifths (both wider and narrower than pure), and 5 pure fifths. The tables
with string lengths give slightly differing results, and are here labeled Werckmeis-
ter VIa and VIb respectively. The only temperaments that Werckmeister actually
explained how to tune are the well-tempered tunings, no. III–V.
Table 2: Werckmeister III

0,00 90,22 192,18 294,13 390,22 498,04 588,27 696,09 792,18 888,27 996,09 1092,18
Table 3: Werckmeister IV
0,00 82,40 196,09 294,13 392,18 498,04 588,27 694,13 784,36 890,22 1003,91 1086,31
21
Fig. 10: Description of temperaments, Orgelprobe (1681).

(Nederlands Muziek Instituut, The Hague)
Table 4: Werckmeister V
0,00 96,09 203,91 300,00 396,09 503,91 600,00 701,96 792,18 900,00 1001,96 1098,04
Table 5: Werckmeister VIa

0,00 96,88 199,50 294,57 395,17 501,98 599,08 701,95 792,62 888,29 1000,02 1031,79
Table 6: Werckmeister VIb

0,00 90,66 186,33 298,07 395,17 498,04 594,92 697,54 792,62 893,21 1000,02 1097,12
It seems from Werckmeister’s own writings that he was not always so successful
in promoting his new temperaments. He was criticized for his new ideas by,
among others, Johann Caspar Trost, who built the organ in the chapel of
Weißenfels. 56 Werckmeister tried to meet this critique, which he obviously took
very seriously. Throughout his writings he complains about the old-fashioned or-
gan builders who do not want to adopt the new temperament, and how easy it
would be to adjust their tuning. Werckmeister writes:
56 See Werckmeister 1691: 82ff, and Rasch 1983: 16.
22
Fig. 11: Description of temperaments, Musicalische Temperatur (1691).

(Nederlands Muziek Instituut, The Hague)
Oder man könte in der alten Temperatur nur das dis etwas niedriger stimmen, so würde
gis. dis. etwas reiner, item H. und dis. dis g. und dis b müsten auch in erleidlichem Tem-
perament bleiben. Aber etliche Organisten, und Orgelmacher sind durch ihre Gewonheit
so eingenommen, daß sie lieber die gräulichen unbrauchbaren Dissonantien behalten,
alß das sie ihren Sinn ändern solten. 57
In the old temperament one could lower the d# somewhat, making g#–d# more in-tune,
and B–d#, d#–g and d#–bb would become more tolerably tempered. But many organists
and organ builders are so dominated by force of habit, that they prefer to keep the hor-
rible unusable dissonances instead of changing their minds.
Further Werckmeister argues for the new temperament by claiming that it is

not so different from the old one, implying that the change would not be that
great.
Und unsere Temperaturen sind auch von der Alten so sehr nicht entfernet, wie etliche
wol meinen. 58
And our temperaments are not so different from [the temperaments of] the old, as some
might say.
57 Werckmeister 1697: 32f.

58 Werckmeister 1698a: 80.
23
Fig. 12: Title page, Musicalische Temperatur (1691). (Nederlands Muziek

Instituut, The Hague)
Werckmeister obviously had great trouble introducing the well-tempered tun-

ings in his day. Today we tend to forget this when we try to date the introduction
of equal temperament into organ building earlier and earlier. Changes are not
easy to implement.
Why then was Werckmeister opposed to mean-tone temperament? The title
of the Musicalische Temperatur gives us the answer:
Musicalische Temperatur, Oder deutlicher und warer Mathematischer Unterricht, Wie
man durch Anweisung des MONOCHORDI Ein Clavier, sonderlich die Orgel=Wercke, Po-
sitive, Regale, Spinetten, und dergleichen wol temperirt stimmen könne, damit nach
24
heutiger manier alle Modi ficti in einer angenehm= und erträglichen Harmonia mögen
genommen werden... 59
Musical Temperament, or clear and true mathematical instruction on how to tune a cla-
vier, in particular organs, positivs, regals, spinetts and similar instruments in a well-tem-
pered manner with the help of the monochord whereby in a modern fashion all modi
ficti, can be used to make a pleasant and tolerable harmony...
“A musical temperament” where all the harmonies would be pleasant and would
allow modulations through the circle of fifths was requested. Using more remote
keys presupposes another temperament than 1/4-comma mean-tone or many
subsemitones. The latter would introduce technical problems in playing on such
a keyboard.
Werckmeister is also aware of the fact that people have different opinions
about this matter. He says that there are several different ideas about tempera-
ment, but he does not mention any specific author or organ builder. The only
temperament he mentions, besides his own, is the 1/4-comma mean-tone. This
gives the impression that the only other choice is Werckmeister’s temperaments.
Es werden viel und mancherley Meynungen von der Musicalischen Temperatur auf die
Bahne gebracht; Einige bringen vor, es müsten alle Quinten ein Viertel eines commatis
herunter schweben, so würden hingegen alle Tertien gantz rein seyn und bleiben: Dieses
scheinet zwar im Anfang des Processus, so wohl im Monochordo, als auch im Stimmen
ganz favorabel, allein wenn man durch das gantze Clavier, oder durch den Circul der
Quinten gehet, befinden sich unterschiedliche defecta, daß man ein solch Temperirtes
Clavier gar nicht gebrauchen kan. 60
At the present time there are many different opinions about musical temperaments.
Some propose that all fifths must be a 1/4 comma narrower than pure, which would re-
sult in pure thirds. Although it seems preferable to begin this way both on the mono-
chord and when tuning, if one goes through the whole keyboard, or through the circle
of fifths, there are different defects, so that one can hardly use a keyboard tempered this
way.
One of the defects Werckmeister is talking about is, of course, the wolf. This is
one of his strongest arguments against mean-tone temperament. The question of
subsemitones is also an argument against the mean-tone temperament. Subsemi-
tones spoil the instrument, making it a patchwork, and confusing many.61
Werckmeister also discusses equal temperament and key characteristics. His
argument against equal temperament is based on the properties of well-tempered
tunings. Werckmeister’s first mentioning of equally tempering 12 fifths is in Hy-
pomnemata Musica (1697). 62 He refers himself to this in the Musicalische Paradox-
al-Discourse (1707), published posthumously. Here Werckmeister claims that he
knew this temperament already 30 years ago, but the engraver did not manage to
do the engraving for his 2-foot monochord.63 He writes that he is pleased with
59 Werckmeister 1691, title page.

61 Werckmeister 1698a: 79, and p. “0” [82].
62 Werckmeister 1697: 35f.
25
the support he received from Johann Georg Neidhardt, who has published a de-
scription of equal temperament.64 However, Werckmeister does not recommend
equal temperament even if he judges it to be correct; instead, in his last book, he
writes the following:
Indeßen bin ich doch nicht ungeneigt, und bleibe dabey, daß man die diatonischen Ter-
tien etwas reiner laße, als die andern so man selten gebrauchet, es giebet auch gute Ver-
änderung,… 65
Even so I still remain inclined to leave the diatonic thirds somewhat purer than the oth-
ers that one rarely uses, which results in good variations…
When it comes to the question whether Werckmeister’s ideas were applied in

practice, Werckmeister states, himself, in his Orgelprobe from 1681 that the organ
builder Zacharias Thayßner used his temperament.66 In 1705 Thayßner received a
printed certificate about the organ in St. Wenzel, Naumburg, which, among other
things, states that he applied a “musical temperament.”67 The wording is the
same Werckmeister uses in the title to his Musicalische Temperatur from 1691 im-
plying that one can modulate around the circle of fifths: “musical temperament.”
The wolf in the mean-tone temperaments was the main problem for the mu-
sicians who wanted to be able to modulate through the circle of fifths. As an ex-
ample of why one would need a temperament making it possible to play in all
keys, Werckmeister mentions in Hypomnemata Musica (1697) a Canzona com-
posed 30 years prior by Johann Jacob Froberger going through all the keys.68
63 Werckmeister 1707: 111ff.

64 Werckmeister 1707: 112. Neidhardt 1706: 38 (gleich=schwebenden).
65 Werckmeister 1707: 113. A similar statement can be found in Werckmeister’s Die Nothwendigsten
Anmerckungen und Regeln wie der Bassus Continuus oder General=Baß wol könne tractiret werden
(1698): “Wir wollen aber in unsern Unterricht keines Commatis gedencken, und nur wie gemeldet
einfältig verfahren, und dis Werck also beschreiben, daß das Genus Diatonico-Chromaticum,
welches heutiges Tages am meisten gebrauchet wird, am reinesten bleibe.” (Werckmeister 1698b:
64.) Still we find in this book a practical description on how to tune a clavichord, approaching
equal temperament. Since the temperament is mainly intended for the clavichord it is omitted
from our comparisons. Mark Lindley has made a reconstruction (Lindley 1987: 264. See also
Schütz 1988: 137ff.) based on Werckmeister’s description Kurtzer Unterricht und Zugab, wie man
ein Clavier stimmen und wohl temperiren könne (Werckmeister 1698b: 61). Werckmeister describes
the different amount of tempering the fifths with formulations like: “ein klein wenig herunter
schweben”, “ein gar weniges herunter schweben”, “gantz subtil herunter schweben”. The thirds
to check the tempering of the fifths are described with: “nicht gar zu stark schweben”, “soviel das
Gehör ertragen kann”, “erleidlich consonire”. (Werckmeister 1698b: 64ff.) Werckmeister himself
approximates the tempering to be between 1/8 and 1/12 of a comma. (Werckmeister 1698b: 69.)
Lindley notices correctly in his reconstruction that Werckmeister’s approximation cannot be cor-
rect, and suggests between 1/6 and 1/8 of a comma. See also Werckmeister 1697: 36, Werckmeis-
ter 1698b, s. 63f, and Neidhardt 1706: 39.
66 “…ist auch von Tit. Hrn. Z. Thayßner, berühmten Orgelmacher, welcher das Orgelwerck in unser
Hoff-Kirchen also temperirt und eingerichtet, vor gut erkant, daß man also gar nichts daran zu
desideriren hat.” Werckmeister 1681: 36.
67 “…und auch zugleich eine accurate musicalische Temperatur gar annehmlich zuhören ist…”.
Quoted in Dähnert 1962: 73.
26
Even if equal temperament is known, it is not yet accepted, probably because

it is regarded as “too much” out of tune compared to the pure, or nearly pure,
thirds of mean-tone. This is not surprising since some builders and musicians al-
ready had problems accepting Werckmeister’s well-tempered tuning. Werckmeis-
ter accepts equal temperament as correct, but he prefers to have the diatonic
thirds purer, since they are more often used. This is the case with, for example,
Werckmeister III. Differences in the scales, due to the temperament, give differ-
ent keys different characteristics, and this quality, according to Andreas Werck-
meister, is used and loved by musicians; it possesses a musical quality.
Finally we have some other sources discussing the reception of Werckmeister’s
temperaments. According to Christoph Albert Sinn in his Temperatura Practica, 69
the organ builder Christoph Contius used Werckmeister’s temperament. Contius
built three instruments before Sinn’s book was published: Wernigerode, 1707;
Abbenrode, 1708; and Halle, 1716. Contius also restored the organ in the castle
of Gröningen, on which Werckmeister wrote the report Organum Gruningense Re-
divivum (1705). 70 In this report Werckmeister writes that the Oberwerck was re-
tuned while the Rückpositiv was still in 1/4-comma mean-tone to enable a com-
parison. 71 Werckmeister did not, however, succeed in convincing all of the
people present about the quality of the “new temperament”.
Ich weiß zwar wohl, daß einige, so noch an der alten, so genanten Praetorianischen
Temperatur hangen, und nicht weiter kommen sind. 72
However, I know well that some have not come further, and still keep to the old so
called Praetorian temperament.
Werckmeister does not state what the new temperament was, but he refers to his
Musicalische Temperatur where he tried to prove the 1/4-comma mean-tone to be
inferior, or wrong as he put it,73 and where the equal temperament is not de-
scribed in the tables but the first correct temperament being Werckmeister III.
Sinn does not specify which of Werckmeister’s temperaments Contius used,
but he refers to the Musicalische Temperatur by Werckmeister. After discussing
Praetorius’s temperament (1/4-comma mean-tone), Sinn writes:
§. 6. Es will aber diese Temperatur anitzo nicht mehr hinlangen, da die Music zu unseren
Zeiten fast den höchsten Gipfel erstiegen, und man aus allen Semitoniis zu Musiciren an-
gefangen, auch noch immer damit fort fähret; Und ist dahero aufs neue sehr nöthig,
daß auch nach solcher Art die Intervalla zu einer völligen Richtigkeit gebracht werden,
damit die Harmonie annehmlich und gefällig sey.
69 Sinn 1717. See also Williams 1984: 189, and, Wegscheider and Schütz 1988: 30.
70 Werckmeister 1705.
71 Werckmeister 1705: §49–52 (no page numbers).
72 Werckmeister 1705: §52.
73 Werckmeister 1705: §58–59. Werckmeister refers to the Musicalische Temperatur by using “Mono-
chordo”, which is part of the full title.
27
§. 7. Solches nun ins Werck zu richten, hat sich vor andern der berühmte Musicus Theo-
retico-Practicus Hn. Andreas Werckmeister, Weyland wohlbestalter Organist an der Kirche
zu St. Martin in Halberstatt höchst angelegen seyn lassen, auch mit grosser Mühe und
Fleiß es so weit gebracht, daß man aus allen Semitoniis spielen kan, was man nur wil,
und zwar so, daß es dem Gehör gantz erträglich fället, wie davon in seiner Musicalischen
Temperatur ausführlich zu lesen ist.
§. 8. Gleich wie nun diese Temperatur seinen grossen Nutzen gefunden, in dem diesel-
be durch den berühmten Orgelmacher Hn. Christoph Kuntzen [Contius] in einige Or-
gelwercke ad praxin gebracht worden, so hat sich auch der seel. Mann dadurch einen
herrlichen Nach Ruhm erworben, der so lange die Welt stehet nicht vergehen wird. 74
§. 6. [Praetorius’s] temperament is no longer adequate since the music of our time has
almost reached its pinnacle, and one has started to play in all semitones, and still does;
hence it is again highly necessary to bring the intervals to a full correctness according to
such a practice, by which the euphony is pleasing and appealing.
§. 7. More than for others, this was a main concern for the famous musician and theorist
Mr. A. Werckmeister, in his lifetime well appointed organist of the St. Martin Church in
Halberstadt, and he passed it on with labor and diligence as well, so that one can play
anything one likes in all semitones, in such a way that the ear can reasonably well toler-
ate it, as you can read in detail in his Musicalische Temperatur.
§. 8. As this temperament was found to be greatly advantageous when applied in some

organs by the famous organ builder Christoph Kunzen [Contius], the late Werckmeister
achieved a glorious reputation which will stand as long as the world lasts.
A few pages later Sinn writes that Superintendent Heinrich Neuß discussed
the question of equal temperament with some organ builders:
§. 10. Als nun bey vorerwehnten Hn. Doctori [Neuß] mit dieser Arbeit beschäfftiget war,
und derselbe in meiner Gegenwart mit einigen Orgelmachern davon discurirte [discutir-
te], selbige aber vorwendeten, daß solches zwar in Säiten=Instrumenten seinen Nutzen
hätte, in den Pfeiff=wercken aber keines weges angehen könte, weil es mit denenselben
eine gantz andere Beschaffenheit hätte. 75
§. 10. While [I was] occupied with this work [of calculating equal temperament], at the
above-mentioned Doctor Neuß, he discussed it with some organ builders in my pres-
ence, but they argued that this is only useful in stringed instruments, and has no place
under any circumstance in organs, since they are of a very different nature.
According to Michael Behrens the organ builders could include Contius, who
worked in Wernigerode during Neuß’ continuance in office.76 The organ builders
clearly did not approve of equal temperament. Based on this, an instrument idi-
omatic approach regarding temperament is historically justified. Due to the dif-
74 Sinn 1717: 115f.

75 Sinn 1717: 123.
76 Behrens 1988: 13f.
28
ferent character of the sound production, a temperament might be better suited

to a harpsichord than to an organ. Among Werckmeister’s temperaments the
most likely candidate for an organ is Werckmeister III, since that is the tempera-
ment recommended for chromatic music by Werckmeister himself.77
2.1.4. Johann Philipp Bendeler (1654–1709)

Johann Philipp Bendeler was a close friend of Andreas Werckmeister’s.78 He was
born 1654 in Riethnordhausen, close to Erfurt, and died in Quedlinburg 1709.
Bendeler worked as teacher (1681) and Kantor (1687) in Quedlinburg. Bendeler’s
most important treatise, Organopoeia (c. 1690), deals with the construction of the
organ, and in the third part of the small book, “Von der Stimmung”, Bendeler
presents three temperaments.79
- 1 PC - 1 PC
C 3 3
C
F G - 1 PC F G
3
Bb D Bb D
- 1 PC
3
Eb A Eb A
G# E E
G#
C# B C# B
F# - 1 PC F#
3 - 1 PC
3
Fig. 14: Bendeler II

Fig. 13: Bendeler I
- 1 PC
C 4
F G - 1 PC
4
Bb D
Eb A
- 1 PC
4
G# E
- 1 PC
4
C# B
F#
Fig. 15: Bendeler III

78 See above p. 19.
79 Bendeler 1690: 38ff.
29
Fig. 16: Title page, Organopoeia (c. 1690). (Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin –

Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung mit Mendelssohn-Archiv)
Table 7: Bendeler I
0,00 90,22 188,27 294,13 392,18 498,04 588,27 694,13 792,18 890,22 996,09 1094,13
Table 8: Bendeler II
0,00 90,22 196,09 294,13 392,18 498,04 596,09 694,13 792,18 890,22 996,09 1094,13
Table 9: Bendeler III

0,00 96,09 192,18 294,13 396,09 498,04 594,13 696,09 798,04 894,13 996,09 1092,18
30
The two first temperaments are based on 1/3 Pythagorean comma. The first tem-
pers the fifths C–G, D–G, and B–F#, keeping the other fifths pure. The second
tempers the fifths C–G, D–A, and, F#–C#. The third temperament is similar to
Werckmeister III in that it uses 1/4 Pythagorean comma. Bendeler tempers the
fifths C–G, G–D, E–H, G#–D#, and the other fifths pure. Further information
about whether these temperaments were used is lacking.
2.1.5. Johann Georg Neidhardt (c. 1680–1739)

Johann Georg Neidhardt was born c. 1680 in Bernstadt not far from Görlitz, and
died 1739 in Königsberg. Since Neidhardt was enrolled at the university in Alt-
dorf already in 1698, one can assume that 1680 is more likely the year of his
birth than the more often quoted 1685.80 He was a theorist, but was also a prac-
ticing musician and a poet. Neidhardt studied with Johann Nicolaus Bach, cousin
of Johann Sebastian, in Jena, and his writings were referred to by, among others,
Andreas Werckmeister. 81 It was Neidhardt who introduced the term “gleich-
schwebend” in the Beste und leichteste Temperatur (1706). 82
Neidhardt has two arguments for equal temperament. After mentioning the
1/4-comma mean-tone, he comments on Werckmeister by referring to Werck-
meister’s Musicalische Temperatur, saying that the so far prevailing temperaments
had differently tempered fifths, making the situation quite complicated:
Die bisher florirten Temperaturen sind so eingerichtet, daß eine Quinte rein, die andere
über sich schwebend, die dritte unter sich schwebend, und die vierdte ich weiß nicht
wie in das Gehöre fället. Vid. “Werckmeisteri” Music. Temperat: Cap. XX. XXI. XXVII. XXX.
XXXI. aliosque. 83
Up to now temperaments have been constructed, so that one fifth is pure, the second
beat wider than pure, a third beat narrower than pure, and a fourth, who knows how
one heard it. See Werckmeister’s Musicalische Temperatur: chapters. XX. XXI. XXVII.
XXX. XXXI. and others.
Now Neidhardt gives his first argument for equal temperament: the use of some
keys will not be refined, and they will not be appreciated as would be proper.
Unterdessen aber bleiben die schweren aber auch schönen Modi aus Cisdur, Disdur, Fis-
dur, Gisdur, Hdur, und Cis moll, Dis moll, F moll, Fis moll, Gis moll, B moll, H moll, ferner un-
excoliret: indem sie ein verständiger Componist aus Vorsatz, und unverständige aus
Unwissenheit, weder fundamentaliter noch affinaliter ihrer Federn werth schätzen. 84
Besides these [the diatonic keys], the difficult but beautiful keys of C# major, D# major,
F# major, G# major, B major, and C# minor, D# minor, F minor, F# minor, G# minor, Bb
minor, B minor, will not be elaborated: since a competent composer will from prejudice,
80 Ratte1994b: 230.
82 Neidhardt 1706: 38. Werckmeister uses the word “Gleichheit” when he explains the resulting con-
sonances when tempering all fifths 1/12 of a comma (Werckmeister 1697: 35).
83 Neidhardt 1706: 39.
84 Neidhardt 1706: 39-40.
31
Fig. 17: Title page, Beste und leichteste Temperatur (1706). (Staats-
bibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung mit
Mendelssohn-Archiv)
and an incompetent one will out of ignorance, not bother to learn the basic use [of the
key] nor in modulation.
Neidhardt continues with the second argument: when two instruments tuned to
different pitch play together, it will result in a wrong depiction of the chosen
mood.
Nebst diesem ist es zärtlichen Ohren ein Greuel, im falle sich ein Instrument zu dem an-
dern accompagniret, wo eines davon im Chor= das andre im Cammer=Thone stehet.
Wenn gleich ein guter Componist z. e. über die Worte des 147. Psalms commentiret hat:
“Er schaffet deinen Gräntzen Friede”, so klinget es doch, wenn er dergleichen Instru-
mente darzu setzt, nicht viel anders, als hätte er den Zanck der Hunde über dem Cörper
der abgestürtzen Iesabel vorstellen wollen. 85
32
Together with this, it is detestable to sensitive ears when one instrument is accompany-
ing another instrument, if one is in choir pitch and the other in chamber pitch. Even if a
good composer has glossed the words of the 147th Psalm: “He makes peace in your
borders,” when using such instruments it sounds as if he was picturing the dogs quarrel-
ling over the fallen Jezebel’s corpse.
Here we have to assume that one of the instruments in this example is transpos-
ing even if it is not clearly stated. Since Neidhardt is talking about keys in the
preceding example the discussion must be about the quality of keys.
Then Neidhardt sets out to define the equal temperament for a monochord,
since, to his knowledge this has not been done, and therefore not applied in any
other instrument.
Sie ist aber, meines Wissens, noch bis dato auf kein Monochordum gekommen (und also
noch viel weniger an andern Instrumenten accurat appliciret worden.) 86
To my knowledge [equal temperament] has not until today been defined on a mono-
chord (and so has even less been accurately applied in other instruments.)
The mentioning of the application of equal temperament in other instruments is

interesting. According to Neidhardt, an accurate application of equal tempera-
ment has so far not been possible, perhaps primarily due to technical problems.
There is also a practical problem in using a monochord to set a temperament,
namely that the tone fades away too fast. By Jakob Adlung we have a report from
an occasion where Neidhardt was supposed to tune an organ stop according to
his temperament. This took place in Jena, at Johann Nicolaus Bach’s organ. Jo-
hann Nicolaus Bach was Neidhardt’s opponent, and the result of the tuning
should be judged after playing a hymn. According to the report, Neidhardt lost.
Werckmeister in Hypomn. C. 10, S. 30, hält es vor thöricht, Pfeiffen nach dem Mono-
chord zu stimmen. Als die neue Orgel zu Jena fertig war, wollte Neidhardt solche stim-
men, und bekam endlich die Erlaubniß, mit einem Gedact die Probe zu machen, da er
sich denn die Mühe nahm, solches zu temperiren nach dem Monochord; Herr Bach
aber, als Organist, thät dergleichen mit einer gedeckten Stimme ohne Monochord, und
am Ende wurde dieses letztern Temperatur jener vorgezogen, wie denn der Organist
nachdem sein Werck selbst gestimmt, welches ich aus seinem Munde habe. 87
Werckmeister writes in Hypomnemata Musica chapter 10, p. 30, that tuning pipes with a
monochord is foolish. When the new organ in Jena was ready, Neidhardt wanted to tune
it, and finally got permission to do the test with a Gedackt which he took the trouble to
temper using the monochord; Mr. Bach, as organist, did the same with a stopped register
without using a monochord, and in the end the temperament of the latter was preferred
by everyone, and later used by him to tune the instrument, as he told me himself.
Neidhardt is perhaps best known today for his pragmatic approach to temper-
ament, first presented in the Sectio canonis harmonici (1724). After presenting four
temperaments, three unequal and the equal temperament, he evaluates them,

87 Adlung 1758: 311f, note “y”. See also Adlung 1768, vol ii: 54f.
33
Fig. 18: Title page, Sectio canonis harmonici (1724). (Staatsbib-

liothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Musikabteilung
mit Mendelssohn-Archiv)
and gives some recommendations for their use: for a village, a small city, a large
city, and the court.
Meines Erachtens schickt sich die Erste, mehrentheils, am besten vor ein Dorff, die Andre
vor eine kleine Stadt, die Dritte vor eine Große, und die Vierdte vor den Hof. 88
In my opinion the first [temperament] is suitable primarily for a village, the second for a
small city, the third for a large city, and the fourth for the court.
Before this categorization, Neidhardt comments on the consequences of unequal
temperaments. The unequal temperaments will, through the difference in the in-
tervals and consequently differences in triads, result in different and stronger
emotions.
34
Fig. 19: Title page, Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische Abtheilungen

(1732). (Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz,
Musikabteilung mit Mendelssohn-Archiv)
Denn außer dem, daß der sonus fundamentalis eines Modi bald höher bald tiefer ist, so
verändert sich zugleich die Trias Harmonica: woraus ohnfehlbar eine mehr als doppelte
Gemüths=Bewegung entstehen muß. 89
Aside from the fact that the tonic note of a key is sometimes higher and sometimes low-
er, the triads are also changing: which inevitably results in more than a doubling of their
emotional impact.
In his Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische Abtheilungen (1732), Neidhardt keeps

to these same recommendations. A problem is that the definitions of the tempera-
ments he gives are not exactly the same as in Sectio canonis harmonici (1724). The
definitions are slightly shifted. The greatest difference, though, is Neidhardt’s new
system of creating temperaments. 90 He defines a frame within which the temper-
35
ing of the intervals should stay, and with this system you can go on defining your
own temperaments in tables. Neidhardt presents many temperaments created
with his new method. Some are symmetrical in their design, with every second
fifth tempered equally. Others are practical, with the fifths tempered differently to
achieve a sonorous temperament. The system can use either the fifth, which is
“die Erste Art,” or the third, “die Andre Art,” as a point of departure.
Neidhardt defined 17 temperaments according to this method, but only four
were chosen: 1/Erste Art is equal temperament; 8/Erste Art is for a large city; 2/An-
dre Art is for a small city; and, 1/Andre Art is for a village. 91 These were further pre-
sented with numbers for string lengths.
Table 10: Neidhardt 1732 – Erste Art
No. 1 Equal temp. No. 8 Large city

Fifths Beats Fifths Beats
c:g 1 c:g 2
g:d 1 g:d 2
d:a 1 d:a 2
a:e 1 a:e 1
e:h 1 e:h 0
h:fs 1 h:fs 1
fs:cs 1 fs:cs 1
cs:gs 1 cs:gs 1
gs:ds 1 gs:ds 0
ds:b 1 ds:b 0
b:f 1 b:f 1
f:c 1 f:c 1
Table 11: Neidhardt 1732 – Andre Art

No. 1 Village No. 2 Small city
Fifths Beats Fifths Beats
c:g 1 c:g 2
g:d 2 g:d 2
d:a 3 d:a 2
a:e 3 a:e 2
e:h 0 e:h 1
h:fs 1 h:fs 1
fs:cs 0 fs:cs 0
cs:gs 1 cs:gs 0
gs:ds 0 gs:ds 1
ds:b 0 ds:b 1
b:f 1 b:f 0
f:c 0 f:c 0
90 Neidhardt 1732: 26ff.

91 Neidhardt 1732: 40. See Appendix C. No. 12 is of interest for Swedish conditions, since it is
referred to and judged the best by Johan Miklin in A. A. Hülphers’ Historisk Afhandling from 1773
(p. 320, note “y”).
36
A comparison (see table below) of the temperaments in Neidhardt’s publica-

tions from 1724 and 1732 will reveal the shift that occurred between the two
publications. The “kleine Stadt” and “ein Dorf” in 1724 becomes “grosse Stadt”
and “kleine Stadt” respectively in 1732. A reference to a temperament by
Neidhardt must consequently always be accompanied by the year of publication.
Table 12: Johann Georg Neidhardt 1724

Hof Grosse Stadt Kleine Stadt Dorf
String Cents String Cents String Cents String Cents
length length length length
C 2000 0,00 2000 0,00 2000 0,00 2000 0,00
C# 1887,74 100,01 1892,01 96,10 1892,01 96,10 1894,15 94,14
D 1781,79 200,01 1785,82 196,10 1785,82 196,10 1785,82 196,10
D# 1681,78 300,01 1683,68 298,06 1683,68 298,06 1685,59 296,10
E 1587,39 400,01 1592,78 394,14 1592,78 394,14 1594,58 392,19
F 1498,3 500,01 1500 498,04 1498,3 500,01 1500 498,04
F# 1414,2 600,02 1417,4 596,10 1417,4 596,10 1420,61 592,19
G 1334,83 700,01 1336,34 698,06 1336,34 698,06 1336,34 698,06
G# 1259,91 800,02 1262,76 796,10 1262,76 796,10 1262,76 796,10
A 1189,2 900,01 1193,23 894,15 1193,23 894,15 1193,23 894,15
Bb 1122,45 1000,02 1123,72 998,06 1122,45 1000,02 1125 996,09
B 1059,45 1100,02 1061,85 1096,10 1061,85 1096,10 1064,25 1092,20
C 1000 1200,00 1000 1200,00 1000 1200,00 1000 1200,00
Table 13: Johann Georg Neidhardt 1732

Hof Grosse Stadt Kleine Stadt Dorf
String Cents String Cents String Cents String Cents
length length length length
C 2000 0,00 2000 0,00 2000 0,00 2000 0,00
C# 1887,74 100,01 1892,01 96,10 1894,15 94,14 1894,15 94,14
D 1781,79 200,01 1785,82 196,10 1785,82 196,10 1783,8 198,06
D# 1681,78 300,01 1683,68 298,06 1685,59 296,10 1685,59 296,10
E 1587,39 400,01 1592,78 394,14 1594,58 392,19 1596,38 390,24
F 1498,3 500,01 1498,3 500,01 1500 498,04 1500 498,04
F# 1414,2 600,02 1417,4 596,10 1420,61 592,19 1420,48 592,35
G 1334,83 700,01 1336,34 698,06 1336,34 698,06 1334,83 700,01
G# 1259,91 800,02 1262,76 796,10 1262,76 796,10 1264,19 794,14
A 1189,2 900,01 1193,23 894,15 1193,23 894,15 1193,23 894,15
Bb 1122,45 1000,02 1122,45 1000,02 1125 996,09 1123,72 998,06
B 1059,45 1100,02 1061,85 1096,10 1064,25 1092,20 1064,25 1092,20
C 1000 1200,00 1000 1200,00 1000 1200,00 1000 1200,00
For the present work, there is a very important discussion towards the end of
Neidhardt’s Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische Abtheilungen (1732). Neidhardt ad-
37
- 1 PC - 1 PC - 1 PC - 2 PC
12 12 12 12
C C
- 1 PC F G - 1 PC - 1 PC F G - 2 PC
12 12 12 12
Bb D Bb D
- 1 PC - 1 PC - 2 PC
12 12 12
Eb A Eb A
- 1 PC - 1 PC - 1 PC
12 12 12
G# E G# E
- 1 PC - 1 PC
- 1 PC 12
12 C# B 12 C# B
- 1 PC F# - 1 PC
F#
- 1 PC - 1 PC
12 12 12 12
Fig. 20: Neidhardt for the court (1732) Fig. 21: Neidhardt for a large city (1732)
- 2 PC - 1 PC
12 12
C C
F G - 2 PC - 1 PC F G - 2 PC
12 12 12
Bb D Bb D
- 1 PC - 2 PC - 3 PC
12 12 12
Eb A Eb A
- 1 PC - 2 PC - 3 PC
12 12 12
G# E G# E
- 1 PC - 1 PC
C# B 12 12 C# B
F# F# - 1 PC
- 1 PC 12
12
Fig. 22: Neidhardt for a small city (1732) Fig. 23: Neidhardt for a village (1732)
dresses the question of the need for other temperaments than equal tempera-
ment. He defines the task as to find the best temperament for the church.
Es ist nun an dem, daß wir die beste Temperaturen, und und [sic] zwar für die Kirchen,
aussuchen wollen. 92
The time has now come to find the best temperaments namely for the churches.
This delimitation is important as an example of a concern for the suitability of a
temperament for a specific musical style or environment – church music. Conse-
quently this directly concerns the organ as the principal instrument of the
church. Neidhardt continues and writes that even if equal temperament does not
readily take the last place, and though it seems the most natural, most people do
not find in it what they seek, namely the expression of emotions through the dif-
ferences in the beats in the major thirds.
38
Fig. 24: Division of the monochord, Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische Abtheilungen (1732). (Leipziger Städtische Bibliotheken – Musikbibliothek).
Compare with Table 10 and 11. See also Werckmeister’s similar drawing, Fig. 6.
39
Allein die meisten finden doch an dieser Stimmung [die gleich schwebende] nicht, was
sie suchen. Es fehlet (heisset es) ihren Tertiis maioribus an der Abwechselung der Schwe-
bungen, und folglich mehrerer Gemüths=Bewegungen. 93
But, most people do not find in this temperament [equal temperament] what they are
looking for. The major thirds lack (they say) a variation in their beat [rates], and conse-
quently they lack diverse emotional impact.
Neidhardt refers to the idea about the temperament’s role for the expression of
emotions, but here he has a more skeptical tone than in 1724. It seems that his
personal opinion has slightly changed. He continues, bringing up the problem of
playing together with other instruments. The equal temperament is difficult to
discern in a triad, but when you hear the thirds by themselves, the difference is
clearly audible. The difference in the scale caused by the temperament creates
problems with the intonation for the players of wind instruments, and therefore
it is not only the organ builders that should be criticized.
In der triade harmonica lässet sich alles leidlich genung hören. Aber wenn die Tertiae
maiores alleine, und die Tertiae minores auch alleine, angegeben werden, so wollen jene
alzu hoch, diese alzu niedrig klingen. Ja, so gar die Halbe Tone, hinter einander, wei-
chen sehr viel in die Tiefe ab. Uber dieses finden die Trompeten, nebst den Waldhör-
nern, auch ihr Theil daran auszusetzen. Es ist also den Orgelbauern eben nicht zu
verdencken, daß sie gedachte Stimmung nicht gerne in die Kirche lassen. 94
In the triads everything is reasonably easy to hear. But when the major thirds or the mi-
nor thirds are played alone, then the first will sound way too wide and the other way
too narrow. And also the semitones, played one after another are much too flat. More-
over trumpeters and horn players have objected to this. It is, then, not the organ build-
ers one should blame for not willingly using [equal temperament] in the churches.
But already on the next page, he continues saying that there are people who use
the equal temperament. The solution to the problem of intonation and ensemble
playing would be to use the same temperament for all instruments, and to have
one pitch instead of “Chor= und Kammer=Ton.”95 The situation referred to by
Neidhardt is obviously quite complicated. The organ builders prefer a tempera-
ment that is easy to set and makes their instruments sound good. The brass in-
strument players want a temperament that matches their intonation, while the
organists want to modulate freely. Still one wants to keep a temperament that
better expresses emotions than equal temperament. In 1706 Johann Georg
Neidhardt refers to the same theological argument for the justification of the
equal temperament as Andreas Werckmeister, an exegesis of the description of
the temple of Solomon in 1 Kings 7, especially the twelve oxen mentioned in
verse 25. 96 Obviously it was important that one could support and justify one’s

40
hypothesis with theological argument when discussing temperament for the

church. We know that it lasted long before a standard was agreed upon.97
A little known source is the undated manuscript Compositio harmonica prob-
lematice tradita. 98 This is a manuscript in German, not in the hand of Johann
Georg Neidhardt, but attributed to him. It deals with the question of composi-
tion in a dialogue form. In this source, equal temperament is heavily promoted.
The arguments are that instruments would be tuned easier and faster; one could
compose and play bearably in all keys; choir and chamber pitch could be used to-
gether without offending the ear.99 If we could date this source we could see how
this equal temperament-promoting approach could be fitted in with Johann
Georg Neidhardt’s other writings. Is this an opinion close to the 1706 writings, or
is it a record of how the development turned out, in strong favor of equal tem-
perament?
Further there are some sources dealing with the reception of Neidhardt’s writ-
ings. Johann Kuhnau, J. S. Bach’s predecessor in Leipzig, writes in a letter dated
December 1717 to Johann Mattheson
Diese Meister, wie die andern insgemein noch vielweniger, haben sich doch zu derglei-
chen Neidhardtischen exacten Temperatur nicht verstehen wollen;… 100
These masters [Wender and Silbermann], and many others who have been even less in-
terested, have not wanted to understand Neidhardt’s exact temperament [equal tem-
perament]…
Johann Friedrich Wender and Gottfried Silbermann did not, according to Johann
Kuhnau, use equal temperament, referred to as Neidhardt’s “exacten Tempera-
tur.” A problem is that, although the statement clearly points out that they did
not use equal temperament, it is not clear what they used instead; it could have
been anything from mean-tone to well-tempered tunings like Werckmeister's,
and would probably apply to many other organ builders. Already Andreas Werck-
meister complained about the old-fashioned organ builders slow to adapt to new
ideas on temperament. 101
A similar case is Johann Christoph Altnickol’s statement in a report from
1753 that Zacharias Hildebrandt tuned according to Neidhardt in Naumburg,102
but this statement is much more specific when addressing one single theorist in-
stead of just saying what it is not.
97 See “pitch”, <http://www.grovemusic.com>. It was not until 1939 that the international standard
pitch of a’=440 Hz was established.
98 In Lund University Library, Wenster’s donation, Lit. G. Nr 1. Johann Mattheson knew this source,
since he comments on it in his Der vollkommene Capellmeister from 1739 (Mattheson 1739: 352).
99 Neidhardt (s. a.): 6.
100 Mattheson 1722, book 2: 235.
101 See above, p. 23.
102 The organ in Naumburg is discussed in chapter 3.1.5.
41
In der Temperatur gehet er nach dem Neidhardt, und man kan aus allen Tonen gantz
fein moduliren, ohne daß Gehör etwas wiedriges zu hören bekomt, welches bey heuti-
gen Gusto der Music das schönste ist… 103
In terms of temperament he follows Neidhardt, and one can readily modulate in all keys
without hearing anything dissonant, which is according to the musical taste of today, …
Finally, in Mizler’s Neu eröffnete Musikalische Bibliothek we find a passage about

the reception of Neidhardt’s writings. Christoph Gottlieb Schröter (1699–1782),
organist in Nordhausen and member no. 4 in the “Societät der musikalischen
Wissenschaften,” writes that he received the following answer from a traveling
able musician to the question why Neidhardt’s writings (1706, 1724, 1734 [2nd
edition of 1732]) had not been accepted into general use:
Da die wenigsten ie[t]zt lebenden practischen Musici weder Zeit noch Gelegenheit ha-
ben, die Mathematik und die Buchstabrechnungskunst zu erlernen; mithin nicht über-
zeuget werden können, daß diese oder jene Temperatur richtig sey; so entstehet die
Gegenfrage: Ob es nicht möglich u. rathsam, daß die theoretischen Musici in derglei-
chen Fällen sich einer leichtern Lehrart befleissen möchten? Denn ich halte mit allen
Verständigen für billig daß ein Lehrer sich nach der Fähigkeit seiner Schüler richte.
u.s.w. 104
Since very few of today’s practicing musicians have neither time nor opportunity to
learn mathematics and algebra they cannot be persuaded that this or that temperament
is correct. This raises an opposing question: is it not possible and advisable that theoreti-
cal musicians in such cases should find a less complicated way of teaching? I, together
with all sensible people, think it is reasonable that a teacher should adapt himself ac-
cording to the ability of his students. Etc.
This critique is valid for more than Johann Georg Neidhardt’s writings. All writ-
ings on tuning and temperament will necessarily contain mathematical calcula-
tions and theoretical reasoning. Maybe this “traveling musician’s” comment is
echoed in the obituary of J. S. Bach mentioned above, where it is said that Bach
“was no lover of dry, mathematical stuff.” Nevertheless, Neidhardt has a strong
practical approach to temperament, which is mirrored in his categorization of
the temperaments – “für den Hof, eine grosse Stadt, eine kleine Stadt, ein Dorf”.
On a map (see Fig. 25) from the middle of the eighteenth century over the Alten-
burg area the legend has a similar categorization of the places. This indicates that
Neidhardt’s categorization had a strong connection to an established practice.
Johann Georg Neidhardt is one of the more important German writers on
tuning and temperament in the beginning of the eighteenth century. His prag-
matic approach to tuning and temperament, his four tunings from 1724/32, is
unique in that he combines theoretical speculations with the demands of organ-
ists and organ builders. The musical needs were different in a village, compared
to a court. Neidhardt is especially important since we have signs of his tunings
103 Quoted in Dähnert 1962: 115.

104 Mizler 1747, iii/3: 470f.
42
Fig. 25: Map over Altenburg (mid 18th-century). (ThStA Altenburg, Karten-
und Plansammlung, Nr. 6413)
Fig. 26: Detail: legend in magnification
43
actually being applied in practice.105 We can also see in his writings that the
problem with the different pitches is becoming more and more acute.
2.2. Related writings
2.2.1. Johann Gottfried Walther (1684–1748)

Johann Gottfried Walther was born 1684 in Erfurt, and died 1748 in Weimar. He
was both a composer and theorist. He was employed at the court as music teach-
er of Prince Johann Ernst of Weimar, and organist in the church of St. Petri und
Pauli. Walther had studied with Johann Heinrich Buttstett, and had frequent
contact with Andreas Werckmeister. As a relative and friend of Johann Sebastian
Bach’s he is particularly important for this study. They both worked in Weimar
during Bach’s tenure at the court (1708–1717).
Walther’s Praecepta der Musicalischen Composition (1708) is dedicated to Prince
Johann Ernst of Weimar. The unpublished manuscript was a gift for the name-
day of Johann Ernst in 1708.106 The material was obviously not intended for a
larger audience, since it was not published during his lifetime, and was most like-
ly adapted to the young prince.
The material consists of two parts, and divides the music into “Theoretica”
and “Practica.” The latter has a subdivision into “Musica Modulatoria,” how to
play an instrument, and “Poëtica … oder die musicalische Composition,” which
consists of the “invention, thereafter the musical setting on paper, from which
one can sing or perform.”107 After this follows the basics of music theory. Here we
can see the incitement to Musicalisches Lexicon (1732).
Walther does not say anything directly about tunings and composition. Con-
sidering that the material was for his tuition of the 12-year old108 prince, it is like-
ly that some matters were left out, to be dealt with later. But, when discussing
Musica Poëtica, Walther refers to Werckmeister’s Septenarium described in Musi-
calische Temperatur from 1691. 109 The point for Walther here is to show that “mu-
sic is a mathematical science” and not to recommend a temperament.110
The Musicalisches Lexicon (1732) is one of the most important sources for un-
derstanding the aesthetics of the time. It was well known, and also used as source
105 This will be further discussed in connection to the organs in chapters 3.1.4. and 3.1.5.
106 “…wie man eine liebliche und reine zusammenstimmung der Klänge erstlich inventiren, und her-
nach aufsetzen und zu Papier bringen soll, damit selbige hernachmahls kann gesungen oder
gespielet werden.” Walther 1708: 15.
107 Walther 1708: 14f.
108 Forsblom 1985: 17.
109 Walther 1708: 83. See above p. 19.
110 “…daß die Music eine Mathematische Wißenschafft sey.” Walther 1708: 83. See also Walther
1708: 75.
44
for some musical articles in Johann Heinrich Zedler’s Grosses vollständiges Univer-
sal-Lexicon (1732–54) in sixty four volumes and four supplements. An author that
Walther himself often quotes is Thomas Balthasar Janowka. Janowka’s Clavis ad
Thesaurum Magnae Artis Musicae (Prague, 1701) was probably the source of inspi-
ration and model for the Musicalisches Lexicon. For example, under the word “af-
fetto” Walther quotes Janowka. Walther lists only the eight affects, but Janowka
continues, and says that the affects are a result of the style, the musical figures,
and the differences in the keys.
Affectus, quos Musica in hominum animis & cordibus excitare solet, potissimùm octo
sunt. Primus amoris. Secundus luctûs. seu planctûs. Tertius lætitiæ & exultationis. Quartus
furoris & indignationis. Quintus commiserationis & lachrymarum. Sextus Timoris & affec-
tionis. Septimus præsumptionis & audaciæ. Octavus admirationis. Ad quos, si qui præte-
rea sunt, omnes ferè revocari possunt. Hi affectus motuum animi, stylo, figuris seu tropis
Musicis, item Tonorum & clavium initiantium diversitati potissimùm adscribuntur. 111
The affects, which Music is wont to rouse in the souls and hearts of men, are principally
eight in number. The first is that of love, the second of grief or lamentation, the third of
joy and exultation, the fourth of rage and indignation, the fifth of pity and tears, the
sixth of fear and desire, the seventh of boldness and valor, the eighth of wonder. If there
are any others, almost all can be reduced to these. These affects are principally responsi-
ble for moving the soul through musical style, figures or modes, likewise through the
variety of intervals and key signatures. 112
In the Praecepta (1708) Walther clearly stated that the modi results in particu-
lar/certain affects. 113
Under “Temperamento” Walther refers again to Andreas Werckmeister’s Musi-
calische Temperatur, and to Brossard’s dictionary, and Printz’ Satyrischer Componist.
Walther writes:
... Temperatur ist in der musicalischen Stimmung, ein kleiner Abschnitt von der Voll-
kommenheit der musicalischen Proportionen, wodurch die Zusammenbindung der pro-
gressen füglich geschiehet, und das Gehör vergnüget wird. s. Werckmeisters
musicalische Temperatur, p[.] 3. 114
Temperament within musical tuning is a small segment of the perfection of musical pro-
portions, by which the [chord] progressions conveniently can be performed, pleasing
the ear. See page 3 in Werckmeister’s Musicalische Temperatur.
Again we find Walther referring to Werckmeister’s Musicalische Temperatur when
discussing temperament. This clearly indicates that it was well known to Walther,
and most likely that he subscribed to the ideas about tuning and temperament
therein.
111 Janowka 1701: 2.

112 English translation by Barbara Gable. I am also grateful to Magnus Wistrand for providing me with
a Swedish translation. Several translations are possible. According to Walther 1732 “tropis Musi-
cis” was sometimes used instead of “modi musici”, and “tonorum” could mean three different
things: note or sound; interval; and scale.
113 “…und die Modi verursachen absonderliche Affectus.” Walther 1708: 17.
114 Walther 1732: 597–98. C.f. Werckmeister 1691: 3.
45
When writing about modi and keys, Walther writes under “Modus Musicus”115
a lengthy article, with chorales exemplifying the church keys. Towards the end
he comes into what he calls the “new way” (neuere Vortrag),116 i.e. 24 keys, since
we have 12 notes, and the third can be either major or minor. At the end Walther
keeps a low profile, saying that he just touched upon this matter (“Moden-Le-
hre”), and will not enter into the fight that has arisen about this matter.117 As we
can see, we find a cautious approach in Walter’s writings, but clear statements
considering key characteristics. The function of music is to govern/direct and
move the soul of men. When it comes to tuning there are no elaborate descrip-
tions; instead we find a reference to Andreas Werckmeister. Even if it is not stat-
ed, the connection between Walther’s key characteristics and his references to
Andreas Werckmeister is the temperament. The general opinion among theorists
was that the differences between the scales caused by temperaments like Werck-
meister III resulted in different key characteristics.118 However, there was no con-
sensus on this matter, and it could be this debate that Walther did not want to
enter into.
2.2.2. Johann Mattheson (1681–1764)

The best-known German author on musical matters during the eighteenth centu-
ry is probably Johann Mattheson. He was born in Hamburg, 1681, where he also
died in 1764. He was a productive opera composer and author of several impor-
tant books, the most famous being Der vollkommene Capellmeister (1739). 119 As an
able organist he was invited to apply for the position as organist and successor of
both Dieterich Buxtehude and Johann Adam Reincken, but it was mainly in the
field of opera that his musical talent was exposed. Mattheson performed in roles
at the opera in Hamburg, where he became the friend of Georg Friederich
Händel. In 1704 Mattheson was employed as tutor to the son of the English am-
bassador to Hamburg, Sir John Wich. In 1706 he became the secretary of the
same, a post he kept for most of his life, giving him a high social position and
status in the society. Mattheson was also music director at the cathedral in Ham-
burg (1715–1728), and was appointed Kapellmeister to the court of Holstein in
1719.
Mattheson published an extensive discussion of key characteristics, Das
Neu=Eröffnete Orchestre (1713), 120 which even caused others like Johann Heinrich
115 Walther 1732: 409ff.

116 Walther 1732: 415.
117 Walther 1732: 415. C.L. van Panthaleon van Eck makes a thorough analysis of this article, and con-
cludes that Johann Gottfried Walther refers to a temperament by Johann Philipp Kirnberger (Pan-
thaleon van Eck 1981: 153ff).
118 Steblin 1981: 52f. Rita Steblin has investigated the question in her important study on the history
of key characteristics.
119 Mattheson 1739.
46
Buttstett (Ut, mi, sol, re, fa, la, Tota Musica et Harmonia Aeterna, 1716) to write
against him. 121 On the other hand, people like Jakob Adlung writes that there is
no better manual than Das Neu=Eröffnete Orchestre. 122 Mattheson’s list of key
characteristics was modified and further discussed in his later writings, but as late
as 1834 they appear in print, then anonymously.123
A general opinion at this time stated one could attribute different characteris-
tics to different keys due to an unequal temperament. Mattheson, on the other
hand, claimed that the difference in pitch together with the differences in the in-
tervals of scale were the most important factors.124 Mattheson has an extensive
discussion on the matter in his Grosse General=Baß=Schule (1731), 125 where he
shows without referring to temperament, that every key consists of different
sized intervals. Mattheson is obviously taking just intonation as his point of de-
parture.
Mattheson is at the same time an advocate of equal temperament, but sees
some problems in introducing it, since one is so used to the old temperament. He
also recognizes that there is resistance against equal temperament from, among
others, the “stubborn organ builders.”126 Unfortunately Mattheson did not speci-
fy what he meant by “the old temperament.” Mattheson’s answer to the rhetori-
cal question, “Where can one find this new, so called, equal temperament?” gives
us some information about the situation in Hamburg around 1731. Most likely,
equal temperament was not used in any organ in Hamburg at this time.
Hat man schon hie und da ein Paar Orgelwercke und C[l]avicimbel darnach stimmen
und einrichten lassen, so machen doch dieselbe, gegen den übrigen in der gantzen
Welt, wenig oder nichts, aus: daher ich auch gefragt habe, wenn sie [die gleichschwe-
bende Temperatur] denn in die Welt kommen würde? Hamburg ist eine kleine Welt,
und da findet sie sich nicht. 127
Even if one has here and there tuned a couple of organs and harpsichords to [equal
temperament], it does not mean much compared to all the others in the world. I have
also asked, “When it will be introduced in the world?” Hamburg is a small world, and
here it is not to be found.
In Der vollkommene Capellmeister we do not find any new information with re-
gard to temperament, except for the fact that among Andreas Werckmeister, Jo-
hann Georg Neidhardt, Johann Arnold Vockerodt, and Christoph Albert Sinn,
Neidhardt is singled out by Mattheson and recommended before the others.128
120 Mattheson 1713: 231ff.

121 For an overview of Johann Mattheson on the question of key characteristics see Steblin 1981: 43–
57.
122 “Kein besser Handbuch.” Adlung 1758:12.
123 Steblin 1981: 56, note 33.
124 Steblin 1981: 52f.
125 Mattheson 1731: 104ff.
126 “die eigensinnigen Orgel=Bauer.” Mattheson 1731: 144.
127 Mattheson 1731: 143f.
47
This strengthens Neidhardt’s position as perhaps the most important theorist

dealing with tuning and temperament in the first half of the eighteenth century.
2.2.3. Jakob Adlung (1699–1762)

Jakob Adlung was born 1699 in Bindersleben (close to Erfurt, Thuringia), and
died 1768 in Erfurt, were he served as organist from 1727 to his death. He suc-
ceeded J. H. Buttstett. Adlung received musical training already at an early age,
and during his studies at the university in Jena, he also studied the organ with Jo-
hann Nicolaus Bach. Johann Gottfried Walther came to be a good friend of Ad-
lung’s, and it is interesting to see the similarities between the Musicalisches Lexi-
con and the Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit. Adlung’s Musica Mechanica
Organoedi (1768) is one of the most important sources when it comes to instru-
ment knowledge from this time.
Jakob Adlung’s Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit (1758) is a splendid
introduction to the musical scene in the beginning of the eighteenth century. It
is a survey of the literature known to Adlung, full of comments on the work un-
der discussion.
In chapter four, “Von der neueren Musik,” discussing how many keys there
are, Adlung refers to the temperament. In a well-tempered tuning you have more
reason to talk about different key characteristics as a result of the tuning.
Noch ferner möchte iemand fragen, ob man nicht könne 24 Tonarten (modos) zehlen,
12 harte, mit der grossen Terz, und 12 weiche, mit der kleinen? Die Antwort kann seyn:
man wird deswegen niemand verkätzern, ob er von 12 oder 24 Arten redet; aber bey je-
der Eintheilung pflegt man auch den wesentlichen Unterschied mehr zu betrachten, als
Nebenumstände. Folglich wer eine gleichschwebende Temperatur annimmt, nach dem
folgenden Capitel, der wird keinen Unterschied unter den 12 harten Arten angeben
können, als die verschiedene Höhe, welches aber ihr Wesen nicht ausmacht. So verhält
es sich auch mit den 12 weichen. Wer aber eine ungleiche Temperatur annimmt, der
findet zugleich einen Unterschied in der Grösse der Intervallen, und hat mehr Ursache
von so viel Arten zu reden, als jene. 129
Furthermore one might ask, whether we could speak of 24 keys (modos), 12 hard ones,
with the major third, and 12 soft, with the minor one? The answer might be: one
should not brand anyone a heretic, whether he speaks of 12 or 24 types; but by every
categorization one usually looks more at the essential differences, than at peripheral cir-
cumstances. Consequently whoever assumes equal temperament, according to the fol-
lowing chapter, will not be able to show any difference between the 12 hard types,
except for the tonic pitch, which doesn't describe their essence. The same is valid for the
12 soft types. However, in an unequal temperament, one finds a difference in the size of
the intervals, and has more reason than the others to speak of so many different keys.
128 “…absonderlich lasse man sich den zweiten [Neidhardt] wol empfohlen seyn.” Mattheson 1739:
55.
129 Adlung 1758: 220f.
48
Further, Adlung also attributes different affects to different keys, as a result of

unequal temperament.
Wenn wegen der Wirkung der harten und weichen Tonart eine Frage aufgeworfen wür-
de, ob solche bey beyden verschieden sey; so gäbe ich mein Ja darzu, ohne mich lange
zu bedenken, weil sie doch wesentlich von einander unterschieden sind (l). 130 Wenn
aber von der verschiedenen Höhe beyderley Arten die Rede ist, und eine ungleiche Tem-
peratur angenommen wird; so kann einiger Unterschied geglaubt werden unter den 24
Arten in der Wirkung (m); 131 aber bey der gleichen Stimmung wird kein sonderlicher
Unterschied seyn. 132
If a question were asked whether the effect is different in hard and soft keys, I would
have to agree without pause for reflection, because they are essentially different from
each other (l). If however the question is about a difference in the pitches [of the tonic
note] in either type, and an unequal temperament is assumed, then some differences
between the 24 types with regard to effect (m) is likely, but in equal temperament there
will still be no particular difference.
Here Adlung describes the complicated situation with regard to key characteris-
tics, before equal temperament became the norm. This happened gradually, and
at different times in different places. Adlung recalls that, when he became an or-
ganist in 1728, he could not play in B major or in Eb major, not to mention other
keys. 133 This gives us a date with regard to Adlung’s context, where equal temper-
ament obviously was not used in the first quarter of the eighteenth century in or-
gans. Adlung was organist in Erfurt until his death.
Chapter Five, “Von den musikalischen Rechnungen,” is of special interest for
the present work. Adlung gives an important contemporary overview of the writ-
ings about tuning and temperament. In the extensive survey of, among other
things, Neidhardt’s writings and the principles of temperament, Adlung also dis-
cusses the use of what could seem like no more than mathematical exercises. He
defines two specific advantages of such mathematically defined temperaments:
the possibility of transposition and the possibility to modulate through the circle
of fifths.
Es wird mancher noch vor dem Schlusse dieses Capitels wissen wollen, was wir theils
von diesem Vortrage, theils von dergleichen Stimmung vor Nutzen haben? Hierauf
dient, daß man nicht nur geübte Sinnen bekomme durch solche mathematische Ue-
bungen, sondern daß man sich dadurch wird in den Stand gesetz finden, die mehresten
Bücher von der Musik mit mehrerer Einsicht zu lesen, da manche Stelle sonst ohne sol-
che Erkenntniß möchte vorkommen seyn, wie der Kuh ein neues Thor (p).
130 In note “l” Adlung refers to Mizler, writing that there is a difference between major and minor keys
when it comes to their suitability to express different affects. See below p. 54.
131 In note “m” Adlung refers to Mattheson’s comments in Das Neu=Eröffnete Orchestre: 231ff, were
Mattheson describes the different key characteristics.
132 Adlung 1758: 223f.
133 “Wo die Temperatur es nicht verträgt, lasse man das Transponiren unterwegens. Als ich Organist
wurde 1728, konnte ich ohne Verdruß weder aus H*, noch Es* spielen, mehrerer [Tonarten] nicht
zu gedenken.” Adlung 1758: 226, note s.
49
Sonderlich äussern sich 2 Hauptnutzen solcher gleichen Einrichtung der Tonarten, deren
der eine bestehet in der Versetzung der Melodie, (Transposition) der andere in der Ver-
bindung der Tonarten durch die Cirkelgänge. 134
Some will still want to know before the end of this chapter what use there might be for
us in this presentation or the tuning mentioned in it. Now not only are such mathemati-
cal exercises good mental training, but afterwards one will be able to read most of the
books on music with better understanding, because without such knowledge some pas-
sages would otherwise be like closed doors. (p)
There are particularly two main advantages in following such an equalization of the
keys. One is shifting a melody (transposition), and the other is modulating through the
circle of fifths.
Here Adlung is referring to equal temperament. He refers to “tuning,” meaning

mathematically described. Most of the complicated mathematical presentations
are aimed at equal temperament. The main advantages according to Adlung is
the freedom of transposition and the modulation through the circle of fifths.
The use of transposition is further, according to Adlung, “pleasant, useful,
and necessary.” 135 In the following elaboration of why transposition is useful, Ad-
lung writes among other things that it is good to practice on the chromatic
keys. 136 But, in note (r) to this passage Adlung writes that it suffices that a tem-
perament makes all the keys usable. A perfect equal temperament is not neces-
sary. The picture, therefore, becomes more complicated.
r) Hierbey bestehe ich nicht auf einer völlig gleichschwebenden; wenn die Temperatur
nur alle Tonarten brauchbar macht. 137
r) Here I do not insist on a fully equal [temperament]; as long as the temperament
makes all the keys usable.
Adlung himself, Heinichen, Mattheson, Sorge, Mizler, and others have described
how to play through the circle of fifths, which is the second advantage of tem-
perament. 138 This corresponds to Andreas Werckmeister’s goal stated in the title
page to his Musicalische Temperatur. But the situation with regard to temperament
in organs was anything but uniform. Earlier in the chapter, Adlung mentions
subsemitones, and states “such are still frequently found.”139 This would imply
that the use of some kind of mean-tone temperament still was frequent. But in
134 Adlung 1758: 324f.26

135 “Es ist dieses Transponiren 1) vergnüglich, 2) nützlich, 3) nöthig.” Adlung 1758: 326.
136 “Nützlich ist es ferner zur Uebung der Finger, welche auch müssen lernen hurtig fortzukommen
auf den schmalen Schrittsteinen, ich meyne auf den gefährlichen und Trübsals vollen chromatis-
chen Tasten,…”. Adlung 1758: 327.
137 Adlung 1758: 327, note “r”. This is of interest when Adlung writes about J. S. Bach’s “temperirte
Clavier in 2 Theilen” that “ein Clavier muß temperirt, oder in allen Tonarten brauchbar seyn, auf
welchen man solche spielen soll.” Adlung 1758: 707, note “i”.
138 Adlung 1758: 329ff.
139 “Man hat sich helfen wollen durch enharmonische Claves, so von einigen subsemitonia genannt
werden, daher die gebrochenen Claviere entstanden sind, dergleichen man noch viele fin-
det,…”Adlung 1758: 303f.
50
the chapter on organ building, Adlung clearly states that one should include in
the contract for a new organ that equal temperament should be used.140 This
clearly shows the complicated situation in the first half of the eighteenth century
with regard to tuning and temperament – mean-tone, well-tempered tunings,
and equal temperament side by side.
Jakob Adlung is perhaps best known for his Musica Mechanica Organoedi
(1768), published six years after his death. According to the biography of Adlung,
and the preface by the publisher Johann Lorenz Albrecht in the second volume
of the Musica Mechanica Organoedi, the manuscript was written when Adlung was
a student in Jena (1723–27). The manuscript came into the possession of Al-
brecht, who writes that many notes were made in the manuscript, and that he
thus re-edited the text and printed it in 1768. Albrecht’s comments are marked
with Arabic numerals. Johann Friedrich Agricola was also asked to read the
manuscript, and his comments are marked with asterisks or with Greek letters.141
The fact that Adlung made additions in the margin makes it difficult to place the
information in time. It is not clear in the text what was added later, except for
when it is evident from the circumstances, for example, with an instrument such
as the organ in Naumburg, which was built by Zacharias Hildebrandt in 1743–46.
When Adlung, in the chapter “Von der Temperatur der Orgeln,”142 promotes
equal temperament, it can be noted that he does not mention Neidhardt’s
Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische Abtheilungen from 1732, though he mentions
both Beste und leichteste Temperatur (1706) and Sectio canonis harmonici (1724).
This could indicate that the part about temperament is largely written before
1732. Adlung also refers to Andreas Werckmeister, and notes that Werckmeister
in his Die Nothwendigsten Anmerckungen und Regeln wie der Bassus Continuus oder
General=Baß wol könne tractiret werden (1698) still, after approximating an equal
temperament, recommends leaving purer the diatonic keys that one uses more
often. 143 Adlung himself refers to Neidhardt’s Beste und leichteste Temperatur
(1706), and the description of the monochord for tuning equal temperament.
Further, Adlung notes that there is a core problem with applying a tempera-
ment from a monochord to an organ. It is in connection to this discussion that
we find the story mentioned earlier about the competition between Johann
Georg Neidhardt and Johann Nicolaus Bach (1669–1753) in Jena.144
The application and setting of a temperament is a general problem. The de-
gree of precision is unclear in such a process, and would thus be an interesting
problem to investigate further. Subjective descriptors such as “as much as the ear
140 “Die gleichschwebende Temperatur wird bey uns vorzuschreiben nie vergessen.” Adlung 1758:
526.
141 Adlung 1768, vol ii: XVIff.
142 Adlung 1768, vol ii: 48ff.
143 Adlung 1768, vol ii: 53.
144 See p. 33.
51
can bear” are difficult to interpret, while using pure intervals such as the major
third is safer. None of the sources investigated in the present work describes the
tempering of an interval in beat rates, e.g., beats per second.
To conclude, one can say that Adlung is not completely clear on the matter
about equal temperament. On the one hand he advocates it, and on the other
hand he says it is not necessary to use it, as long as all keys are usable – a very
practical approach for a musician.
2.2.3. Lorenz Christoph Mizler (1711–1778)

Lorenz Christoph Mizler was born 1711 in Heidenheim, Franconia, and died
1778 in Warsaw. Mizler moved to Leipzig to study theology in 1731. Later, 1735,
in Wittenberg he also studied law and medicine. Mizler was not a professional
musician, although he received some musical instruction from Johann Sebastian
Bach, but he was regarded as a very important intellectual in Germany during his
lifetime. He is best known for his “Sozietät der musikalischen Wissenschaften”145
which he founded in 1738, and which Bach joined in 1747. Considering the
statements about Bach’s lack of interest in theoretical writings146 and the regula-
tions of the society, it is strange that he became a member. According to the sec-
ond paragraph of the regulations, a mere practical musician was not allowed to
join. The third paragraph accepts music theorists without practical knowledge of
music, yet it is preferable to be skilled in both practice and theory, since that is of
most value to the society.147 Mizler was proud to be able to call Bach his good
friend and patron. 148 Maybe it was in the “Sozietät” that Bach found appreciation
of his knowledge of counterpoint in music?
Mizler’s important contribution to the theoretical writings in Germany was
his Neu eröffnete Musikalische Bibliothek. It comprises four books divided into sev-
eral parts, published between 1736 and 1754. It includes reviews of books such as
Johann Mattheson’s Der vollkommene Capellmeister, and comments on the con-
temporary musical life. Bach’s obituary was published in the last volume of the
Neu eröffnete Musikalische Bibliothek. Andreas Werckmeister is, alongside with Jo-
hann Mattheson and Wolffgang Caspar Printz, one of the most quoted music
theorists in the Neu eröffnete Musikalische Bibliothek. In Vol. 1, Part 2, we find
Werckmeister’s tuning instruction from his figured bass treatise (Die Nothwendig-
sten Anmerckungen und Regeln wie der Bassus Continuus oder General=Baß wol
könne tractiret werden, Aschersleben 1698, p. 61–70).149 In Part 3, Mizler returns to
145 Later “correspondirenden Societät der musikalischen Wissenschaften in Deutschland.” Mizler

1746, iii/2: 348.
146 See above p.000.
147 Mizler 1738, i/4: 74. The regulations are reprinted in Mizler 1746, iii/2: 348ff. See paragraphs 3–4.
148 “Bach …, den ich unter meine guten Freunde und Gönner zu zehlen die Ehre habe,…”. Mizler
1738, i/4: 61.
149 Mizler 1737, i/2: 58ff.
52
the question of temperament, this time in connection with Werckmeister’s Hy-

pomnemata Musica (1697). Mizler notices that Werckmeister argues against the
subsemitones, and that his temperament has been criticized.
Was aber seine Temperatur anbelanget, so ist selbige zu seiner Zeit die beste gewesen,
nach der Zeit aber von Neidhardten verbessert worden. 150
Concerning his temperament it was however the best of its time, but Neidhardt later
improved it.
It is not clear if Mizler with the improvement of Werckmeister’s temperament by
Neidhardt refers to equal temperament. Since both Werckmeister and Neidhardt
described well-tempered tunings it could as well refer to them.
After a short explanation of what a temperament is, Mizler continues into a
discussion about the relation between theory and practice, and how to convince
a practical musician of the usefullness of theory in music. In this discussion Miz-
ler uses the following example:
Von dem Nutzen aber der Theorie in der Musik etwas weniges zu gedenken, so ist ja
handgreifflich, daß die Mathematik einen grosen Einfluß in dieselbe habe. Wie werden
denn der Tone Eigenschafften erkannt? nicht wahr, wenn man sie ausmisset, unterein-
ander vergleichet, und ihre Verhältnisse unter einander richtig bestimmet, u. daraus un-
trügliche Wahrheiten herleitet? allerdings. Wodurch geschiehet denn dieses? etwan
nicht durch die Mathematik? ja. Ey nun so sage nicht mehr, daß die Mathematik keinen
Nutzen in der Musik habe. 151
However, to say something about the usefulness of theory in music, it is very clear that
mathematics has a great influence on music. How, then, are the properties of the keys
to be made known? Is it not when one measures them, compares them and correctly
determines their relation to each other, and from this process derives infallible truths?
Indeed. How is this done? Is it not with mathematics? Yes. Well, so stop repeating that
mathematics has no use in music.
The answer to the question how to investigate the keys and the differences be-
tween them is mathematics. From this it seems that Mizler subscribes to the
opinion that keys have different properties, which can be shown mathematically.
Since this example is put forward in a discussion related to temperament, we can
conclude that the cause for these differences between the keys was considered to
be the temperament. The argument for convincing a practical musician would
then be that it is only with mathematics one can achieve a thorough knowledge
about the properties of the keys, for example.
Even if the temperament resulted in differences between keys, Mizler does not
ascribe different characteristics to individual keys. It is the modulations, or how
the different keys are combined, that expresses the passions. Johann Christoph
Gottsched wrote in a text on expressing the affect of a text the following:
150 Mizler 1737, i/3: 55.

151 Mizler 1737, i/3: 57.
53
Dadurch hoffte man… iede Zeile …, dem darinn herrschenden Affecte gemäß, auszu-
drücken; iedem Worte nach seinem rechten Sinne den gehörigen Ton und Nachdruck
geben zu können. 152
By this, one wished to properly express each line according to its dominating affects; to
be able to give each word the proper key and expression according to its true meaning.
This discussion has relevance for the present work since one of Bach’s pupils,
Johann Gotthilf Ziegler, commented in 1746 on how he was taught to play cho-
rales.
As concerns the playing of chorales, I was instructed by my teacher, Capellmeister Bach,

who is still living, not to play the songs merely offhand but according to the sense [Af-
fect] of the words. 153
Expressing the texts of the hymns in the liturgy was asked for, and if we follow
Mizler’s reasoning, the temperament could be an aid in that. Even if the focus in
the present work is on repertoire, this example is important in showing that the
temperament had a wider use and function, even if it did cause some problems
when playing together with an ensemble.
Mizler further defines the question about a modus’ possibility to express af-
fects when he comments on a passage in Johann Adolf Scheibe’s “Critische
Musikus”:
Wer kan leugnen daß ein Moll Ton, die Liebe, die Traurigkeit, die Demuth zu erregen
geschickter als ein Dur Ton ist? Eine geschickte Schreibart, welche freylich noch mehr
würket, kan alsdenn gar leicht die völlige Absicht erhalten. 154
Who could deny that a minor key is better suited to arouse love, sorrow, or humility
than a major key? A skilled musical setting, which is indeed even more influential, can
then quite easily achieve the whole intent.
Mizler, in other words, holds the view that besides the modulations, there is a
difference between minor and major keys when it comes to their suitability to
express different affects. Still, it is no automatic system. The musical setting is the
main thing.
When it comes to transpositions, caused by the fact that organs were normal-
ly tuned to choir pitch and the orchestra in chamber pitch, there has been a dis-
cussion whether the temperament was an issue. Mizler published Carl Johann
Friedrich Haltmeier’s introduction to transposition with comments.155 Haltmeier
writes that one often must transpose because of the pitch of the wind-instru-
ments, or because of the range of a singer’s voice.156 Thereafter he lists how to use
152 Mizler 1738, i/6: 2.

153 NBR, 340, BD II, 542.
154 Mizler 1738, i/6: 69. And “…, daß eine Musik Leiter eine Verbindung vieler Tone zusammen
genommen, diese oder iene Leidenschafft auszudrücken geschickter sey, als eine andere. z. E. Ein
Moll Ton ist geschickter einen traurigen Affect mit Liebe vermischet auszudrücken, als ein harter
Ton.” Mizler 1740, ii/1: 64.
155 Mizler 1742, ii/2: 256ff.
54
accidentals and clefs to transpose. Mizler adds his comments in a note with an
interesting remark about the value of transpositions at the end.
Nun muß ich meine Gedancken von Nutzen der Kunst zu transponiren noch eröfnen.
Dieser ist so klein, daß ich noch zweifle ob es überhaupt der Mühe werth sey solche zu
erlernen. Denn wenn eine gute Musik, da man zuvor sich deswegen zubereitet, ge-
macht werden soll, so müssen die Stimmen und Instrumente alle in ihrer natürlichen
Ordnung bleiben des Wohlklangs wegen und ist also keine Transposition nöthig. Ja man
muß sie, so viel möglich vermeiden; weil leicht in Ansehung der andern Tone durch die
Versetzung eine Disharmonie entstehen kan, wenn die Instrumente nicht besonders
wohl deswegen gestimmet und temperiret worden. Es ist also nur im Fall der Noth, und
wenn es schlechterdings nicht anders angehet. Ob es also gleich ein künstliches Flick-
werk ist, so kan es doch zu Zeiten gut, ja unentbehrlich seyn. 157
Now I also must express my ideas about the usefulness and art of transposing. This [use-
fulness] is so little, that I still doubt whether it is worth the trouble to learn at all. Be-
cause when good music, which has been prepared [for transposition], is to be
performed, all the voices and instruments must be kept in their natural order for the
sake of the euphony and consequently no transposition is needed. One should avoid it
as much as possible since a disharmony can easily result in a transposition with regard to
the other keys, when the instruments have not been well tuned and tempered [for
transposition]. It is therefore only to be used in emergency, and when there is simply no
other way. Even if it is an elaborated patchwork, transposition can now and then be
good and even indispensable.
Mizler concludes that sometimes it is necessary to transpose, but it should be
avoided if possible. One of the arguments is that a dissonance can be the result of
the transposition if the instrument is not properly tuned. Instruments were
tuned in choir pitch, and usually not equally tempered. This meant that trans-
posing could really spoil the music with a very dissonant result, depending of the
keys. This was a problem addressed already by Neidhardt. Still, properly tuned or-
gans and harpsichords did not cause this problem. If the musical setting is the
most important factor, a problem might arise if some of the other instruments
would have to play/transpose in a more dissonant key with regard to tempera-
ment. Here one has to see what keys are involved. Transposing into a key with
few accidentals would not cause a problem. Isolated chords could of course stand
out, but omitting the most dissonant notes in the organ part, for example, could
solve that problem temporarily.
When commenting on Mattheson’s Der vollkommene Capellmeister, Mizler dis-
cusses the role of temperament in music:
Der Herr Verfasser [Mattheson] sagt ferner: “Wenn die Temperaturkunst auch bey allen
Instrumenten nöthig oder nützlich wäre, so machte doch ihre richtige Stimmung eben
so wenig eine Musik aus, als ein feingedeckter Tisch ohne Speisen eine Mahlzeit seyn
kann.” Es heisset hier, wie bey den meisten Gleichnissen: omne simile claudicat, alle
Gleichnisse hinken. Denn die Temperatur gehört zum Wesen der Musik, weil ohne rich-
156 “Denn wie offt träget es sich zu, daß blase=Instrumente zum vorhandenen Claviere nicht stim-
men, oder daß ein Sänger nicht hinlängliche Tone hat, die Höhe oder Tiefe einer Cantata zu erre-
ichen?” in Mizler 1742, ii/2: 256f.
157 Mizler 1742, ii/2: 268f.
55
tige Stimmung der Instrumenten gar keine Musik gemacht werden kann; Ein feinge-
deckter Tisch aber ist bey einer Mahlzeit nur was zufälliges, indem solche statt findet,
wenn auch der Tisch gar nicht gedecket ist. Fleisch, Brodt, Wein, Wasser u. Bier u. ver-
schiedene Erdgewächse geben den Stoff zu einer Mahlzeit. Soll diese nun vor sich ge-
hen, so muß der Stoff erst zubereitet u. auch wirklich gegessen werden, so ist es eine
wirkliche Mahlzeit gewesen. Eben so bestehet der Stoff einer Musik aus verschiedenen
Größen u. Verhältnissen, diese müssen durch die Temperatur erst zubereitet, u. alsdenn
auch wirklich abgespielt werden, so ist es alsdenn eine wirkliche Musik gewesen. Wer
siehet nicht, daß die Temperatur ganz was anders ist, als ein feingedeckter Tisch ohne
Speisen, u. also übel damit verglichen worden. 158
The author [Mattheson] says: “Even if the art of temperament in all instruments would
be necessary and useful, a correct temperament no more makes a piece of music, than a
nicely laid table without courses makes a meal.” Here we have, as with most similies,
omne simile claudicat, all comparisons limp. Temperament is a part of the essence of mu-
sic, because without the proper tuning of instruments, no music can be made; a nicely
laid table, however, is unessential for a meal, since a meal can happen even when the
table is not laid at all. Meat, bread, wine, water and beer and fruits of the earth provide
the elements of a meal. If it is to take place, the ingredients must be prepared and also
really eaten to be a real meal. Similarly the elements of music have different sizes and ra-
tios; these must first be prepared by the temperament, and then really played to be real
music. Is it not obvious to everyone that temperament in music is completely different
from a nicely laid table without courses, and is therefore a bad comparison?
These two views are quite different. Mizler considers the temperament in music
equal to that of cooking in cookery – it is a part of its nature and essence. Matthe-
son on the other hand holds temperament as something that is ad libitum, and
not a part of the composition. Consequently we have to take into account these
two different views on the role of temperament in music during the first half of
the eighteenth century. Mizler, and probably the group around him, gave tem-
perament an important role and function in music.159
2.2.4. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714–1788)

Johann Sebastian Bach’s son, Carl Philipp Emanuel, was born 1714 in Weimar,
and died 1788 in Hamburg. He was well known as a keyboard player, teacher and
composer. C. Ph. E. Bach’s Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (1753/I,
1762/II) 160 stands as one of the most important sources to historical information
on the playing technique of the clavichord. The focus is not on the organ, but he
made two comments that are of interest for the present work.
After discussing the clavichord and the harpsichord, C. Ph. E. Bach writes that
when it comes to the temperament, one tempers most of the fifths (“...den meis-
ten Qvinten...”). 161 Interestingly, Bach does not recommend tempering all of the
fifths, which then excludes equal temperament. But, one can play in all 24 keys
158 Mizler 1747, iii/3: 519f.

159 A parallel case is the discussion about key characteristics. See Steblin 1981.
160 Bach 1753/62.
161 Bach 1753/62, I: 10.
56
(“...spielet man aus allen vier und zwantzig Tonarten gleich rein...”).162 He con-
tinues:
Durch diese neue Art zu temperiren sind wir weiter gekommen als vor dem, obschon
die alte Temperatur so beschaffen war, daß einige Ton=Arten reiner waren als man noch
jetzo bey vielen Instrumenten antrift. 163
Through this new type of tempering, we have come further from when the old temper-
ament was constructed in such a way that some keys were purer, which can still be
found in many instruments.
The crucial point here is, of course, the evaluation of the words “some keys were
purer.” Today this is how we would characterize a well-tempered tuning; some
keys are purer than others. On the other hand this can be valid for modified
mean-tone depending on how one defines the words modified, keys and purer. A
key is not simply a scale or triads on the steps of that scale. It is more a tonal area
with a content of triads a composer can use. In a regular temperament like 1/4-
comma mean-tone there are only two categories of tempered fifths, and conse-
quently the same with regard to major thirds. The question is then, what makes
up a key? If we make the simplest possible comparison, triads on I and V, we can
see that there is already a difference in 1/4-comma mean-tone between the keys
C major, F# major, and E Major. C major would have two pure thirds (C–E, G–B),
F# major would include two unusable major thirds (F#–A#, C#–E#), and E major
one pure (E–G#) and one unusable (B–D#). When Bach writes “that some keys
were purer” in “the old temperament,” it is hardly these differences he is refer-
ring to. There is a difference between these keys with regard to the number of
pure and poor (unusable) thirds. The point is that the definition of key is crucial.
If considering a modified mean-tone temperament such as VOSCH, the situation
is much more complicated since the temperament is not regularly constructed,
involving fifths of two or more sizes. In mean-tone there is a wolf, which actually
is not tempered but resulting from the eleven tempered fifths. Regular in the
strictest sense is only EQ since this is the only temperament where all fifths are
tempered equally. The “old temperament” probably meant some mean-tone tem-
perament, perhaps modified, as discussed earlier, and “many instruments” proba-
bly includes organs. Andreas Werckmeister called mean-tone the old tempera-
ment, and Adlung said that one still finds organs tuned in the old way. It is not
very likely that Bach would have referred to a well-tempered temperament by
calling it the old temperament opposed to the “new type of tempering.” In the
second part of the Versuch C. Ph. E. Bach again refers to organs being tuned dif-
ferently from other keyboard instruments, stating that one should restrain one-
self in modulations when making a fantasia on the organ, since it is usually not
tempered in a good way (well-tempered).164
162 Bach 1753/62, I: 10.

163 Bach 1753/62, I: 10.
57
C. Ph. E. Bach clearly has an instrument idiomatic approach to playing when

it comes to temperament, giving the temperament a function in the interpreta-
tive process. This might be a good example of how practical musicians in general
approached the problem. Avoiding when necessary, and using when suitable. A
picture used by Wolffgang Caspar Printz when describing dissonances in counter-
point can be used with regard to temperament as well:
Ein Componist soll die Natur und Wesen der Dissonantien billig rechtschaffen wissen,
nicht nur allein daß er sie vermeiden, sondern auch, daß er sie zu rechter Zeit setzen
könne: Denn ihr Gebrauch ist nicht gering in der Composition, sintemal ein musicalisches
Stück dadurch nicht wenig gezieret wird. Sie seyn die Finstermis [Finsternis], die Conso-
nantiae das Licht: Das Licht würde uns so angenehm nicht seyn, wenn es immer Tag,
und niemahls Nacht wäre. Sie seyn das Bittere, die Consonantiae das Süsse; Das Süsse
würde uns nimmermehr so wohl schmecken, wenn wir das Bittere nicht gekostet hät-
ten. Sie seyn das Schwarze, die Consonantiae das Weisse; Nimmermehr ist die blosse
weisse Farbe denen Augen so angenehm, als wenn sie mit der schwartzen schattiret
ist. 165
A composer must be able to thoroughly know the nature and essence of the dissonanc-
es, not only when to avoid them but also when to use them, since they are not seldomly
used in composing, because a piece of music is more than a little decorated with them.
They are the darkness, the consonances, the light: the light would not be so pleasing to
us if it were day all the time and never night. They are the bitter, the consonances the
sweet; the sweet would never taste so good again if we had not tasted the bitter. They
are the black, the consonances the white; nevermore is the plain white color so pleasant
for the eyes as when it is shadowed with the black.
2.3. Discussion
From the sources it is quite clear that the authors have different personalities and
ways of expressing their ideas. Simply put, there are cautious writers such as Jo-
hann Gottfried Walther and more fearless molders of public opinion such as Jo-
hann Mattheson. Walther clearly writes in his Musicalisches Lexicon that he does
not want to take part in the fight that has arisen concerning the question of
“Moden-Lehre.” 166 This cautiousness does not mean that the writer did not have
an opinion in the matter. Another good example is Johann Kuhnau. In the pref-
ace to his Musicalische Vorstellung einiger Biblischer Historien he praises Zarlino’s
wise and cautious approach to the question of key characteristics, not denying
that there is such a thing as key characteristics, but being cautious and less cate-
gorical in stating what properties they have.
Der berühmte Zarlino hat in seinen so genannten Istitutioni Harmoniche, parte 4. Cap. 5.
meines Erachtens am besten gethan, wenn er, da er der Proprietät der Tonorum gedacht,
164 “…, weil die Orgeln selten gut temperirt sind.” Bach 1753/62, II: 326f.
165 Printz 1696: 92.
166 See above p. 46.
58
2.3. Discussion
sich immer dieser oder dergleichen Worte bedienet: Si dice, dicono, referiscono, man sa-
get, es wird erzehlet, und so fort. 167
In my opinion, the famous Zarlino has made a wise choice when, in discussing the prop-
erties of the keys in his so called Istitutioni Harmoniche; Part 4 and Chapter 5, he always
uses words like: Si dice, dicono, referiscono, one says, it is told, and so forth.
Taking this into account, the writer expressing the strongest opinions does
not necessarily have to be the one who describes the prevailing situation.
It is clear that theorists, for example Johann Georg Neidhardt, assign the
cause of key characteristics to the temperament, caused by the differences in the
scales due to it. Both Johann Georg Neidhardt and Andreas Werckmeister write
that many prefer a temperament that gives purer triads to the more often used
keys. This is quite understandable from the background that the pure thirds of
mean-tone, the dominating temperament in the organs, sound more consonant
than the tempered thirds. Even if the theorists regarded equal temperament as
acceptable from a theoretical and theological point of view, some organists and,
above all, organ builders, did not appreciate equal temperament. Organ builders
came to be seen as old-fashioned. Later, with Adlung, equal temperament was
seen as a requirement when building a new organ.
None of the authors presented here has listed key characteristics as Mattheson
did in Das Neu=Eröffnete Orchestre (1713), but most of them refer to Andreas Wer-
ckmeister’s writings. His role in the discussion of temperament should therefore
not be neglected, but alongside him Johann Georg Neidhardt has gained a strong
position as a leading theorist in the beginning of the eighteenth century.
During the Baroque the compositional process was primarily seen as a handi-
craft. The autonomous work of art, and the composition as a primarily subjective
expression was not a part of the aesthetics, and the concept of composing for a
specific instrument was yet not fully established. Clavier could refer to several dif-
ferent keyboard instruments. This could explain why there is no clear connection
in the literature between the composition and the instrument. A handicraft was
learned from a teacher, not from reading treatises. Even if there is a huge bulk of
treatises appearing at this time dealing with figured bass, a specific treatise for
how to compose for the organ did not exist. Temperament is usually mentioned
only in connection with the usability of specific keys, or other factors of practical
quality. A polarized example is the discussion between Mattheson and Mizler
about the role and function of temperament, being either an essential integral
part of the music or a peripheral factor.
167 Kuhnau 1700/10, preface: §.
59
60
3. Instrument
Sources
Over the years much has been written about temperament in general and Johann
Sebastian Bach in particular.168 In the field of temperament, the writings have
usually aimed at defining what temperament Bach had in mind when compos-
ing, or his preferred temperament for tuning his harpsichord. Considering the
harpsichord and the clavichord, we have to say that we will not be able to estab-
lish Bach’s way of tuning the instrument without written evidence. When it
comes to the organ, the situation is different. The organ cannot be re-tuned as of-
ten and as easily as a harpsichord or a clavichord without suffering some dam-
age. This means that the temperament cannot easily be changed according to the
wishes of, say, the organist. Furthermore it is possible in some cases to measure
the length of historic pipes and draw some conclusions about the temperament
used. Furthermore, the role of temperament is greater in the organ than in, for
example, the harpsichord due to the sustained and dynamically stable tone of
the organ. 169 Focusing on temperament in the organ is thus an important delimi-
tation for the present work and an important instrument idiomatic factor.
3.1. The “Bach organ”

The organ of Johann Sebastian Bach has been the subject of many writings.170
Many different organs have been called “the Bach organ.” Albert Schweitzer
mentions the organs of Andreas and Gottfried Silbermann as the ideal ones.171
168 An extensive bibliography, created and maintained by Brian McLaren, Manuel Op de Coul, Franck
Jedrzejewski and Dominique Devie can be found on Internet at <http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf
/doc/bib.html> (2002-07-24), and on the CD-ROM.
169 According to Parncutt 1989: 66, the organ is perhaps the instrument that is most susceptible to
beats that occur in intervals not perfectly pure. (See also Hall 1980: 448.) One needs to be aware
that a stopped pipe (Gedackt) has a different content of harmonics from a principal pipe. A
stopped pipe has very weak even numbered harmonics, and thus there are fewer harmonics inter-
acting in creating beats (Andersen 1955: 30. See also Vos 1986: 252).
170 In later times see for example Bicknell 2000; Blanchard 1985; Busch 1995; Dähnert 1986; Edwards
1991; Friedrich 1983; Haupt 1986; Sumner 1985; Towe 1985. See also Friedrich 1983, footnote
19: 104.
61
3. Instrument Sources
Hermann Keller recommended the organs of Arp Schnitger for Bach’s early works
and Gottfried Silbermann for the later.172 Ulrich Dähnert showed the important
connection between Bach and Zacharias Hildebrandt;173 and, Felix Friedrich add-
ed Heinrich Gottfried Trost to the list.174 As Bach worked in many places during
his career, both as organist and organ consultant, we cannot say that there is one
single Bach organ. Also, the organ building style in northern Germany and of
Arp Schnitger was very different from that of central Germany and builders like
Heinrich Gottfried Trost, Gottfried Silbermann, or Zacharias Hildebrandt, who
even among themselves are very different. Instead, one could say that there are
several Bach organs, not only one.
Depending on the criteria they have defined, different authors have come up
with a varying number of Bach organs. Homer D. Blanchard presents stop lists
for 63 organs. His criteria are “organs that Bach certainly, probably, or possibly a)
heard, b) played casually, c) practiced on, d) played as official organist, e) played
as a recitalist, f) examined officially.”175 Werner David discusses 47 organs,176 and
Ulrich Dähnert discusses more than 30 organs that Bach played and tested.177
The organ expert and organist at the Trost organ in the Altenburg Castle, Fe-
lix Friedrich, has suggested a more concise definition of the criteria for a Bach or-
gan. He lists three criteria for a Bach organ. They are: (1) an instrument Bach
played through an employment; (2) an instrument Bach himself knew, played,
inspected or had influence on the specification; (3) an instrument suited to the
performance of Bach’s organ works through historical, scientific and organologi-
cal findings, especially with regard to the first two criteria.178 Friedrich’s defini-
tion is, in my opinion, the best since it also addresses and includes the instru-
ments that are very interesting and important for the understanding of Bach’s
organ music, but on which he, as far as we know today, never played. An exam-
ple is the organ in Abbenrode (Contius 1708). According to Felix Friedrich’s defi-
nition this would be an organ in the third category. Since the focus of the present
work is tuning and temperament there must be information available about the
temperament used in the organ. This can be contemporary information about
the temperament, or, information about a tuning actually applied in an instru-
ment found through documentation of organs in connection with restorations.
It is important that the instruments are extant to be able to have an aural impres-
sion.
171 Schweitzer 1908: 174. See also 258.

172 Keller 1948: 12f.
173 Dähnert 1962: 151.
174 Friedrich 1989: 74.
175 Blanchard 1985: xi.
176 David 1951.
177 Dähnert 1986.
178 Friedrich 1983: 101f, and Friedrich 1989: 72.
62
The following table gives an overview of relevant organs (see Table 14 below).
The table is based on the information we have about Bach’s tenures and travels.
Only organs or churches that are referred to in sources are included. Consequent-
ly some instruments that, for example, Blanchard included are not in the table
because of insufficient information. A comment on the content of the table fol-
lows.
Johann Sebastian Bach had a good opportunity to learn about organ building
while living with his older brother Johann Christoph Bach in Ohrdruf, since the
organ was then being rebuilt. Meanwhile a new organ was also being built in
Eisenach. It could have been in these years that J. S. Bach learned the basics of or-
gan building. The organ in Ohrdruf is included since the obituary states that J. S.
Bach received tuition from his elder brother.179 The instruments in Eisenach and
Lüneburg have been omitted, since it is impossible to evaluate their relevance for
the present work with the available information. There is no evidence of contacts
between Georg Böhm, organist of the St. Johannis church in Lüneburg, and
Bach, even if it is likely that they knew each other.
The obituary further says that Bach traveled from Lüneburg to Hamburg to
hear the famous Johann Adam Reincken.180 This means that Bach knew the or-
gan in St. Katharinen, which is important when considering his application to
the post as organist of St. Jacobi, Hamburg, in 1720. This visit, together with his
visit to Lübeck from October 1705 to January 1706, shows his interest in the mu-
sic by the famous musicians in Hamburg and Lübeck. The aim of Bach’s visit was
to “comprehend one thing and another about his art.”181 The organs are includ-
ed in the table even if it is difficult to fully evaluate their influence on Bach.
In 1702 Bach successfully applied for the position as organist in the St. Jacobi
church in Sangerhausen. However, he did not acceed the job owing to interfer-
ence by the Duke Johann Georg of Saxe-Weißenfels.182 The organ was rebuilt by
Zacharias Hildebrandt and inaugurated in 1728.183 Information about the organ
when Bach was in Sangerhausen is lacking, and consequently it has been omitted
from the table.
179 NBR 306.

180 NBR: 300. In connection with this passage, it also states that Johann Sebastian Bach had the
opportunity to hear the band kept by the Duke of Celle, consisting mostly of French musicians.
This most likely took place in the second castle of the Duke, in Lüneburg. Sometimes it is assumed
that Bach had to go to Celle to hear the band, a trip twice as long as the one to Hamburg.
181 NBR 20. On the basis of his new archival research Ibo Ortgies is of the opinion that changes of
temperament in St. Marien in Lübeck during Buxtehude’s tenure cannot be concluded safely. He
suggests 1701 for the Totentanz-organ and 1704 for the main organ as more probable dates for a
possible change of the temperaments than 1683 for both organs. Ortgies points out that, if these
dates are correct, new temperaments in St. Marien could have been one reason for J. S. Bach’s
travel to Lübeck in 1705. The information will be presented and discussed in a forthcoming disser-
tation.
182 Wolff 2000: 67f.
183 Dähnert 1962: 49ff.
63
Table 14: “Bach organs”
64
Location Building Builder Year Size Organist Examined Recital Visits Category Temperament
Altenburg Schloßkapelle a H.G. Trost 1735–39 ii/p/36(42) 1739 2 x

Ammern Church b Wender 1708/12 ? ? 1708/12 ? 2 x
Arnstadt Neue Kirche or Wender 1699–1703 ii/p/23 1703–07 1703 1 x
Bonifatiuskirche c
Bad Berka Church d Trebs 1742–43 ii/p/28 design 2

Dresden Sophienkirche e Silbermann 1718–20 ii/p/31 1725/31 2 x
Dresden Frauenkirche f Silbermann 1732–36 iii/p/43 1736 2 x
Erfurt Augustinerkirche g Hartung Re 1753 iii/p/49 1716 2
Gera Salvatorkirche Fincke 1724 ? 1724 2
Gera St. Johanneskirche h Fincke 1722–24 iii/p/43 1724 2
Halle Marktkirche i Contius 1713–16 iii/p/65 1716 2 x
Hamburg St. Katharinen j Besser/Richborn ca 1682 iv/p/58 1720 1700–02 2 x
Hamburg St. Jacobi Scherer/Fritsche/ 1693 iv/p/60 (1720) (2) x
Schnitger
Kassel Martinskirche k Stertzing 1730–32 ? 1732 1732 2
Langewiesen Church l Albrecht 1706 ? 1706 2
Leipzig Paulinerkirche m Scheibe 1711–17 iii/p/48 1717 2
Leipzig Paulinerkirche Scheibe 1711–17 iii/p/48 1723–50* 1717 (1), 2
Leipzig Thomaskirche, Scheibe 1721–22 iii/p/36 1723–50* (1)
large
Leipzig Neukirche Scheibe 1721–22 (R) ii/p/21 1723–50* (1)
(Matthäikirche)
Leipzig St. Johanniskirche Scheibe 1742–43 ii/p/22 1723–50* 1743 (1) x
Leipzig Johanniskirche n Scheibe 1742–43 ii/p/22 1723–50* 1743 (1), 2
Leipzig Thomaskirche, Scheibe/ 1721–22/ iii/p/21 1723–50* (1)
small Hildebrandt 1727–28 (R)
Leipzig St. Johanniskirche T.G. Trost 1694–95 i/p/10 1723–50* (1) x
Leipzig St. Nikolaikirche Thayssner 1693–94 (R) iii/p/36 1723–50* (1)
Lübeck Marienkirche several repair 1701 iii/p/40 1705 (2)
(small)
Location Building Builder Year Size Organist Examined Recital Visits Category Temperament
Lübeck Marienkirche o several repair 1704 iii/p/54 1705 (2)
(large)
Mühlhausen Divi Blasii p Wender (1709) iii/p/37 1709 1 x
Mühlhausen Beatae Mariae Wender 1735–39 iii/p/43 1735 2 x
Virginis q
Mühlhausen Divi Blasii r Wender Re 1708 iii/p/37 1707–08 1 x
Naumburg Wenzelskirche s Hildebrandt 1743–46 iii/p/53 1746 2 x
Ohrdruf Michaeliskirche t Brunner 1685/1690 ii/p/21 1695– (2)
1700
Potsdam St. Nikolaikirche Röder 1713 ii/p/23 (1747) (2)
Potsdam Heiliggeistkirche u Wagner 1730 ? 1747 2
Potsdam Garnisonkirche Wagner 1747 iii/p/42 (1747) (2)
Stöntzsch Church v Schmieder 1731–32 i/p/12 1731, 1732 2
(Hohnstein)
Störmthal Kreuzkirche w Hildebrandt 1722–23 i/p/14 1723 1723 2
Taubach bei St. Ursula x Trebs 1709–10 i/p/11 1710 1710 2
Mellingen
Weimar Schlosßkirche ii/p/24 (1737)
Weimar Schloßkirche Compenius 1658 ii/p/20 1703 1703 1 (x) y
Weimar Schloßkirche Trebs 1712–14 ? 1708–17 1
Weimar Schlosßkirche Trebs 1719–20 ? 1708–17 1
Weimar Schloßkirche z Weißhaupt 1707–08 ? 1708–17 1708 1
Weißenfels Augustusburg aa Förner 1673 ii/p/30 1713, (2) x
1716
Weißensee Church ab Schäfer 1737–38 ? 1738 2
Zschortau Church ac Scheibe 1744–46 i/p/13 1746 1746 2
a. BD II/453, Friedrich 1989: 71f.

b. Kröhner, C. 1995.
c. NBR 14, 15.
d. BD II/515.
e. BD II/193, NBR 118, BD 11/294, NBR 307.
f. BD II/389, NBR 191.
65
g. BD I/86, NBR 62.
66
h. BD II/183, 183a.
i. BD I/85, NBR 58–61.
j. Wolff 2000: 211ff.
k. BD II/315–17, NBR 157–58.
l. BD II/18.
m. BD I/87, NBR 71–73.
n. BD II/519.
o. David 1951: 85.
p. Wolff 2000: 115, 208. Performance of a cantata, now lost. (Spitta 1: 395, suggests examination.)
q. BD II/365.
r. BD I/83, NBR 29–31.
s. BD I/90, NBR 236.
t. David 1951: 79.
u. BD II/554, NBR 239, NBR p. 430.
v. BD II/298.
w. BD II/163–64, 181.
x. BD II/50, 50a. Wolff 2000: 143.
y. The organ probably had subsemitones (Ortgies 2000), suggesting a mean-tone temperament.
z. Schrammek 1988: 100f; Wolff 2000: 526.
aa. Wolff 2000: 134f.
ab. Braun 1999.
ac. BD I/89, NBR 235.
Basic chronology for J. S. Bach

1685–1695 Eisenach
1695–1700 Ohrdruf
1700–1702 Lüneburg
1703 Weimar
1703–1707 Arnstadt
1707–1708 Mühlhausen
1708–1717 Weimar
1717–1723 Köthen
1723–1750 Leipzig
A different kind of problem is how to evaluate the influence and significance

of instruments not directly connected to a tenure of Bach’s – instruments in the
surrounding area. When working in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen Bach was proba-
bly not ignorant about the organs in the churches he was not directly responsible
for – the Barfüßerkirche in Arnstadt and the Marienkirche in Mühlhausen. Still,
since we have no further information we have to assume that they played a lesser
role, if any, for Bach’s organ music. On the other hand, the Marienkirche is in the
list since Bach examined the rebuilt organ there in 1735, and thus it belongs to
the second category.
A special case is the organ built by Christian Förner in the chapel of the castle
in Weißenfels. Bach was not the chapel organist, but already in 1713 he was com-
missioned to compose the music for the Duke’s birthday (Frohlockender Götter-
Streit, BWV 208), performed again in 1716. Around 1729 Bach received a titular
Capellmeistership from the Duke.184 Considering his frequent visits to Weißen-
fels it is very likely that he got to know the organ. Therefore it is included in the
table. One should also note here that the father of Bach’s second wife Anna
Magdalena was trumpeter at the court in Weißenfels. In summer 1721 she joined
the Capelle in Köthen as a singer, and in December she married the Kapellmeister
Bach. 185 Since the Weißenfels organ is the only instrument that clearly, according
to the sources, had a pedal compass to f 1, it has been associated with the Toccata
in F major (BWV 540). 186
When moving to Köthen in 1717, Bach began a new career. From now on he
was in charge of the music, first as Kapellmeister in Köthen and later as Kantor in
Leipzig. The years in Köthen seem not to have been an important period when it
comes to organ composition, and with regard to this and the lack of information
about the organ in the St. Agnus church,187 where Bach attended the Lutheran
services, Köthen is not included in the table.
Serving as Kantor in Leipzig, Bach had a special responsibility over the music.
Although not organist, he composed and published for organ during this peri-
od 188 and he also inspected organs.189 Compared to the Köthen period we have
clear evidence of Bach’s organ-related activity, and consequently the organs in
Leipzig are in the table.
To the third category in Friedrich’s definition can be added other instruments
by the builders represented in the table. As mentioned before, the Contius organ
in Abbenrode, with extant historic pipe material, is highly interesting. In Halle
184 Wolff 2000: 134f.

185 Wolff 2000: 217.
186 Trost, J. C. 1677:31. Williams 1980a: 103f.
187 Wolff 2000: 199. See also Henkel 1985.
188 Clavier-Übung III, 1739 (NBR 206).
189 For example the new organ (with old material from the small organ of the Thomaskirche) from
1742–43 by Johann Scheibe in the Johanniskirche (Dähnert 1980:177), and the organ in Naum-
burg, built by Zacharias Hildebrandt (see below, chapter 3.1.5.).
67
only the façade is preserved from the large organ built by Christoph Contius in
1716, and inspected by, among others, Bach.
As mentioned above, Johann Kuhnau writes in 1717190 that Gottfried Silber-
mann and Johann Friedrich Wender did not use equal temperament. If we con-
sider the years between Johann Georg Neidhardt’s publication and Johann Kuh-
nau’s letter, 1706–1717, we find two organs by Wender in our table: the organ in
Divi Blasii in Mühlhausen and the organ in Ammern. The statement is too vague
to offer any helpful information. It could refer to everything from mean-tone to
well-tempered tunings like Werckmeister or Neidhardt. The organ in Arnstadt,
built by Johann Friedrich Wender, has recently been restored (1999),191 but since
the information considering Wender’s temperament is not more specific, the in-
strument has not been considered for the present work.192
According to the criteria set forth, the following instruments of organ build-
ers that can be put in relation to Bach and his organ music, in so far as we have
sufficient information regarding the temperament, will be considered: the organ
in St. Katharinen, Hamburg, enlarged and repaired by Johann Friedrich Besser
and Joachim Richborn; the organ in St. Andreas in Abbenrode, built by Chris-
toph Contius; the organ in the chapel of the Altenburg Castle, built by Heinrich
Gottfried Trost; the organ in the Cathedral of Freiberg, built by Gottfried Silber-
mann; and, the organ in St. Wenzel in Naumburg, built by Zacharias Hilde-
brandt. The instruments are listed in chronological order, and the information in
the specification for the chosen instruments refers to the present situation where
applicable.
3.1.1. St. Katharinen, Hamburg – Johann Friedrich Besser/Joachim Richborn (ca. 1682)
In November 1720, Johann Sebastian Bach traveled to Hamburg to apply for the
position as organist of the St. Jacobi church. From this visit we have the famous
report of Bach performing on the great organ in St. Katharinen in the presence of
Johann Adam Reincken. 193 Bach was reported improvising over “An Wasserflüs-
sen Babylon,” after which Reincken commented: “I thought that this art was
dead, but I see that in you it still lives.”194 Bach did not get the position in St. Ja-
cobi, because a competitor “was better at preluding with his talers than with his
fingers,” as Johann Mattheson put it.195 The organ in St. Katharinen has a long
history starting in the 16th-century. Johann Mattheson writes that Johann
190 See p. 41.

191 More information is available at <http://www.orgelbau-hoffmann.eucenter.com/wenderorgel/
bericht.htm> (2002-07-24).
192 Further research on Johann Friedrich Wender would most likely provide important information
about this slightly neglected builder of “Bach organs.”
193 Wolff 2000: 211f.
194 Quoted after Wolff 2000: 212.
195 Quoted after Wolff 2000: 215.
68
Friedrich Besser restored the organ,196 and it is after these enlargements and re-
pairs, including those by Joachim Richborn, that we know the organ. The specifi-
cation is from ca. 1682.
Fig. 27: The organ in St. Katharinen, Hamburg (from Cortum 1928)
196 Johann Mattheson in Niedt 1721: 176f.
69
Table 15: Specification – St. Katharinen a

Rück-Positiv Wer[c]k Ober-Werck Brust Pedal
Principal 8 Principal 16 Principal 8 Principal 8 Principal 32
Gedact 8 Quintadena 16 Hohlflöte 8 Octava 4 Principal 16
Quintadena 8 Bordun 16 Flöte 4 Quintadena 4 Sub-Baß 16
Octava 4 Octava 8 Nasat 3 Waldpfeiffe 2 Octava 8
Blockflöte 4 Spitzflöte 8 Gemshorn 2 Scharff VII Gedact 8
Hohlflöte 4 Querflöte 8 Waldflöte 2 Dulcian 16 Octava 4
Quintflöte 1 1/2 Octava 4 Scharff VII Regal 8 Nachthorn 4
Sifflet 1 Octava 2 Trommete 8 Rauschpfeiffe II Groß-Posaun 32
Sesquialtera II Rausch-Pfeife 2 Zincke 8 Cimbel III Posaune 16
Scharff VIII Mixtura X Trommete 4 Mixtura V Dulcian 16
Regal 8 Trommete 16 Trommete 8
Baarpfeiffe 8 Krumhorn 8
Schallmey 4 Schallmey 4
Cornet-Baß 2
a. Spelling after Fock 1997: 75.

Tremulant W, Tremulant RP
2 Zimbelsterne, Timpani, Vogelgesang
Coupler: W/P 197, and the manuals (not specified)
Ventils to W, OW, B, RP, P
When it comes to the temperament, we have an interesting passage in the

church records for the St. Katharinen from 1742.
Furthermore, our organist Uthmöller charged that he was not happy with the new tem-
perament, …but wanted the organ in the old temperament, and so our above-named
organist and the organ builder [Johann Dietrich Busch] were summoned into the Sacris-
ty, and the latter explained how the temperament is now set … and he had his way, es-
pecially since the cantor Telemann was also summoned, who … said that this
temperament was better than the last. 198
Even if the term “the old temperament” is quite vague, we can at least say two
things about what it could be. Firstly, it was not equal temperament. Equal tem-
perament would not have been referred to as the old temperament. Secondly, re-
turning to an “old temperament” could either mean 1/4-comma mean-tone with
the terminology of Andreas Werckmeister, or “old” in the meaning previously
used, which could have been an un-equal temperament like Werckmeister’s. It
could also have referred to a modified mean-tone temperament. Georg Philipp
Telemann’s approval of the temperament to re-tune might indicate that it was
something close to a 1/6-comma mean-tone temperament because that would
very closely match Telemann’s recommended 55-division of the octave in ensem-
197 The accessories are according to Orgeldispositionen (Smets: 1931). It is very unlikely that there was
a coupler W/P. The great pedal divisions of this tradition did not need such a coupler. A tremulant
in the Werk is also very unlikely. A tremulant in the Ober-Werck is more likely.
198 Fock 1997: 107f.
70
Fig. 28: The organ in St. Jacobi, Hamburg. (Photo: Henrik Tobin)
ble playing. 199 As a member of Mizler’s “Societät der musikalischen Wissen-

schaften,” Telemann was involved in discussion on intonation. Telemann writes
that “my system has no basis in a temperament for the keyboard, but shows how
the tones can be played on an un-restricted instrument such as the cello and the
violin, in a nearly pure way.”200
Since the organ in St. Katharinen is not extant, we need to turn to an instru-
ment such as the one in St. Jacobi201 to be able to experience the sounds of such
an organ. And it was, as a matter of fact, this position Bach actually applied for.
The organ in St. Jacobi was built by Arp Schnitger (1648–1719), one of the most
prominent figures in the history of North-German organ building. The instru-
ment as well as its history is well documented. The documentation was made in
connection with the recent restoration (1993), and is a good example of what a
thorough documentation can produce in regard to an instrument’s history.202
199 Klingfors 1991: 56. See discussion on Telemann in Mizler 1752, vol iii, part 4: 713ff. According to
Klingfors Silbermann’s preference for this temperament probably originated from his French roots.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century Joseph Sauveur discussed the similarity between the
55-division and the 1/6-comma mean-tone. Considering that Gottfried Silbermann build several
organs in chamber-pitch, which was normally used by orchestras, it is noteworthy that the use of
1/6-comma mean-tone produces a very good agreement between organ and orchestra. This is a
matter that needs further investigation.
200 “Mein System hat keine Claviermäßige Temperatur zum Grunde, sondern zeiget die Klänge, so,
wie sie auf uneingeschränkten Instrumenten, als Violoncell, Violine etc. wo nicht völlig, döch bey
nahe, rein genommen werden können, welches denn die tägliche Erfahrung lehret.” Mizler 1752,
vol iii, part 4: 716.
201 Or the new North German Baroque organ in Örgryte Nya kyrka, Göteborg, Sweden.
202 Fock 1974; Ahrend 1995; Edskes 1996. The organ was re-inaugurated after its restoration in 1993.
71
Specification – St. Jacobi, Hamburg a

Rückpositiv Werck Oberpositiv Brustpositiv Pedal
Principal 8 Principal 16 Principal 8 Principal 8 Principal 32
Gedackt 8 Quintadehn 16 Rohrflöht 8 Octav 4 Octava 16
Quintadehna 8 Octava 8 Holtzflöht 8 Hollflöht 4 Subbaß 16
Octava 4 Spitzflöht 8 Spitzflöht 4 Waldtflöht 2 Octava 8
Blockflöht 4 Viola da 8 Octava 4 Sexquialtera II Octava 4
Gamba
Querpfeiff 2 Octava 4 Nasat 3 Scharff IV–VI Nachthorn 2
Octava 2 Rohrflöht 4 Octava 2 Dulcian 8 Rauschpfeiff III
Sexquialtera II Flachflöht 2 Gemshorn 2 Trechter 8 Mixtur VI–VIII
Regal
Scharff VI–VIII Rauschpfeiff II Scharff VI Posaune 32
Siffloit 1 1/2 SuperOctav 2 Cimbel III Posaune 16
Dulcian 16 Mixtur VI–VIII Trommet 8 Dulcian 16
Bahrpfeiffe 8 Trommet 16 Vox humana 8 Trommet 8
Trommet 8 Trommet 4 Trommet 4
Cornet 2
a. According to Reinitzer 1995: 148.

Compass: Werck/Oberpositiv/Brustpositiv CDEFGA–c3; Rückpositiv CDE–c3; Pedal CD–d1.
Couplers:BP/W, OP/W
Haupt-Ventiel and 5 Ventiele for the different divisions
2 tremulants, Cimbelstern, Trommel
Temperament: modified mean-tone 1/5 syntonic comma
Pitch: a1=495,45 Hz at 18˚C
During the documentation of the pipework, some rather well preserved inside
pipes were found. In addition to these pipes there is documentation done by Al-
exander J. Ellis in the 1860s regarding the pitch.203 Based on this information, a
reconstruction of the temperament and the original pitch was done, which
showed that the original temperament was mean-tone in some form.204
Other options for an instrument in this style would be the reconstruction
Harald Vogel suggests, based on the information in the minutes from 1641 after
the inspection of the organ in the Liebfrauenkirche, Bremen, by Jacob Praetorius
and Heinrich Scheidemann.
will Er versuchen so viehl immer müghligen dieselbe Quinta zwischen a. und d. Rein zu
stimmen vnd die tertien zu schärffen vnd die schwebende Quinta an andere Öhrter zu
bringen. 205
203 Edskes 1996: 20ff.

204 Edskes 1996 and Ahrend 1995 disagree on the result of the analysis. Edskes suggests modified
mean-tone, and Ahrend pure mean-tone. Still, they agree on a temperament in the mean-tone
style. Furthermore there was a disagreement within the restoration committee on what tempera-
ment to use for the restored organ. Part of the committee wanted a temperament where, in
regard to the repertoire, “the road into the eighteenth century is not fully closed” (“…, dennoch
ist der Weg ins 18. Jahrhundert nicht völlig versperrt.” Rudolf Kelber in Ahrend 1995: 228.). The
organist in St. Jacobi, Rudolf Kelber, proposed a compromise, which was accepted (Ahrend 1995:
227ff.). The compromise is a modified fifth syntonic comma mean-tone temperament.
205 Piersig 1935: 405.
72
Fig. 29: The console in St. Jacobi, Hamburg. (Photo: Henrik Tobin)
Joh. Sieborch [Sieburg] shall try as much as possible to tune the fifth between a and d
pure, and sharpen the thirds and distribute the beating fifth in other places. 206
The table below shows the structure of the chromatic scale of the temperaments
in cents.
Table 16: Edskes’ – reconstruction a

0 84,11 193,16 299,51 386,31 503,42 579,47 696,58 783,38 889,74 998,78 1085,58
a. Edskes 1996: 31.
Table 17: Kelber – Jacobi

0 87,88 195,31 296,09 390,61 502,35 585,92 697,65 789,83 892,96 1000,40 1088,27
Table 18: Vogel – Scheidemann/Praetorius

0 86,80 193,16 294,15 391,69 503,42 584,85 696,58 783,38 895,11 1001,47 1088,27
206 Translation quoted after Vogel 1986: 242.
73
- 1 SC - 1 SC
4 4
C
F G - 1 SC
4
Bb D
+ 1 SC
4
Eb A
Wolf - 1 SC
4
G# E
- 1 SC - 1 SC
4 4
C# B
F# - 1 SC
4
Fig. 30: Vogel’s reconstruction of Scheidemann/Praetorius
3.1.2. St. Andreas, Abbenrode – Christoph Contius, 1708

In May 1716, Johann Kuhnau, Christian Friedrich Rolle, and Johann Sebastian
Bach examined the new organ in the Marienkirche (Marktkirche) in Halle, built
by Christoph Contius (1676–1722), who also built the organ in Abbenrode. From
the report after the inspection in Halle we know that the question of tempera-
ment was discussed. Contius was asked to correct some things in the voicing, to
correct the tuning, and “to [tune] according to the passable and good tempera-
ment that he once showed us.”207 It is not clear what is meant with a “passable
and good temperament.”208 The term is neither used by Andreas Werckmeister
nor by Johann Georg Neidhardt. Since this is the only documented instance
where the temperament of an organ is discussed involving Bach, we will look fur-
ther into it. This was not Bach’s first visit to Halle. In 1713, November 28 to De-
cember 15, he was in Halle applying for the position as organist of the Marien-
kirche. Bach was elected on December 13, but later he withdrew his candidacy.
We can assume Bach met Christoph Contius, since the work on the organ started
already in 1712.
As mentioned earlier, Johann Kuhnau referred to Neidhardt’s definition of
equal temperament from 1706 as the “exact temperament” in a letter dated De-
cember, 1717, to Johann Mattheson. The organ builders Nicolaus [sic] Wender
from Mühlhausen and Gottfried Silbermann did not like it.209 Kuhnau also states
that even if Neidhardt’s temperament seems to be the most reasonable one, he
has not seen it used in any organs.
207 “nach der von ihm uns einmahl gezeigten noch passablen guten Temperatur einzurichten” in BD
I/85, NBR 59.
208 The same word (passable) is used in the reports from the inspection of the Silbermann organs in
Frauenkirche in Dresden, and in the Johanniskirche in Zittau (Greß 1989: 114).
209 Se above p. 41. Should be Johann Friedrich Wender.
74
Fig. 31: The organ in Abbenrode. (Photo: Reinhard Menger)
Sowohl aber als des Neidhardts Temperatur der Vernunfft am gemässesten zu sein schei-
net, so habe ich doch noch kein Werck von einem habilen Instrument- oder Orgelma-
cher darnach eingerichtet angetroffen. 210
Even if Neidhardt’s temperament seems the most reasonable, I have so far not seen an
instrument from a good instrument or organ builder tuned according to it.
This is written a year after the examination of the organ in Halle. Considering
the options of mean-tone, a well-tempered tuning, or equal temperament, and
taking into consideration Kuhnau’s clear statement, the most plausible tempera-
ment seems to be a well-tempered tuning. Neidhardt did not describe mean-tone,
and Kuhnau writes that he has not yet seen an organ tuned to equal tempera-
ment. A “passable and good temperament” must then refer to a well-tempered
tuning. Other authors used different designations. Werckmeister calls his well-
tempered tunings in the Musicalische Temperatur “correct,” as opposed to the “in-
correct” mean-tone. 211 In Musicalische Paradoxal-Discourse, posthumously pub-
210 Mattheson 1722, book 2: 234.
75
lished in 1707, Werckmeister calls for equal temperament to produce a “well tem-
pered harmony.”
Wir schreiten weiter, und wißen, wenn die Temperatur also eingerichtet wird, daß alle
Quinten 1/12 Commat: die Tert: maj: 2/3 die min: 3/4 Comm. Schweben und ein accurates
Ohr dieselbe auch zum Stande zubringen, und zustimmen weiß, so dann gewiß eine wohl
temperirte Harmonia, durch den ganzen Circul und durch alle Claves sich finden wird[.] 212
We continue, and know, that when a temperament is so arranged, that all fifths are
tempered 1/12; the major thirds 2/3; the minor thirds 3/4 of a comma, and when an
accurate ear can achieve and tune this, then surely a well-tempered euphony will be
found, through the whole circle of fifths and in all keys.
As mentioned earlier, Werckmeister nevertheless states some pages later in the
Paradoxal-Discourse that he prefers to keep the diatonic keys, which one uses
more often, purer than the others.213 Finally we can note that Neidhardt calls his
book on equal temperament “The best and easiest temperament.”214 As men-
tioned earlier, Contius used Werckmeister’s temperament according to Christoph
Albert Sinn. 215
In Abbenrode, 15 km from Goslar, one can listen to the very well preserved
small organ by Christoph Contius, built in 1708. Almost all of the original pipe-
work is extant, including the Principal 4' of the façade.216 Today the organ is
tuned to equal temperament.
Table 19: Specification – Abbenrode a

Werk Pedal
Gedact 8 SubBaß 16
Quinta Toen 8 OctavBaß 8
Principal 4 Waldfloete 1/2
Floete douce 4 Posaune 16

Quinta 3 BaßTrompete 8
Octava 2 CornettBaß 2
Tertia 1 3/5
Mixtur IV
Trompet 8
a. Spelling after Schmidt 1985: 77.

Compass: Werk C, D –c3; Pedal C, D–c1
Tremulant, Cymbelstern
Temperament: Equal temperament
Pitch: a1=454Hz at 2,5˚C
211 “richtige” and “unrichtige”. Werckmeister 1691. Engraving for a monochord.

214 Beste und leichteste Temperatur (Neidhardt 1706).
215 See p. 28. See also Williams 1984: 189, and, Wegscheider and Schütz 1988: 30.
216 Schmidt 1985.
76
Fig. 32: The console in Abbenrode. (Photo: Reinhard Menger)
When an appropriate organ had to be chosen for the sampling, this instrument
immediately came to mind. Above all, its sound characteristics have to be consid-
ered, thanks to the large amount of historic pipe material, as a unique example of
a historic soundscape. Furthermore the practical conditions were good. The or-
gan was easily accessible, and its size was appropriate for recording and sam-
pling. 217 The plenum registration in this instrument is, with regard to the num-
ber of stops, smaller than that on an organ based on 8'- or 16'-principal. This is of
importance since it keeps the sounding material manageable.
3.1.3. Cathedral, Freiberg – Gottfried Silbermann, 1711–14

Gottfried Silbermann (1683–1753) may be the best-known organ builder ever
connected to Johann Sebastian Bach. His organs have even been considered the
only true Bach organs. J. S. Bach performed on several occasions on instruments
built by Silbermann, and Wilhelm Friedemann Bach was appointed organist of
the Sophienkirche in Dresden in 1733, which had an organ built by Silber-
mann. 218 Nevertheless J. S. Bach was never commissioned to examine an organ
built by Gottfried Silbermann.
217 I am grateful to the congregation, and to pastor emerita Mrs. König and the cantor, Mrs. Kantorin
Eilert, for giving me access to the organ, and for their kindness and help.
77
Table 20: Specification – Cathedral, Freiberg a

Brustwerk (I) Hauptwerk (II) Oberwerk (III) Pedal
Gedackt 8 Bordun 16 Quintadehn 16 Untersatzb 32
Principal 4 Principal 8 Principal 8 OctavBaß 16
Rohrflöte 4 Viola da Gamba 8 Gedackt 8 PrincipalBaß 16
Nasat 3 Rohrflöte 8 Quintadehn 8 SubBaß 16
Octava 2 Octava 4 Octava 4 OctavBaß 8
Tertia 1 3/5 Quinta 3 Spitzflöte 4 OctavBaß 4
Quinta 1 1/2 Super-Octava 2 Super-Octava 2 Pedalmixtur VI
Sifflöt 1 Tertia 1 3/5 Flaschflöt 1 PosaunenBaß 16
Mixtur III Cornet V Echo V TrompetenBaß 8
Mixtur IV Mixtur III ClarinBaß 4
Cimbeln III Cimbeln II
Trompete 8 Krummhorn 8
Clarin 4 Vox humana 8
a. Spelling after Dähnert 1980: 106f and Greß 2001a: 36ff.

b. Playing together with the OctavBaß 16.
Compass: Hauptwerck/Oberwerk/Brustwerk CD–c3; Pedal CD–c1.
2 Tremulants; 2 Shove-coupler: Brustpositiv/Werck, Oberpositiv/Werck
Temperament: modified mean-tone (1/5 syntonic comma)
Pitch: a1=476,3 Hz
Helmut K. H. Lange, Kristian Wegscheider, Peter Vier, and, Frank-Harald Greß

among others have discussed intensively since the 1970s the question of what
temperament Silbermann used; but, by 1748, Georg Andreas Sorge had already
described the temperament.219 The large organ in the cathedral of Freiberg is per-
haps the best-documented Silbermann organ with regard to temperament, and
thus of chief interest for the present work.
Today authors disagree on whether Sorge’s judgment of Silbermann’s temper-
ament, based on two instruments220 Sorge knew, is accurate enough. Sorge wrote:
“How does the triad Ab, C, Eb sound by itself, and with other instruments? Like a
duet between the devil and his grandmother.”221 On the other hand, we have
comments like Jacob Lehmann’s, who in a dedicatory poem about the organ in
Reinhardtsgrimma wrote: “The temperament the artist [Silbermann] knows how
to divide, so that you cannot hear the awful wolf howl.”222 The well-known Sil-
bermann expert, Frank-Harald Greß, makes a thorough survey of the situation
with regard to temperament in Gottfried Silbermann’s organs in his excellent
book Die Klanggestalt der Orgeln Gottfried Silbermanns. During the latest restoration
218 Wolff 2000: 369. In 1746, W. F. Bach accepted the post as organist of the Marienkirche in Halle
(Wolff 2000: 154).
219 Lange 1972/1973a/b; Vier 1987; Greß 1989; Sorge 1748.
220 The organs in Greiz and Burgk (Greß 1989: 115).
221 “Wie klingt die Trias as, c, es, mit sich, und andern Instrumenten? Nicht anders, als wann der
Teufel mit seiner Großmutter ein Duett macht”, quoted after Adlung 1758: 320, note (i).
222 “... Die Temperirung weiß der Künstler so zu theilen, Daß man nicht irgendwo den schlimmen
Wolff hört heulen...”, after Greß 1989: 114.
78
Fig. 33: The large organ in the Cathedral, Freiberg.

(Photo: Sandra Petojevic)
of the organ in the cathedral in Freiberg, some tendencies of the temperament

could be deduced from the sizes of the wooden pieces that were glued on to the
Holzprinzipal 16'. 223 A similar case was the Principal 4', and the body-length of
the Subbaß-pipes in Burgk an der Saale.224 These measurements, together with
historical comments on Silbermann’s temperament, are the sources available.
Greß comes to the conclusion that the temperament must be a modified mean-
tone temperament, with fifths tempered less than 1/4 syntonic comma. The two
reconstructions Greß offers are based on the assumption that an historic temper-
ament must basically be very practical to set and check, which means that the
223 Wegscheider and Schütz 1988.

224 Greß 1989: 119f.
79
Fig. 34: The console in the Cathedral, Freiberg. (Photo: Sandra Petojevic)
beats between the differently tuned intervals should stand in proportion to each
other, or pure intervals should be used as checkpoints. These are two ways sug-
gested by Frank-Harald Greß and Kristian Wegscheider to be able to control and
set a temperament. 225 Greß’ first reconstruction uses the proportion n/2n and the
other uses n/4n. The tuned intervals in the first reconstructed temperament beat
at the frequency n, and three others at 2 times the frequency. The second tem-
perament has one interval beating 4 times the frequency of the other tuned in-
tervals.
The organ builder Kristian Wegscheider, Dresden, who took part in the resto-
ration of the organ, has also suggested a possible reconstruction of Silbermann’s
temperament. Wegscheider’s reconstruction is a 1/5 syntonic comma mean-tone
temperament, and utilizes proportional beats between intervals as checkpoints.
Wegscheider calls it a praxis-reconstruction, emphasizing the applicability of the
temperament before the theoretical design. Thus it is not in the circle of fifth
that the design is visualized, but in a table with beat rates. Altogether Weg-
scheider has presented two praxis-reconstructions, listed in the table below as
Wegscheider 1 and 2. The temperament was further modified to better fit the ac-
tual length of the historical pipework in Freiberg, to avoid further changes in the
pipework. 226 The actual temperament used is presented in Table 26 as Freiberg
1985.
225 Greß 1989: 121ff.

226 Wegscheider 1986: 58f.
80
- 1 PC - 1 PC
6 C 6
- 1 PC F G - 1 PC
6 6
Bb D
- 1 PC - 1 PC
6 6
Eb A
Wolf - 1 PC
6
G# E
- 1 PC
- 1 PC 6
6 C# B
- 1 PC
F# - 1 PC
6 6
Fig. 35: Silbermann’s 1/6-comma mean-tone according to Sorge
All of these proposed reconstructions of Silbermann’s temperament, includ-

ing Sorge’s, are possible reconstructions, and can therefore be used in the analysis
of the music. A circle of fifths is not provided for the temperaments based on pro-
portional beating since the circle of fifths does not show how such temperaments
are conceived.
Table 21: Silbermann – Sorge

0 86,31 196,09 305,87 392,18 501,96 588,27 698,04 784,36 894,13 1003,91 1090,22
Table 22: Silbermann – Greß 1

0 83,9 194,4 306,4 389,7 502,3 586,0 696,2 780,4 891,2 1003,6 1087,1
Table 23: Silbermann – Greß 2

0 93,6 197,4 302,5 395,6 500,9 594,4 698,1 791,8 895,9 1001,2 1094,1
Table 24: Silbermann – Wegscheider 1 a

0,00 84,55 193,89 303,34 391,41 501,25 585,65 697,66 782,42 892,01 1001,70 1088,20
a. Cent values after Wegscheider and Schütz 1988: 100ff.
Table 25: Silbermann – Wegscheider 2

0,00 84,55 193,89 305,73 388,84 501,25 585,65 697,66 782,42 892,01 1004,10 1088,20
Table 26: Freiberg 1985

0,00 90,22 196,09 298,05 394,14 500,00 590,23 698,05 790,23 896,09 1000,00 1092,18
81
Fig. 36: The organ in the chapel of the Altenburg Castle. (Photo: Ulrich Kneise)
3.1.4. Chapel, Altenburg Castle – Heinrich Gottfried Trost, 1735–39

One of the best-known “Bach organs” is the instrument built by Heinrich Gott-
fried Trost (1681–1759) for the chapel at the castle in Altenburg. One reason is, of
course, that Johann Sebastian Bach himself visited the organ, probably early in
September 1739, 227 and well-known reports like the following from the Dresdner
227 Friedrich 1983: 102.
82
Gelehrten Anzeigen from 1798 of Bach accompanying the congregation in the Cre-
do, adds to the picture of a true Bach organ.
Das Nachgeben des Organisten gegen die singende Gemeinde ist besser als sich durch-
setzen wollen. Nur wenige vermögen die Gemeinde so zu lenken wie der alte Bach, der
auf der großen Orgel in Altenburg einmal den Glauben aus D-moll spielte, beim zweiten
Vers aber die Gemeinde ins Es-moll hob, und beim dritten gar ins E-moll. Das konnte
aber auch nur ein Bach und eine Orgel in Altenburg. 228
It is better for an organist to follow the singing congregation than to force his will upon
them. Only few are able to lead the congregation like the old Bach, who once played
the Credo on the great organ in Altenburg starting in D minor, raising the second verse
into Eb minor, and the third even into E minor. But this could only be done by a Bach
and an organ like the one in Altenburg.
Table 27: Specification – Altenburg a

Hauptwerk Oberwerk Pedal
Groß Qvintadena 16 Geigen-Principal 8 Principalbaß 16
Flaute travers 16 Lieblich Gedackt 8 Violonbaß 16
Principal 8 Vugara 8 Subbaß 16
Bordun 8 Qvintadena 8 Qvintadenbaß (tr) 16
Rohr-Flöte 8 Hohl-Flöte b 8 Flaute 16
traversenbaß (tr)
Viol di Gamba 8 Gemshorn 4 Octavbaß 8
Spitz-Flöte 8 Flaute douce II 4 Bordunbaß (tr) 8
Octava 4 Naßat 3 Octavbaß (tr) 4
Klein-Gedackt 4 Octava 2 Mixturbaß (tr) VI–VII
Qvinta 3 Wald-Flöte 2 Posaunenbaß 32
Super Octava 2 Super-Octava 1 Posaunenbaß 16
Block-Flöte 2 Cornett V Posaunenbaß 8
Sesqvialtera II Mixtur IV–V
Mixtur VI–IX Vox humana 8
Trompete 8
a. Spelling after Dähnert 1980: 22. Friedrich 1989.

b. To be used with the Vox humana 8.
Compass: Hauptwerk/Oberwerk C–c1, Pedal C–c1
Shove-coupler OW/HW, Windkoppel HW/P
Tremulant HW, Slow tremulant, Fast tremulant, Cymbelstern, Glockenspiel
Pitch: a1=468 at 18,2°C
Temperament: Neidhardt for a village, 1724
The organ is unique in another way, which is of great interest for the present
work. An extensive discussion started in 1738 about what temperament should
be used to tune the organ being built. This discussion continued until the final
inspection of the organ in 1739, when the court organist commented on the
temperament. Luckily the material has been preserved in the castle archives. In-
228 Quoted after Friedrich 1989: 72.
83
Fig. 37: The console in the chapel of the Altenburg Castle.

(Photo: Ulrich Kneise)
volved in the discussion were three parties: the organist, the organ builder, and,
indirectly, the theorist. 229
In short, the court organist, Lorenz, asked H. G. Trost to tune equal tempera-
ment because it is the best temperament for transpositions needed when playing
together with the orchestra. In the minutes from the inspection, by the Kapell-
meister Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel and the court organist Johann Gottfried Golde
from Gotha, the temperament received some critique. It was judged possible to
play in all keys, but Bb and D# were not perfect. As mentioned, the discussion
about the temperament had started already in 1738, when the first notes can be
found in the archive. In the archival material is also a list of five temperaments,
with tables giving the beats. The first cannot at the present be identified, and the
other four of the five listed temperaments are Johann Georg Neidhardt’s, present-
ed in the same manner as in Neidhardt’s writings (1732).230 In this sense the the-
229 The case has been discussed in Friedrich 1983 and 1989, Dähnert 1988; and, Vier 1990.
230 Peter Vier (Vier 1990: 106f.) has already noted that four of the temperaments are Neidhardt’s, not
only three as Felix Friedrich writes (Friedrich 1989: 51). As mentioned earlier the definitions of the
temperaments differs slightly between the 1724 and 1732 publication. The list in Altenburg fol-
lows the 1732 version.
84
orist Neidhardt is involved in the discussion about temperament in the Trost or-
gan at Altenburg.
It is difficult to say what the criticized Bb and D# imply. The most plausible in-
terpretation is the one suggested by Vier,231 that the criticism be due to Trost’s
lack of experience in tuning equal temperament.232 This is supported by the fact
that in 1768 the D#-pipes had to be lengthened to “correct the offensive tempera-
ment.” 233 The pipes were obviously cut too short with respect to equal tempera-
ment. In the documentation of Trost’s work in, among other places, Eisenberg
and Waltershausen, the pipework has shown that Trost’s way of tuning came out
of the mean-tone tradition.234 This is not surprising and supports Vier’s interpre-
tation. Andreas Werckmeister, for example, regarded organ builders as old-fash-
ioned with respect to temperament.235
It is important to notice that Neidhardt’s writings obviously were known and
used. In this case it was the organ builder who introduced the writings of
Neidhardt. This is clear from the comment regarding the first temperament in
the list of temperaments in Altenburg, which is addressing the court organist,
Lorenz. 236
From the occurrences in Altenburg we see that the musicians were the ones
wanting equal temperament, defined by the theorists. The application in prac-
tice, however, was difficult and not fully successful, probably due to the organ
builder’s inexperience with the new temperament. It can also be noted that the
court organist was the one who wanted equal temperament, which may have
been symptomatic of his desire and ability to play in all keys, and obviously not-
ed by Neidhardt who recommended equal temperament for the court.237
As a historical case this is invaluable to the present investigation, since it
gives a partial answer to one of the questions raised in the present work: whether
the theoretical writings of, for example, Johann Georg Neidhardt were used in
practice.
3.1.5. St. Wenzel’s church, Naumburg – Zacharias Hildebrandt, 1743–46

The organ builder considered to have been closest to Johann Sebastian Bach built
the organ in the St. Wenzel church in Naumburg in 1746. It has recently been re-
stored, and was re-inaugurated in December, 2000. Zacharias Hildebrandt (1688–
231 Vier 1990: 107. See also Wegscheider and ffSchütz 1988: 114ff.
232 The pipes might have been cut too short to be able to tune to equal temperament, since the scal-
ing of the pipes probably was not planned to fit equal temperament.
233 Friedrich 1989: 51.
234 Heinke 1998: 92ff.
235 See above, p. 23.
236 “Temperatur einer Orgel, wie die Quinten und Tertien gegen einander schweben, so in Zahlen
angedeutet. Nun kann H. Lorenz seine Meinung hierüber entdecken.” Friedrich 1989: 49.
237 Neidhardt 1724: 20.
85
Fig. 38: The organ in Naumburg. (Photo: Hermann Eule Orgelbau, Bautzen)
1757) learned the trade as a journeyman of Gottfried Silbermann’s. In 1722

Hildebrandt, as an independent organ builder, built his first organ in Langhen-
nersdorf just west of Freiberg (Saxony). In 1723 Bach inaugurated the organ in
Störmthal, built by Hildebrandt, and after this they maintained contact with
each other. The most famous instrument Hildebrandt built was the organ in
Naumburg, which was inspected and approved by Gottfried Silbermann and
Bach in September 1746. The organ was, according to Jakob Adlung, one of the
best he had ever heard. 238
238 “Es ist eins der besten Werke, so ich gehört.” Adlung 1758: 522.
86
Table 28: Specification – Naumburg a

Hauptwerk Oberwerk Rückpositiv Pedal
Principal 16 Burdun 16 Principal 8 Principal Bass 16
Quintadehn 16 Principal 8 Quintadehn 8 Violon Bass 16
Octava 8 Hohl-Floete 8 Rohr-Floete 8 Subbass 16
Spitz-Floete 8 Praestanta 4 Viol di Gamba 8 Octaven Bass 8
Gedakt 8 Gemshorn 4 Prestanta 4 Violon Bass 8
Octava 4 Quinta 3 Vagara 4 Octaven Bass 4
Spitz-Floete 4 Octava 2 Rohr-Floete 4 Octava 2
Quinta 3 Wald-Floete 2 Nassat 3 Mixtur Bass VII
Sesquialter Tertia 1 3/5 Octava 2 Posaune 32
Octava 2 Quinta 1 1/2 Rausch-Pfeife Posaune 16
Weit-Pfeife 2 Sif-Floete 1 Mixtur V Trompet. Bass 8
Cornet IV Scharff V Fagott 16 Clarin Bass 4
Mixtur VIII Vox humana 8
Bombart 16 Principal und. 8
mar.
Trompete 8
a. Spelling according to Die Hildebrandt-Orgel zu Naumburg, St. Wenzel. Festschrift anlässlich

der wiederinweihung nach vollendeter Restaurierung am 3. Dezember 2000 (Naumburg,
2000), 54f.
Compass: Hauptwerk/Oberwerk/Rückpositiv C, D–c3, Pedal C, D–d1
Shove-coupler: RP/HW, OW/HW, Wind Coppel (HW/P)
Tremulant, Schwebung zum Oberwerk, Zimbelstern
Temperament: Neidhardt for a village, 1724
Pitch: a1=464 Hz at 15°C
Johann Christoph Altnickol, a former student and son-in-law of Bach’s, was ap-
pointed organist of the church in 1748. He writes in 1753, describing the organ,
that Hildebrandt tuned according to Neidhardt.239 Which of Neidhardt’s temper-
aments is not clear, since Altnickol is not more specific. This is the only source
we have for the temperament, since the organ has been rebuilt several times dur-
ing its history. 240
3.1.6. A special case – The organ in the chapel of the Weißenfels Castle, 1673
One of the rare contemporary organ descriptions is the Ausführliche Beschreibung
deß neuen Orgelwercks auf der Augustus=Burg zu Weissenfels by Johann Caspar
Trost. 241 The organ was built by Christian Förner. It is the description of the tem-
perament, in particular, that makes this book interesting, apart from the fact that
Johann Sebastian Bach must have played the organ on several occasions242 and
239 See p. 41.

240 Werner 2000. For an organ history of the St. Wenzel church see Greulich 2000: 21f.
241 Trost 1677.
242 Wolff 2000: 208. In 1729, at the latest, Bach was appointed “Capellmeister” to the court.
87
Fig. 39: The console in Naumburg. (Photo: Hermann Eule

Orgelbau, Bautzen)
that the pedal compass goes up to f 1. 243 Of particular interest is the genesis of the
Toccata in F (BWV 540), since it is very rare with such a pedal compass in the or-
gan building traditions of Thuringia and Saxony in the first half of the eigh-
teenth century. 244
243 See also Adlung 1758: 360f, note “i”.

244 Older organs, from the seventeenth century, had more often a compass to e1 or f1. See for exam-
ple the Compenius family in Schneider 1937.
88
Table 29: Specification – St. Trinitatis, Castle, Weißenfels a

Oberwerck Brust Pedal
Quintadehn 16 Gedackt 8 Sub=Baß 16
Principal 8 Quintadehn 8 Principal 8
Grob=Gedackt 8 Principal 4 Octav 4
Spiz=Flöt 8 Gedackt 4 Quinta 3
Octav 4 Quinta 3 Octav 2
Quinta 3 Octav 2 Mixtur IV
Octav 2 Sesquialtera Posaunen=Baß 16
Sexquialtera Mixtum III Trompet 8
Mixtum IV Krumhorn 8 Cornet 2
Fagott 16 Schalmey 4
Trompet 8
a. Trost 1677: 19ff.

Tremulant
Trost gives us the length of the pipes in string lengths, to be used with a mono-
chord. 245 These lengths give us a chromatic scale which would result in 2 “wolf-
thirds” on C# and F# (both 427 cent), and 2 thirds on Bb and B that are closer to
equal temperament (408 and 406 cent respectively). The rest of the thirds are
pure or very close to pure (386/387 cent). Such a temperament hardly allows one
to play in all keys. 246
In addition, we also have a table with information about the beats of the
fifths and the major thirds.247 The information in this second table does not cor-
respond with the first table, if it is to describe the temperament as Trost writes.
The explanation lies most likely in Trost’s wording. In the first case he uses the
word “tune” (stimmen), and in the second case “temper” (temperiren). 248 The first
table is then very likely the scaling which is a modified Pythagorean scaling, and
the second table is the temperament.249
245 Trost 1677: 38.

246 “Dieses Werck nun ist dermassen in der Stimmung temperiret, daß es in allen, so wol Alters hero,
als jetziger neuen gesetzten Stücken, nach rechtem Vergnügen kan gebrauchet werden.” Trost
1677: 37.
247 Trost 1677: 39.
248 “Dem Monochordo nach ist das Werck auf diese folgende Masse gestimmet: …”, in Trost 1677: 37.
“Nach den corporibus der Pfeiffen ist es folgender massen, wie das Tabelgen weiset, gar behutsam
temperiret: …”, in Trost 1677: 39.
249 I am indebted to Munetaka Yokota, organ builder and researcher at the Organ Research Workshop
of Göteborg University, for this information.
89
Table 30: Description of temperament (Weißenfels)

g c B d 2
gs cs H ds 3
a d c e 2
b ds cs f 3
h1 e d fs 1
beats against
beats against
c1 f ds g 2
cs1 fs e gs 2
d1 g f a 1
ds1 gs fs b 3
e1 a g h 1
f B gs c 3
fs H a cs 1
The signs and indicate how to tune the interval, and refer to the tools of
an organ builder. indicates pressing together the top of the pipe, i.e., lowering
the pitch. indicates the opposite.
Still, this temperament seems very odd, even if it is not uncommon for Ger-
man conditions to have fifths wider than pure.250 They are also to be found in
the French so-called Tempérament Ordinaire. 251 But, according to the part of the
table that describes the major thirds, the temperament also includes major thirds
narrower than pure. Thus, Frank-Harald Greß assumes there are some misprints.
Greß departs from the 8 fifths narrower than pure and the 4 fifths wider than
pure, and synchronizes the beats of the fifths (except for the fifth G#–D# which
will be the result of the others and not tuned). Greß’ reconstruction for the chro-
matic scale is presented in the table below.252
Table 31: Weißenfels – Greß

0 97,1 201,9 296,9 397 502,5 599,3 696 793,4 898,6 1003,9 1094,2
Unfortunately this instrument cannot be considered in the present work. When

the organ was ready in 1673, the chapel was still under construction. In 1680 the
organ builder Christoph Dressler, from Leipzig cleaned and tuned the organ,253
and when the chapel was inaugurated in 1682, the organ had to be retuned to be
250 According to Lindley it occurs in Andreas Werckmeister’s instruction from 1698 (Lindley 2001:
256). It can already be found in the second temperament in Werckmeister’s “Orgelprobe” (1681),
and in Werckmeister IV and V (1691), which uses fifths wider than pure. See also above, chapter
2.1.3.
251 Padgham 1986: 79ff.
252 Letter to the author, dated February 20, 2001. Franz Josef Ratte also assumes that there are some
misprints in the tables, and suggests two slightly different reconstructions (Ratte 1989, and
1994a).
253 Werner 1911: 127. Friedrich 2001: 32.
90
3.2. Discussion
possible to play with the orchestra. Three stops were retuned again by Dressler:
the Gedakt 8' and the Principal 4' in the Brust, and the Subbass 16' in the ped-
al. 254 It is not clear why the organ had to be retuned instead of letting the organ-
ist transpose the parts. Maybe the temperament did not permit transpositions? In
1691 Andreas Werckmeister, who obviously had been criticized by Förner, judged
the temperament in Weißenfels incorrect, and wrote that it should have been
changed long ago. 255 The tuning history of the organ makes it very difficult to
say anything about the temperament when Bach was working for the court.
3.2. Discussion
According to the investigated written sources and instruments, we have found
that relevant temperaments for Johann Sebastian Bach’s organ works are extend-
ing from mean-tone and variants thereof, to different well-tempered tunings.
There is no historical evidence that Bach played on an organ tuned to equal tem-
perament. But still, the option should be considered in the analysis since several
authors, contemporary with Bach, advocate equal temperament, and further-
more, it is the most common temperament of today against which all other tem-
peraments usually are compared.
This survey has given us the prerequisites, when it comes to choosing temper-
aments for an analysis. There is also an agreement between the written sources
and the instrument sources. Both Werckmeister’s and Neidhardt’s temperaments
were applied in practice. Information about the use of Bendeler’s temperaments
is lacking. The great amount of different temperaments relevant for the context
of Bach’s organ works can partially be explained by the fact that Bach did not
stay in just one place during his lifetime. Consequently he met the different
styles of several regions such as the north, Thuringia, and Saxony. The following
table (Table 32) is an overview of the temperaments discussed.
Many of these temperaments are similar and have much in common. The dif-
ferences are sometimes negligible. When we do not have any information of
their practical use (Bendeler), the temperaments are not considered in the analy-
sis; when there is a great similarity between temperaments (Neidhardt 1724 and
1732), it suffices to compare one of them. When it comes to the temperaments of
Werckmeister, the choice was made according to Werckmeister’s own grading,
where Werckmeister III is the first correct temperament, best suited for chromatic
music.
254 Koschel 2000: 37.

255 “Hiervon mögen nun andere urtheilen, ob man die Temperatur nicht besser einrichten möge, wie
ich denn vernommen, daß dieselbe Temperatur im Weißenfeldischen Orgel=wercke wegen ihrer
Unrichtigkeit, schon längst von einem andern soll geändert seyn.” Werckmeister 1691: 83.
91
92
Table 32: Discussed temperaments
No. Temperament C C# D Eb E F F# G G# A Bb B C
1 1/4-comma mean-tone 0 76,05 193,16 310,26 386,31 503,42 579,47 696,58 772,63 889,74 1006,84 1082,89 1200
2 Werckmeister III 0 90,22 192,18 294,13 390,22 498,04 588,27 696,09 792,18 888,27 996,09 1092,18 1200
3 Werckmeister IV 0 82,40 196,09 294,13 392,18 498,04 588,27 694,13 784,36 890,22 1003,91 1086,31 1200
4 Werckmeister V 0 96,09 203,91 300,00 396,09 503,91 600,00 701,96 792,18 900,00 1001,96 1098,04 1200
5 Werckmeister Via 0 96,88 199,50 294,57 395,17 501,98 599,08 701,95 792,62 888,29 1000,02 1031,79 1200
6 Werckmeister Vib 0 90,66 186,33 298,07 395,17 498,04 594,92 697,54 792,62 893,21 1000,02 1097,12 1200
7 Bendeler I 0 90,22 188,27 294,13 392,18 498,04 588,27 694,13 792,18 890,22 996,09 1094,13 1200
8 Bendeler II 0 90,22 188,27 294,13 392,18 498,04 596,09 694,13 792,18 890,22 996,09 1094,13 1200
9 Bendeler III 0 96,09 192,18 294,13 396,09 498,04 594,13 696,09 798,04 894,13 996,09 1092,18 1200
10 Dorf 1724 0 94,14 196,10 296,10 392,19 498,04 592,19 698,06 796,10 894,15 996,09 1092,20 1200
11 Kleine Stadt 1724 0 96,10 196,10 298,06 394,14 500,01 596,10 698,06 796,10 894,15 1000,02 1096,10 1200
12 Grosse Stadt 1724 0 96,10 196,10 298,06 394,14 498,04 596,10 698,06 796,10 894,15 998,06 1096,10 1200
13 Dorf 1732 0 94,14 198,06 296,10 390,24 498,04 592,35 700,01 794,14 894,15 998,06 1092,20 1200
14 Kleine Stadt 1732 0 94,14 196,10 296,10 392,19 498,04 592,19 698,06 796,10 894,15 996,09 1092,20 1200
15 Grosse Stadt 1732 0 96,10 196,10 298,06 394,14 500,01 596,10 698,06 796,10 894,15 1000,02 1096,10 1200
16 Hof 1732 0 100,01 200,01 300,01 400,01 500,01 600,02 700,01 800,02 900,01 1000,02 1100,02 1200
17 Edskes/Jacobi 0 84,11 193,16 299,51 386,31 503,42 579,47 696,58 783,38 889,74 998,78 1085,58 1200
18 Kelber/Jacobi 0 87,88 195,31 296,09 390,61 502,35 585,92 697,65 789,83 892,96 1000,40 1088,27 1200
19 Vogel/Scheidemann/Praetorius 0 86,80 193,16 294,15 391,69 503,42 584,85 696,58 783,38 895,11 1001,47 1088,27 1200
20 Silbermann/Sorge Lange 0 86,31 196,09 305,87 392,18 501,96 588,27 698,04 784,36 894,13 1003,91 1090,22 1200
21 Silbermann/Greß1 0 83,9 194,4 306,4 389,7 502,3 586,0 696,2 780,4 891,2 1003,6 1087,1 1200
22 Silbermann/Greß2 0 93,6 197,4 302,5 395,6 500,9 594,4 698,1 791,8 895,9 1001,2 1094,1 1200
23 Silbermann/Wegscheider1 0 84,55 193,89 303,34 391,41 501,25 585,65 697,66 782,42 892,01 1001,70 1088,20 1200
24 Silbermann/Wegscheider2 0 84,55 193,89 305,73 388,84 501,25 585,65 697,66 782,42 892,01 1004,10 1088,20 1200
25 Silbermann/Freiberg 0 90,22 196,09 298,05 394,14 500,00 590,23 698,05 790,23 896,09 1000,00 1092,18 1200
26 Weißenfels/Greß 0 97,1 201,9 296,9 397 502,5 599,3 696 793,4 898,6 1003,9 1094,2 1200
3.2. Discussion
Some modern reconstructions are not historically relevant, and have therefore
not been included in the analysis (e. g., temperaments by H. A. Kellner and J.
Barnes).
A quick and easy way to compare temperaments is to use a graphical method.
Ibo Ortgies, Bremen/Göteborg, has been occupied with tuning and temperament
since the 1980s and has developed a graphical method that makes it possible to
see when two, or more, temperaments are related. In that case it suffices to ana-
lyze one of them. For the present work it is primarily the many versions of tem-
peraments related to Gottfried Silbermann that need a comparison.
The values for the major and minor thirds are used, indicating the quality of
the thirds. Good major thirds are located high up to the left in the graph (close
to the pure major third of 386 cent), and good minor thirds are located up to the
right (close to the pure minor third of 316 cents). The bad thirds are down to the
right. When the temperaments 20–25 (see Table 32 above) are compared (see Fig.
40 below), they all show the same basic structure: good major and minor thirds,
and, wolf-thirds. The difference lies in the quality of the good thirds and in the
size of the wolf. The description of Silbermann’s tuning by Sorge was chosen
since it is not one of the “extremes” compared to the other six definitions and
since it is a historical description by a contemporary.
Examples from Bach’s organ works will be used in the next chapter to com-
pare the selected temperaments listed below. The list of eight, adequately covers
the different types of temperaments, from mean-tone over well-tempered tun-
ings to equal temperament, and are historically relevant for Bach’s organ music.
The temperaments will be referred to by the abbreviation in the right-hand col-
umn.
Table 33: Selected temperaments

Temperaments Abbreviation
1 1/4 syntonic comma mean-tone QUARTER
2 Vogel/Scheidemann/Praetorius VOSCH
3 Silbermann/Sorge/Lange (1748) – 1/6 Pythagorean comma mean-tone SILB
4 Werckmeister III (1681/1691) WERCK
5 Neidhardt “Für ein Dorf” (1732) DORF
6 Neidhardt “Für eine kleine Stadt” (1732) KLSTADT
7 Neidhardt “Für eine grosse Stadt” (1732) GRSTADT
8 Neidhardt “Für den Hof” (1724/1732, Equal temperament) EQ
93
Fig. 40: Comparison of “Silbermann temperaments”
94
4. A New
Methodology
The instruments in the previous chapter are from very different traditions and
their sound is quite different. The voicing and the harmonic content of the pipes
are important factors for the overall sound, as well as for the consonances and
dissonances or the effect of the temperament. Other important factors are the
choice of registration and the composition of the mixtures. In the Thuringian
tradition, the mixtures often had a major third (Altenburg), or one finds cases
where there is a separate third, which can be used with the mixture (Abbenrode).
Within the frame of the present work these factors cannot be addressed. They de-
mand a thorough study of their own. The role of voicing for example could be
investigated by comparing one temperament and a single composition in differ-
ent organ building traditions.
4.1. Description of the methodology

One of the problems of analyzing a musical context has been the lack of an ade-
quate methodology. Usually tables of cents and beats have been used, which are
quite far from a musical context. The context can greatly affect the experience of
consonance and dissonance. It is also not possible to take the pitch in the musi-
cal setting into account if only discussing the size of the intervals in cents. In this
category also belong the questions about musical texture, figurations and struc-
tural notes, and embellishments. They affect the experience of dissonance and
consonance since they affect the sound through the musical texture they create.
Further, the problem of re-tuning a historical instrument has been a practical ob-
stacle.
There are basically two approaches that can be used with digital technology:
sampling orsynthesis. 256 Sampling can easily be done with the great variety of
samplers available on the market. Especially in the field of software samplers, the
256 For a description and discussion on sampling and synthesis see Risset and Wessel 1999.
95
4. A New Methodology
development has been rapid in the last few years. The new methodology devel-
oped for the present work is based on sampling and MIDI. Digital technology has
been useful, especially with regard to the problem of retuning. With only the
available resources, synthesis was not an option.
The initial question, “How might one compare different temperaments in the
same piece of music with a historical organ sound?” initiated the development of
the methodology. The use of a historical instrument is crucial since the harmonic
content of the tones are acoustically important for our experience of dissonance
and consonance. 257 The following figure illustrates the methodology:
Historical organ (Contius/Abbenrode)

• cannot change parameters (temperament)
Virtual organ (sampling)

• can change parameters
Sound file
Virtual performance (MIDI)

• can repeat performance
Temporal performance (BWV [No.])

• cannot repeat performance
Fig. 41: Graphical representation of the methodology
There are basically two main parts: the historical instrument, and, the perfor-
mance. No parameters can be changed in an existing historical instrument. Since
the historical instrument must be handled with care, it creates the need to have
an instrument that can be re-tuned. This is possible with a sampled instrument, a
virtual organ, where all parameters can be controlled and changed when neces-
sary. The other part is the performance. A performance is temporal, and interact-
ing with the instrument. It cannot be repeated, which is a problem when trying
to compare a parameter such as the temperament. Since the performance is not
under investigation in the present work, it should be strictly controlled in the
methodology. Creating a digital performance, a MIDI file, which also can be de-
scribed as an in-time frozen performance, provides a means to control the inter-
pretation. The digital performance can naturally be repeated, which was desirable
257 Sundberg 1989: 85.
96
for the present work. A performance prepared with sequencer software will, un-
fortunately, not be as dynamic when it comes to rhythm as a live performance.
To make the music examples more authentic in a musical sense, a software called
Director Musices, developed at the Department of Speech, Music and Hearing at
the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, was used. The software is the result
of the extensive research on musical performance conducted at the depart-
ment. 258 The software allows one to govern several factors making the MIDI-file
more musical. Thus, it can be said that the music examples are the result of an
interpretation made with the help of Director Musices. For the present work, the
temperament aspect was integrated into the software by using pitch bend com-
mand in MIDI, which enables one to change temperament by simply creating a
table of the deviation in cents from equal temperament of the chromatic scale.
“Re-tuning” is thus made easy. Outlined in a linear way the initial process can be
illustrated as follows:
Recording – Sampling/Re-tuning – MIDI-playback – Sound file
Fig. 42: Linear representation of the methodology
The methodology was developed and tested at the Lindblad studio at the
School of Music and Musicology, Göteborg University.259 It was first tested with
the “Bjurum organ”, built by Nicolaus Manderscheidt in Nürnberg 1643–51, and
restored by organ builder Mads Kjersgaard from 1972 to 1976. The instrument is
currently on loan to the School of Music and Musicology, Göteborg University.
The organ is tuned to 1/4-comma mean-tone, with subsemitones to give D# and
Eb. The organ is not what we would consider a Bach organ. It was chosen for the
test stage in the development of the methodology because it is an historical in-
strument to which we had free and easy access. The methodology was discussed
and evaluated in discussions with sound engineers, acousticians, organ builders,
and organists. The same procedure was used in Abbenrode.
The first step involved recording short examples of every tone in every stop.
This was done with a DAT recorder. The microphones, two AGK C414 with a mi-
crophone amplifier (SMF-5 by Marenius), were placed (x-y-stereo) rather close
258 Winner of the Fourth International Music Software Competition (see Computer Music Journal vol.
24, no. 3, 2000). <http://www.speech.kth.se/music/music_research_topics.html> I am indebted
to Anders Friberg and Roberto Bresin at the department of Speech, Music, and Hearing at the
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, for their kind help and assistance.
259 The work was carried out in the Lindblad studio at the School of Music and Musicology, Göteborg
University. I am indebted to Per-Anders Nilsson, director of the ARC/Lindblad studio, for his invalu-
able help in developing the methodology. I am also indebted to Björn Asplind for his advice and
help in preparing the recording of the organ in Abbenrode.
97
Fig. 43: The five MIDI-tracks down to the right contain the Canzona (BWV 588). Every track
represents a voice. The track is assigned a MIDI-channel, which corresponds to sampled stops
in the sampler. The manual stops are on channel 1 and the pedal on channel 2. A coupler is
simulated by duplicating the pedal voice and playing it on channel 1 (the manual stops).
Hence the “extra” voice in the Canzona. The upper track is the recording of the MIDI tracks
played trough the sampler
(0.5–1 m) to the organ to eliminate the acoustics of the room. It is impossible to

include the acoustics of the room in the sampling since it will interfere with the
looping of the tone. If one likes, one can digitally add the impression of a room
with reverb to a playback performance. One could even adjust the reverb to
match the actual room in which the sampled instrument is housed, but that
would demand a measuring of the characteristics of the room.
The recorded sounds were transferred to a computer and imported into a soft-
ware sampler (or a hardware sampler or a sample-card). A loop was added to the
sample to be able to play sustained notes. Keygroups of a keyboard were defined
and assigned a sample (a sound file). This, in effect, created a digital version of
the recorded instrument, which is playable from a synthesizer, or any instrument
with a MIDI interface. If one uses 2–3 samples per octave, which is sufficient
from an acoustical point of view, one must have the voices in the MIDI file in
separate tracks to be able to send the intonation information via the pitch-bend
command. Addressing the tracks in the playback to the same MIDI channel,
then, achieves the effect of playing the voices together as a chord. If two notes
are in the same track they will both be adjusted according to the pitch-bend data.
All stops necessary to create a principal plenum in the organ in Abbenrode
were recorded (Manual: 8, 8, 4, 3, 2, 1 3/5, Mixture; Pedal: 16, 16, 8). A coupler be-
tween the manual and the pedal was simulated through playing the pedal line
both with the manual registration and the pedal registration. The manual stops
were played on MIDI channel 1 and the pedal stops on channel 2. Since several
pipes in the organ in Abbenrode did not speak properly, a sample per key could
98
Fig. 44: Samples assigned to keys form keygroups
not be used in the present work. The mixture caused further problems. Since it
consists of several pipes (4) for every note, the stop could not be sampled. The
stop was recorded, but deviations between the pipes, although small, made it im-
possible to loop the samples. Consequently the decision was made to only use a
basic registration for the sound files, consisting of the Gedact 8' and the Principal
4' in the manual and the Subbaß 16' and the Octavbaß 8' in the pedal. The Prin-
cipal is important in adding overtones to the sound, since a stopped pipe has
very weak even harmonics. Using one single registration for all examples also
helps to focus on the temperament.
The pitch of the samples is then measured and the samples are tuned. The ac-
curacy of the tuning is 1 cent. The precision decreases towards the bass due to
the longer wavelength. The precision is close to what is usually said to be the ca-
pacity of the human ear, which is around 5 cents for melodic intervals and even
less for intervals played together.260 The harmonic content of the tones is an im-
portant factor, since it is the interaction of the harmonics that cause the beats.
The ability to hear small deviations is naturally also dependent on an individual’s
training and experience. An organ builder is most likely more capable of detect-
ing small deviations than an average organist. Consequently it is difficult to ar-
gue for an analysis of differences between temperaments if they amount to only
1–3 cents, since the precision of the results would be too low.
260 Sundberg 1989: 106. See also Hall 1980: 439f.
99
Fig. 45: Director Musices. Under the upper sliders are the settings for choosing an intonation,
shown here, with 1/4 comma selected
Using a MIDI-file for playback has the advantage of having repeatable perfor-
mances, or parts of performances, which are identical. Today several types of
commercial notation software have incorporated the possibility to generate
rhythmically and dynamically flexible performances – musical performances. As
mentioned above, Director Musices, developed at the Department of Speech, Mu-
sic and Hearing at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm was chosen.
With these new aids one can achieve musically acceptable MIDI performances.
For the present work the possibility to include a temperament (fixed intonation)
in a MIDI file was added to the software. A new MIDI file is generated for every
temperament one wishes to analyze.
The final stage is to play back the MIDI file containing the performance pa-
rameters and intonation and record this in a sound file. The sound files form, to-
gether with tables of cent values, an important part of the present work.
The software and hardware used to edit and sample the organ was the follow-
ing: PEAK 2.58 (BIAS), Spektral 21.11 (Magnus Eldénius/Lindblad studio) Pulsar
3.01 and the sampler STS 4000 (Creamware), and Cubase VST/32 5.01 (Steinberg)
was used to play back the MIDI-files prepared with Director Musices 2.1 and to
record the sound files. The work was carried out on a Macintosh PPC G4 with
Mac OS 9.1 (Apple), with the Pulsar II soundcard (Creamware). A Yamaha 01v dig-
ital mixer and Genelec 1031a speakers were used for monitoring. No filters were
used during the process.
100
4.2. Critical discussion
4.2. Critical discussion

During the work the methodology was continuously evaluated, and some possi-
ble improvements will be discussed here. Naturally the frame of the present work
also imposed some limitations, both economical and practical. On the “instru-
ment side” (see Fig. 41) improvements could be done as follows. The recording
situation can be optimized with regard to the condition of the instrument being
recorded, and consequently raising the quality of the recording itself. An instru-
ment well-tuned, and with a well-regulated wind system would give better condi-
tions. The organ in Abbenrode has a very sensitive wind system, and this caused
problems later when trying to find good loops in the samples. Some of the pipes
were also not speaking properly and could therefore not be sampled. The occa-
sion of the recording (November 2000), for example, was chosen in order to
avoid problems caused by humidity during the summer. Naturally a longer visit
at the organ would provide better conditions for the recording, since it would of-
fer the opportunity to record and verify the quality, and if necessary make a new
recording. A normal problem by any recording is disturbing noise from the sur-
roundings, such as traffic, etc.
With regard to the performance, some parameters could be improved. The
quality of the MIDI-performance can naturally always be discussed, since some
aspects of a performance will be a question of taste. The goal for the present work
was to control as many parameters as possible, and focus on only one – the tem-
perament. When discussing the implications of temperament for the interpreta-
tion, a need for changing the interpretation may arise. Changing a MIDI-file is
not difficult, but doing it directly, intuitively in a musical way, is not possible.
Having a software as an interface between the musician and the performance
cannot be regarded as optimal. The interaction between the instrument (temper-
ament) and the interpreter is lost. This can be solved by playing the sampled in-
strument from a keyboard with a MIDI interface. My personal experience is, how-
ever, that the physical reaction from a digital keyboard is disturbing, since there
is not a mechanical action interacting with the player in a manner resembling a
true organ. The possibility of affecting the sound of the instrument with one’s
touch and articulation is also lost.
101
102
5. The Music
5.1. Consonance and dissonance

The words “consonance” and “dissonance” are often used when discussing har-
monic structures in a musical setting. William A. Sethares describes, quoting
James Tenney, five different concepts in the history of consonance and disso-
nance: melodic, polyphonic, contrapuntal, functional, and, sensory.261 Different
explanations have been offered to the question of what causes a sensation of
consonance or dissonance: numerological, psychological, cultural, and, physical.
The model using beats and roughness as the explanation is the model that can be
readily measured, and thus used to calculate the factors that result in the experi-
ence of consonance and dissonance.262 Dissonance occurs when the difference in
frequency of two tones is less than the critical bandwidth. The critical bandwidth
varies with the frequencies and is approximately 100 Hz up to 500 Hz, after
which it increases. Above 500 Hz the critical bandwidth is approximately a minor
third. 263 Beats, and through them our experience of roughness, occur when the
harmonics of two tones interact.264 One can say that temperament is an acousti-
cal phenomenon that can be explained with acoustics and mathematics, or, it is
a mathematical problem that can be heard. The phenomenon of beats is used
when tuning the organ. When the beats slow down and finally stop, the pipes
are in tune. Consequently, a temperament is especially evident in the harmonic
structure of music, when two or more notes are played together. A temperament
can also be observed in melody, especially when it comes to mean-tone tempera-
ments with their greater difference between the semitones. We will, in the
present work, focus mainly on the harmonic structure.
261 Sethares 1998: 73ff.

262 Sethares 1998: 79ff.
263 Sundberg 1989: 81. See also Rasch and Plomp 1999: 107.
264 Roughness is perceived when the frequency of the beats is higher than about 20Hz. Rasch and
Plomp 1999: 103.
103
5. The Music
Historically the question of consonance and dissonance has been important.

Johann Gottfried Walther writes in his Praecepta der musicalischen Composition
from 1708, quoting Wolffgang Caspar Printz:265
…ihr Gebrauch und Nutz ist nicht gering in der Composition, und zwar kann man ver-
mittelst derselben 1) von einem Intervallo zum andern desto bequehmer, und ohne
Sprünge kommen. 2) kann man eine Harmonie, wenn es neml. der Text erfordert, durch
sie exasperiren, und 3) kann man eine Composition durch sie verändern und ausschmük-
ken. … Die Dissonantien seyn die Nacht, die Consonantien der Tag; das Licht würde uns
nimmermehr so angenehm seyn, wenn es immer Tag und niemahls Nacht wäre. 266
…their use and usefulness [of dissonances and consonances] is considerable in music.
Namely, with them you can 1) go easier from one interval to another, avoiding leaps. 2)
When a text asks for it, a harmony can be flavored with them, and 3) one can change
and elaborate a composition with them. … The dissonances are the night, the conso-
nances the day. The light would not be so pleasing to us if it were day all the time and
never night.
Here Walther refers to the vast literature on counterpoint, which, in its essence,
deals with the treatment of dissonance and consonance. The definition of the
two differs, of course, in the history of music theory.
Thomas Christensen has noted that in his teaching, Johann Sebastian Bach
emphasized the harmonic structure in music. Bach started with the harmoniza-
tion of a figured bass and chorales.267 Also, Lorenz Christoph Mizler writes that it
is the combination of chords or keys that are of importance for the expression of
affect. Consequently, focusing on and analyzing the temperaments’ effect is of
historic relevance for Bach’s organ music.268
Having a date of composition for a certain piece would be helpful for the
present work since we can assume that mean-tone and variants thereof are likely
to be more common in Bach’s youth, whereas different well-tempered tunings
became more common during the first half of the eighteenth century. But a gen-
eral problem when working with the organ music of Bach is that the chronology
is very unreliable, especially for his early works. In some cases one can place a
composition in a certain period (Clavier-Übung III), but in many cases this is not
possible. In other cases Bach worked or re-worked music (Orgelbüchlein). 269 Com-
posing in a period of transition with regard to temperament further means that
the different models of temperament existed side by side. Consequently, an open
approach is needed when addressing the question of temperament, not exclud-
ing a temperament too early in the comparison.
The evaluation of temperament should always be done in relation to music,
as already mentioned. It is not relevant to discuss temperament as an indepen-
265 Walther 1708: 140.

266 Walther 1708, s. 140.
267 Christensen 1998: 32.
268 See p. 53. Mizler 1738, i/6, footnote 2: 2f. C.f. ibid. p. 21, 26 and Mizler 1746 iii/2: 314.
269 Wolff 2000: 127ff.
104
5.2. Music Examples
dent musical object since it is in the musical context it finds its function. On the
other hand it is possible to approach the question of temperament as a mathe-
matical problem, and discuss it purely from that point of view.
Finally, it is important to be aware of the different meanings of the words
“consonance” and “dissonance.” For example, using the terminology from music
theory one can talk about a dissonance that resolves into a consonance. This
“consonance” can actually be dissonant due to the temperament. If we consider
a 4–3 suspension resolving into a third, major or minor, in an unequal tempera-
ment, the “consonance” can be rather dissonant due to the poor intonation im-
posed by a well-tempered temperament (e.g. f #1 and b 1, with b 1 resolving into
a#1). It is mainly this aspect the present work deals with.
5.2. Music Examples

As mentioned before, the Baroque was a period of transition. When it comes to
temperament a gradual shift from mean-tone to equal temperament occurred –
not equally fast in all instrument groups. Instruments and voices with free into-
nation can strive for just intonation, while keyboard instruments are forced to
make a compromise – a temperament. The organ was perhaps the most conserva-
tive, as we know from the history of temperament in organs in, for example, Brit-
ain. Equal temperament was not generally used until the second half of the nine-
teenth century. 270 This transition can serve as a point of departure for the
comparison in the present work providing the order of the sound files. We will
start with 1/4-comma mean-tone and modifications thereof, and continue with
well-tempered tunings, finishing with equal temperament.
5.2.1. O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656)

This chorale (see Fig. 46) belongs to the group of chorales usually referred to as
“The Eighteen” (BWV 651–668).271 They were revised in Leipzig (1723–50), but
all chorales have an earlier version, probably from the Weimar period (1708–17).
The existence of an E# as a major third to C# (m. 37), and the frequent D# (already
in m. 2), excludes 1/4-comma mean-tone as temperament for the chorale. Nor-
mally 1/4-comma mean-tone has Eb, which is not usable as D#, and E# is not en-
harmonically the same as F. The only way to overcome this is by introducing sub-
semitones. The question then becomes, would some of the modified variants of
mean-tone be acceptable? The key is the same in both versions of the chorale,
270 MacKenzie 1979: 59 gives the year 1854. See also Padgham 1986: 7, 58. It was probably some
kind of 1/5-comma mean-tone that was widely used in England at the time.
271 Williams 1980b: 124ff.
105
5. The Music
## 9 Œ œœ œœ œ
#œ œ œ œ
& # 4 ∑ ∑ Œœœœ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ #œ œ #œ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ Œ œ œ
œ œ ˙ œœ œ˙œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ ˙. œœœœœ
? ### 9 ∑ Œ œ œ œ Œ
4
? ### 3 Ó w #˙ w ˙ w. w ˙
2 ˙
## Œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.
6
œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ
& # œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œœ œœ œ˙ . œ œ œœ œœ œœ œ œ ˙ nœ œ œ œ
Ó Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. Œ œ œ œ œ œ
? ### œ œ œ œ œ ˙. ˙ œ nœ œ
? ### w ˙ ˙
w ˙ w w.
### œ œ œ Ó Œ Œ œ œ œ œ
œ # œ œ # œ œ œ ˙œ œ ˙œ œ
10
œ œ œ œ
& ˙. ˙ . œ
Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ ˙ .
œ œœ œœ
Œ œ ˙.
˙. œ
#œ œ œ
? ### Ó Œ Ó Œ ∑ ∑ Œ œœœœ
? ### w #˙ w ˙ w.
w ˙
14
# # Œ œ œ ˙ œœ ˙œ œ œ œ Ó Œœ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ ˙. œ œ œ
& # ˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œœ œœ œ œ œ œ ˙ . œ œ œœ œœ œ œ œ
Œ Œ Œ
? ### œ
&œ œ œ
œœ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙. œœœœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
? ### w ˙ w ˙ ˙
w ˙ w
Fig. 46: O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig, 3 versus (BWV 656)
106
5.2. Music Examples
## Œ œ nœ œ œ œ ˙ Œ Ó Œ Ó Œ Œ Œ
œw .œ œ œ œ œ ˙˙ œ ˙
18
& # ˙ .œ n œ œ œ œ œœ
Œ œœ Œ Ó Œ Ó Œ Œ Œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ
### Ó . œ n œ Œ œœ œœ œ˙ . œ œ ˙˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ ˙ ˙
Ó ŒÓ Œ ? œ œ Œ Œ
& ˙. Œ
? ### ∑ ∑
w. w. ˙
## Œ Œ Œ Œ
22
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
& # # œ œœ œ˙ œ œ œ˙ œ œ œ˙ œ œœ ˙ ˙˙ ˙˙ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œn œ
œ Œ Œ ˙ Œ Œ œ ˙. ˙ œ œ œ œ
? ### ˙ œ ˙ ˙ ˙ . ˙ . œ˙
Œ Œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙.
? ### ∑ ∑ ∑ Ó Ó ˙
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
### œ œ œ # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ n œœ œ Œœ Œ Óœ œ Œ Ó # œ Œ Ó
26
& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
Œ œœ œ Œ œ œ Œ œ œ Œ # œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ #œ ˙ Œ ˙ Œ
˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ ˙
? ### ˙ . ˙. #˙. œ œ ˙ ˙
Ó Œ Ó Œ ˙ Œ
? ### w ˙ w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ w.
30
# # œ œ œœ ˙œ œ œŒ ˙œ œŒ ˙œ œ œ Œ Œ œ
& # ˙ œ œ œœ œ˙ œœ œ˙ œ œœ œ˙ œœ ˙œ œ ˙œ œ 32 œœ œ n œ # œœ # œœ œ
œ œ œ # œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ 3 ˙.
? ### œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ 2 &
œ
? ### ∑ ˙ w ˙ w ˙
w.
107
5. The Music
# # œ #œ œ nœ nœ œ n œ˙ ˙ # œ ˙˙ Ó
34
& # œ nœ œ #œ œ œ nœ œœ œœ œœ n œœ œœ b œ œ
œ #œ # ww Ó
## Ó
& #
?
œœ ˙ ˙
œ œ #œ #œ ˙ Œ œ # œ n œ # ˙œ n œ #œ œ #œ œ œ #œ ww Ó
œ ˙ œ ˙
? ### n œ œ # œ œ n˙ w. w. w ˙
## œœœœ
38
œœ ˙ œ œœ œœ ˙ œ œ œœœw
& # ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ ˙œ œ œ œ . œ˙ ˙ œ œ œœœœœœ
‰ œ œ J
œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
? ### ∑ ∑ ‰œœœ œ œ
? ### ˙ . œ ˙ œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ ˙
˙. w
42
## ∑ ‰ œ nœ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ
& # ˙˙ ‰ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ n œ œ œ œ œœ ˙
∑ œœ œœ ˙ ‰ ∑
œ œ œ œœ
? ### œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ
œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ ˙ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œœœœ ∑ ‰
? ###
w. w. w. w.
# # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ w. ‰ w.
œ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ˙ œ œ œ w .
46
w.
& # œœ œœ œœœœœœ Ów
˙ ˙
‰ œ œ œœœ ˙ ˙ ˙ w w.
nœ œ œ œ
œ œœœœœœ w. w.
? ### œ
œ ∑ ∑ ‰
? ###
w. w. w. w. w.
108
5.2. Music Examples
which indicates that the temperament in question in Weimar and Leipzig could
have been quite similar, allowing E# as a major third to C#.
The first 20 bars illustrate the different intonation of the D#. One can hear the
context as a diminished triad on D# (D#–F#–A) with a dominant function leading
to E. The D# is then functioning as a leading note to E. For the context the step
from C# to D# is also important. QUARTER and SILB have the largest deviation,
while VOSCH is rather close to the other well-tempered temperaments. It is ex-
pected that the 1/4-comma mean-tone temperament has the poorest intonation
with regard to the notated D# since it actually is an Eb. It is also interesting to
note that the modification of a mean-tone temperament immediately has conse-
quences for the intonation as can be seen in VOSCH. The following table illus-
trates the size of the steps between C#–D# and D#–E:
Table 34: Size of C#–D# and D#–E

Temperament C#–D#–E
QUARTER 234–76
VOSCH 208–97
SILB 220–86
WERCK 204–96
DORF 202–94
KLSTADT 202–96
GRSTADT 202–96
EQ 200–100
[SOUND EXAMPLES for VOSCH, SILB, WERCK, DORF, KLSTADT, GRSTADT, EQ – mm. 1–20]
It is easier to hear the difference between QUARTER, VOSCH, SILB, and the
DORF. With the other temperaments it becomes more difficult to hear a differ-
ence in this single case.
In mm. 20–32 we can also compare the temperaments with regard to A#.
In this context the A# is the major third on the F# (and the D# is the major third
on B). Again mean-tone stands out as the temperament with the poorest intona-
tion with regard to remote keys – keys with notes exceeding the mean-tone tonal
content. Again this is expected, since the A# is actually a Bb. It also comes clear
that the well-tempered temperaments are more flexible in this aspect, but they
also have a different priority between the major thirds on F# and B respectively.
WERCK, for example, yields a better major third on B than on F#, following a
natural grading according to the circle of fifths where F# is further away from C
than B.
109
5. The Music
Table 35: Size of F#–A# and B–D#

Temperament F#–A# B–D#
QUARTER 427 427
VOSCH 417 406
SILB 416 416
WERCK 408 402
DORF 406 404
KLSTADT 404 402
GRSTADT 402 402
EQ 400 400
In a musical setting like this it is quite easy to focus on a single note or interval.
The texture does not hide the notes and intervals. When it comes to the next ex-
ample (mm. 33–37), the situation is quite different. In this context it is literally
impossible to hear the individual quality of the chords. The final chord, though,
stands out, more or less depending on the temperament.
The major third C#–E#, together with F#–A# and G#–B#, are usually the major
thirds with the poorest intonation in a temperament, as are all temperaments in
this analysis, except EQ. The C# major chord discussed already in the introduc-
tion is very prominent in this passage due to the long note value. Bach clearly
did not try to hide the chord, or to make it short to avoid a too dissonant appear-
ance. It is only EQ that makes the chord relatively neutral, and that is highly re-
lated to the quality of the thirds in the preceding musical context. C# major is
not more dissonant than C major in EQ. If the temperament’s effect on the disso-
nance were believed to be of musical value, a well-tempered temperament would
give the passage, and the text, a strong coloration.
Table 36: Size of C#–E#

Temperament C#–E#
QUARTER 427
VOSCH 417
SILB 416
WERCK 408
DORF 404
KLSTADT 404
GRSTADT 402
EQ 400
The mean-tone family’s tonal content is a strong factor when discussing a tem-
perament’s suitability for a repertoire. This criterion has usually been used to dis-
110
5.2. Music Examples
cuss the question about suitability. However, without a sounding example it is

difficult to judge the temperaments that lie between 1/4-comma mean-tone and
the well-tempered temperaments like WERCK and DORF. The border between ac-
ceptable and unacceptable dissonances is not always clear, and sometimes only a
matter of taste. In the example above, the C# major clearly crosses the border for
many of the temperaments, while the following example is not quite as definite.
5.2.2. Canzona (BWV 588)

A fragment of the Canzona (see Fig. 47) appears in a source that can be dated pri-
or to 1714. 272 This could be the early Weimar period, or even earlier (Arnstadt,
Mühlhausen). As mentioned, it is more likely that mean-tone temperaments are
better suited for Johann Sebastian Bach’s earlier works. The chromatic passage in
mm. 10–13 (17–20, 24–27) is something that is very obvious in a mean-tone tem-
perament due to the temperament’s different sizes of semitones.
[SOUND EXAMPLES for QUARTER, VOSCH, SILB, WERCK, DORF, KLSTADT, GRSTADT, EQ – mm.
1–28]
Here we see that the three regular temperaments (QUARTER, SILB, EQ) have a
regular definition of the semitones. Especially in QUARTER and SILB it is easier to
hear differences between the semitones. The other temperaments involve more
than two tempered fifths, and consequently the semitones are of more than two
sizes.
Table 37: Size of semitones in A–G#–G–F#–F–E

Temperament A–G# G#–G G–F# F#–F F–E
QUARTER 117 76 117 76 117
VOSCH 112 87 112 81 112
SILB 110 86 110 86 110
WERCK 96 96 108 90 108
DORF 100 94 108 94 108
KLSTADT 98 98 102 96 108
GRSTADT 98 98 102 98 104
EQ 100 100 100 100 100
A similar pattern can be seen in the transposed passage D–C#–C–B–Bb–A. The

steps are of different sizes, and, for example, in QUARTER the same sizes recur. In
the well-tempered tunings other sizes appear.
272 Williams 1980a: 272.
111
5. The Music
&b c ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
? c ˙
b ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ Ó
? c Ó ˙. œ œ œœœ œ œ œœœ œ œ ˙ œ œœ˙ œ œœ˙ œ

b ˙ œ ˙.
&b ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ Ó
˙
˙. œ
˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ nœ ˙ œ nœ œ ˙ œ nœ #œ ˙
œ˙
? Œ
b
? œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ #˙ n˙ #˙ nœ œ œ ˙. œ
œ œ œ œ ˙. œ œ #˙ ˙
b
œ œ œœ œ
17
˙.
& b œ œœœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œÓ ˙œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ˙
œ
˙ #˙ n˙ n˙ bœ œ ˙. œ
? Ó œ ˙. œ œ ˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙
b
˙ ˙ ˙
?
b œ œ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ n˙ #˙ w w œ œ ˙
j
25
œœ œ ˙ œ
& b # ˙ œ nn œ˙ # œ # ˙ œ n œ œ œ ˙ . œ n œ ˙ œ œ˙ n œ œ ˙˙ œ œ #œ ˙
˙. œ œnœ .œ œ
# œ ˙ #. œ œ œ # œ
œ
? n˙. œ œ ˙ n˙ œ #œ œ œ ˙. œ nœ ˙. nœ œ nw œ
b
? œ #œ œ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙
b w œ œ nœ w
œ
Fig. 47: Canzona, mm. 1–31 (BWV 588)
112
5.2. Music Examples
Table 38: Size of semitones in D–C#–C–B–Bb–A

Temperament D–C# C#–C C–B B–Bb Bb–A
QUARTER 117 76 117 76 117
VOSCH 106 87 112 87 106
SILB 110 86 110 86 110
WERCK 102 90 108 96 108
DORF 104 94 108 94 104
KLSTADT 100 96 104 96 106
GRSTADT 100 96 104 98 104
EQ 100 100 100 100 100
[SOUND EXAMPLES for QUARTER, VOSCH, SILB, WERCK, DORF, KLSTADT, GRSTADT, EQ – mm. 1–
2]
Except for the semitones, it is also possible to compare the different sizes of the
initial fifth (m. 1–2). The 1/4 Pythagorean comma tempered fifth in WERCK and
DORF is the most tempered one, and can here be compared to the pure fifth in
VOSCH.
Table 39: Size of D–A

Temperament D–A
QUARTER 697
VOSCH 702
SILB 698
WERCK 696
DORF 696
KLSTADT 698
GRSTADT 698
EQ 700
Finally the Canzona illustrates what can perhaps be used as a marker for the bor-
der between mean-tone and well-tempered temperaments. In mm. 29–30 a di-
minished chord and a dominant seventh chord, D#dim and E7 respectively, ap-
pear.
29–30]
In the D#dim chord the tonal content of mean-tone is exceeded with D# which
naturally makes it very dissonant, while in the E7 the tonal content is not ex-
ceeded. Still the E7 is quite dissonant. The reason for the very dissonant appear-
ance of the mean-tone temperaments is the augmented fourth (or diminished
fifth depending on the inversion) occurring between the third and the seventh. It
is up to 20–21 cents wide (or narrow) when the tonal content is exceeded.
113
5. The Music
Table 40: Size of D–G#

Temperament D–G#
QUARTER 579
VOSCH 590
SILB 588
WERCK 600
DORF 596
KLSTADT 600
GRSTADT 600
EQ 600
Looking at this from a standpoint of music history, a gradual shift from from
modality to major-minor tonality is taking place around 1700. An acceptable
dominant seventh chord is needed in the major-minor tonality, and provided in
temperaments such as those of Werckmeister. We are not saying, of course, that
Andreas Werckmeister established the major-minor tonality.
These two examples have primarily served as examples of how the music can
be used to analyze a temperament’s suitability for a certain repertoire. The fol-
lowing examples will be used to discuss the more constructive issue, whether a
temperament plays a role for the interpretation and performance of the music.
5.2.3. Prelude in B Minor (BWV 544)

According to the watermark on the paper, the manuscript can be dated to
1727. 273 It is also one of the few compositions for the organ that exists as manu-
script in the hand of Johann Sebastian Bach.274 In this example (see Fig. 48) I sug-
gest the opposite listening order, starting from EQ going to QUARTER. This will
make it easier to follow the line of reasoning.
[SOUND EXAMPLES for EQ, GRSTADT, KLSTADT, DORF, WERCK, SILB, VOSCH, QUARTER – mm.
1–7]
In the cadence in m. 7 the temperament plays an important role. The 6/4 suspen-
sion with a B minor chord with F# in the bass resolving to F# major is an example
of tension-release. This is the case especially when assuming EQ. Comparing the
cadence in the other temperaments will reveal that the temperament can work
the opposite way, i. e. the more dissonant triad is on the last chord. In all the
temperaments under investigation, except EQ, the F# major is one of the most
dissonant triads of the temperament. In QUARTER we have the wolf-thirds on F#.
273 Williams 1980a p. 133.

274 Stauffer 1978: 5.
114
5.2. Music Examples
# 6 œ œ œœœœ r œ œ
œ œ œ. œ œ œ
& # 8 œ œ #œ ‰ #œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
# 6
& # 8 ‰ œ œ #œ ‰ œ œœœœœ r
œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ #œ œ
? ## 6 ∑ ∑ ∑
8
œ #œ
# œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ
4
& # œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ
j j j j
# ‰ j ‰ j ‰ œœ ‰ œœ
& # œ œœ œœ ‰ # œœ œœ ‰ # œœ
J ‰ J
œ J J J
J J
? ## ‰ œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ
≈ œ œ œ œ
# œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ
6
œ
& # #œ œ œ œ #œ #œ œ œ
#œ œ œ
œ ‰
j j j
# œœ ‰ œœ ‰ j j ‰ ‰
& # J ‰ J # œœ ‰ # œœ œœ ‰ j ‰
J J # œœ œœ #œ
J J
? ## œ . œ œ . œ œ œ œ œœ
œ œ J œ œ.
Fig. 48: Prelude in B Minor, mm. 1–7 (BWV 544)
Table 41: Intervals in B minor

Temperament B D F#
QUARTER 0 310 697
VOSCH 0 306 697
SILB 0 306 698
WERCK 0 300 696
DORF 0 306 700
KLSTADT 0 300 700
GRSTADT 0 300 700
EQ 0 300 700
115
5. The Music
Table 42: Intervals in F# major

Temperament F# A# C#
QUARTER 0 427 697
VOSCH 0 417 702
SILB 0 416 698
WERCK 0 408 702
DORF 0 406 702
KLSTADT 0 404 700
GRSTADT 0 402 700
EQ 0 400 700
[SOUND EXAMPLES for EQ, GRSTADT, KLSTADT, DORF, WERCK, SILB, VOSCH, QUARTER – m. 7]
A parallel case is the appogiatura to A# in mm. 1 and 2. Here the dissonance is

not as obvious since it is only a 2-voice texture. The A# in m. 3 is also more disso-
nant in the mean-tone temperaments.
1–3]
If the prelude is transposed to C minor, the situation is the opposite with regard
to m. 7. The tension-release, C minor resolving to G major, would be supported
by the temperament. This is important to note, since both B minor and C minor
are similar to the extent that they both have a chromatic tonal content (more
black keys than A minor for example). This is usually a sign for poorer overall in-
tonation, indicating that a possible general expression (affect) for the keys would
be rather similar. Their behavior in m. 7 is, in any case, the opposite of each oth-
er with regard to temperament.
Table 43: Intervals in C minor

Temperament C Eb G
QUARTER 0 310 697
VOSCH 0 294 697
SILB 0 306 698
WERCK 0 294 696
DORF 0 296 700
KLSTADT 0 298 698
GRSTADT 0 298 698
EQ 0 300 700
116
5.2. Music Examples
Table 44: Intervals in G major

Temperament G B D
QUARTER 0 386 697
VOSCH 0 392 697
SILB 0 392 698
WERCK 0 396 696
DORF 0 392 698
KLSTADT 0 398 700
GRSTADT 0 398 700
EQ 0 400 700
Similar values would be valid for a transposition to A minor. A minor is, in gener-
al, a key with better intonation in a well-tempered temperament due to the few
chromatic keys used. This is, of course, dependent on the musical setting, which
can modulate quite far into more distant keys as is the case with the prelude in C
major (BWV 545). Here we have an introduction with many suspensions (mm.
1–3), and cadences in E minor (m. 17), A minor (m. 19), diminished chords (m.
23, and 26), and finally a cadence echoing the introduction (mm. 28–31). This
example points out why Mattheson’s list of key characteristics from 1713 re-
ceived so much criticism, since a composition’s affect and expression depends
much more on the modulations, or the combination of keys, as Mizler expressed
it.
The short chords in the inner voices in mm. 4–7 are not easy to analyze, hid-
den as they are in the musical setting. Together with the pedal point in the bass
they add to the dissonant appearance of the measures. The last chord in m. 6 is
due to the E# in the middle voice, which is an augmented fourth to the B in the
pedal, is quite dissonant especially in the mean-tone temperaments.
4–7]
5.2.4 Toccata in F Major (BWV 540)

The genesis of the Toccata has usually been connected to the organ in Weißenfels
with its pedal compass extending to f 1. On stylistic grounds the Toccata has been
dated to the period 1712–17.275
The following example (see Fig. 49) is a characteristic passage in the Toccata.
The passage in itself exhibits a growth in dissonance with regard to harmony
over the first measures (mm. 169–74) ending with a short and strong cadence
into C major (mm. 175–76). As with the short chords in the middle voices of the
Prelude in B minor (BWV 544), it is difficult to distinguish between the well-tem-
275 Stauffer 1978: 113f.
117
5. The Music
‰ œ n œ ‰ b œœ n œœ ‰ œœ n œœ ‰ b œœ œ ‰ b œœœ b œœ ‰ b œœ
168
3 œ ‰ œ nœ œ
&b 8 ∑ ‰ b œœ œœ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ œ ‰ œ ‰ œœ bn œœ ‰ b œœœ œœœ œœœ
‰
œ œ œ œ
? 3 ∑ ‰ b œœœ œœœ ‰ b œœ œœ ‰ b œœ œœ ‰ b œœœ œœ ‰ œœ b œœ ‰ œ œ ‰
œ œ œ
œ ‰
b 8 ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ œ ‰ bœ œ ‰ œ #œ ‰ œ
œ œ
? 3 n œ œœ# œ œ ‰ ‰ œ ‰ ‰ œ ‰ ‰ œ ‰ ≈œ œ œ œ œ
b 8 œ œ œ
Fig. 49: Toccata in F major, mm. 168–76 (BWV 540)
pered temperaments, due to the relatively short note values and the small differ-
ences between the temperaments.
[SOUND EXAMPLES for WERCK, DORF, KLSTADT, GRSTADT, EQ – mm. 168–76]
The mean-tone temperaments on the other hand are much more dissonant in
mm. 173–74. The wolf in VOSCH is exhibited on the last eight-note of m. 173,
while QUARTER and SILB manage better because the wolf lies between Eb and G#
and is, therefore, not exposed here.
[SOUND EXAMPLES for QUARTER, VOSCH, SILB – mm. 168–76]
Table 45: Size of Eb–Bb

Temperament Eb–Bb
QUARTER 696,6
VOSCH 708
SILB 698
WERCK 702
DORF 702
KLSTADT 700
GRSTADT 702
EQ 700
Table 46: Size of Eb–G#

Temperament Eb–G#
QUARTER 462,5
VOSCH 489
SILB 478,5
WERCK 498
DORF 498
KLSTADT 500
GRSTADT 498
EQ 500
118
5.2. Music Examples
All mean-tone temperaments are quite dissonant on the second eight-note of

m. 173 due to the fact that the sounding tone is closer to G# than the actual no-
tated Ab. And m. 174 is, for all the temperaments, quite dissonant due to the di-
minished triad in the upper voices and the major and minor seconds formed
with the pedal G.
173–74]
The well-tempered temperaments underline the harmonic structure with its

growing tension, including the cadence comprising the purest tonic of a well-
tempered temperament, C major. However, the short note values make it difficult
to perceive the tension, underlining the role of musical texture and articulation.
5.2.5 Prelude in E b Major (BWV 552)

The Prelude in Eb major from Clavier-Übung III, is one of Johann Sebastian Bach’s
best known organ compositions. Since the key is Eb major, it pushes the limits of
the historic temperaments, disallowing any wolf-fifths (usually placed between Eb
and G#).
In the manualiter passage starting at m. 40 (see Fig. 50) both Db and Gb occur.
For organ music this is rare, and adds special interest to the question of tempera-
ment. The first entrance of a Db is in m. 44, and for a Gb in m. 45.
Œ ‰ j j j j
b œ œ n œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ n œ œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œj n œj œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
40
&bb C œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ
Œ Œ Œ Œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
? b C Œ œ
bb
j œ nœ œ bœ œ œ œ j
b j j j œ b œ œ œ n œ œ œj œ œ n œ œ œ œ n œ œj œ œ b œ
44
& b b œ nœ œ œœ
œ œ nœ œ Œ Œ œ œ Œ Œ
? b nœ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ nœ œ
bb œ œ
œ nœ œ bœ œ œ œ j
b œ j œ
œ n œ œ œ œ œ œj œ b œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ n œ . œ ˙
47
& b b œ œ nœ œ œ bœ œ bœ œ bœ œ
Œ Œ œ nœ
œ b œ œ
? b œ œ œ nœ œ œ
œ ˙
bb ˙
Fig. 50: Prelude in Eb major, mm. 40–50 (BWV 552)
119
5. The Music
40–50]
As expected, these two notes set the limits for the temperament in this exam-
ple. In this case it is not possible for the performer to ignore them since the Db,
for example, occur in a syncopation and in the outer voices. It seems as Bach did
not want to “hide” them either.
The use of Db as minor third on Bb in mm. 45, 47, and 48 is perhaps the most
obvious example. The tonal content of QUARTER is clearly exceeded, while
VOSCH and SILB are close to the border.
Table 47: Size of Bb–Db

Temperament Bb–Db
QUARTER 269
VOSCH 285,5
SILB 282,5
WERCK 294
DORF 296
KLSTADT 298
GRSTADT 296
EQ 300
45–48]
As a comparison, Gb as minor third on Eb is presented in the table below. Here

we can see that the irregular tempering of the fifths in VOSCH results in a better
compromise between F# and Gb. The intonation of VOSCH is closer to that of the
well-tempered temperaments here than in the case of Bb–Db. The modification of
a mean-tone temperament can considerably change the characteristics of a tem-
perament. A thorough analysis of the effects of such a modification is therefore
important, and shows that a modified mean-tone temperament can in certain
cases show characteristics similar to those of a well-tempered temperament.
Table 48: Size of Eb–Gb

Temperament Eb–Gb
QUARTER 269
VOSCH 290,5
SILB 282,5
WERCK 294
DORF 296
KLSTADT 296
GRSTADT 298
EQ 300
120
5.2. Music Examples
[SOUND EXAMPLES for WERCK, DORF, KLSTADT, GRSTADT, EQ – mm. 45–48]
The well-tempered temperaments have little problem in the same passages.

Since the texture is not dense, and the notes are in the outer voices, it is still pos-
sible to hear a small difference between the temperaments.
5.2.6 Fantasia in G Minor (BWV 542)

The Fantasia (see Fig. 51) is of special interest since it has been claimed that it
was composed in Köthen and prepared for Johann Sebastian Bach’s travel to
Hamburg in 1720, when he applied for the position as organist in the St. Jacobi
church. 276
‰ œ œ nœ œ œ œ bœ œ. j œœ œœ
b Œ Œ
œœn œb œœ œ œœ œ œ n œ œ œ .
œ œ œœ œœ n œœ œœ œ œ‰ œ ‰ #œ
25
bœ œœ
&b c #œ œ œ œ
Œ Œ ‰
b j
&b c Œ ‰ œœ œœ
nœ œ œ œ nœ œ ‰ ‰ œ
œ nœ œ œ
œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ
25
? b c Œ œ œ nœ
b œ œ bœ œ œ œ nœ
œ œ œ œ #œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ j
b œ œ œœœ˙ œ œ
28
œ œœ œœ . œ
& b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ œ œœ œ œ œ #œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ
nœ #œ œ œ œ #œ ≈
n œ
b ? œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ
&b ˙ œ œœœœœ œœœ œœœœœœœ œ œœœ Ó
28
? b œ œ œ œ
b œ œ #œ œ œ œ ˙
nœ œ w
j
31
b œ ˙œ. œ b œ b œw n œ ˙ ˙ b˙ b bœœ ‰ œœj# œ n œ
& b œ n œ # œ œœ œ˙ n œ
œ nœ ˙ nœœ œ œ bw œ bœ nœ nœ ‰ œ œ #œ
Œ Œ œ
œ œ Œ ‰ J #œ n œ œ
œœ bœ nœ b˙ œ
? b ∑ ∑ Œ Ó
b
œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ bœ œ bœ bœ œ œ œ bœ bœ bœ œ j
31
? b bœ œ
b œ bœ œ œ ‰ œ œ #œ
œ
Fig. 51: Fantasia in G minor, mm. 25–35 (BWV 542)
276 See discussion in Williams 1980a: 119f., and Williams 1996: 152f.
121
5. The Music
The use of both Db and C# (mm. 25 and 30) as enharmonically exchangeable

and the modulating passage in mm. 31ff. focuses again on the question of tem-
perament. Since some kind of mean-tone temperament has been suggested for St.
Jacobi, Hamburg, the following sound examples makes it possible to compare
some historically appropriate temperaments.
25–35]
In the first part (mm. 25–31) it is clear that a well-tempered temperament is

needed to facilitate the enharmonic use of, for example, Db and C#. Mean-tone
temperaments are not forgiving when exceeding their tonal content.
The modulating passage, starting in m. 31, illustrates to what extent a tem-
perament allows for modulation.
31–35]
Judging from these sound examples it is difficult to imagine a mean-tone tem-

perament as appropriate for the performance of the Fantasia, if not our experi-
ence of the temperaments today differ substantially from earlier ones. Consider-
ing this circumstantial evidence and the discussion of 1742 about the retuning of
the organ in St. Katharinen, it seems very likely that “the old temperament” then
could refer to a well-tempered temperament.277
5.3. Discussion
For the examples discussed above it is very likely that these compositions were
not conceived for QUARTER. They clearly extend the tonal content of QUARTER.
When it comes to VOSCH and SILB, personal taste becomes a factor in some cas-
es. It is not possible to make a general statement about when or whether some-
thing is too dissonant. When it comes to WERCK and Neidhardt’s temperaments,
except for EQ, it is very difficult to hear a difference, especially in a musical con-
text. With EQ it is a different case. All chords are equal, the tonal content is the
same for all keys, and the temperament can therefore not have a function for the
musical expression other than staying within the more general limits of conso-
nance and dissonance. The temperament can give the music a somewhat flat or
dull appearance.
This tripartite division of temperaments (mean-tone, well-tempered tempera-
ments, equal temperament) can also be traced in the history of temperament.
There has often been a debate about the borders of these groups. Andreas Werck-
122
5.3. Discussion
meister argued heavily against mean-tone promoting his well-tempered tempera-

ment. After Johann Georg Neidhardt had clearly introduced EQ in the discussion
on temperament for keyboard instruments, the debate about the general accep-
tance of EQ grew stronger and stronger. Meanwhile, mean-tone was modified. It
was trying, perhaps, to meet the new demands, but also was keeping something
of the qualities in the pure thirds of 1/4-comma mean-tone. In addition, many
new circulating temperaments were defined and presented in parallel with the
gradual introduction of equal temperament.
The question is not only about suitability. In the example from the B minor
prelude (BWV 544) the question about the musical function of a temperament is
raised. The cadence in m. 7 can be approached basically in two ways: disregard-
ing the temperament’s behavior or integrating it into the interpretation and the
performance. Disregarding it could be done by keeping with the interpretation
that the cadence must represent a tension-release relationship, and therefore try-
ing to minimize the impact of an possible well-tempered temperament by adjust-
ing the articulation. This could mean playing the “release” on F# major short, try-
ing to hide the dissonance or at least to make it less prominent. The other option
would be to see the dissonance as a musical quality, preventing one from inter-
preting the cadence as a “normal” cadence closing a musical line. Instead the dis-
sonance on the F# major could help to keep the musical flow going, extending
# 6
& # 8 œ œ # œ# œ œ # œ œ œ ‰
j #œ œ œ
œ j
? ## 6 # œ ‰ # œœ œœ #œ ‰
8 J ‰ J ‰
œ #œ œ œ
? ## 6 œ . œ.
8
Fig. 52: Prelude in B Minor, m. 33 (BWV 544)
# 6
& # 8 œ œ# œ œ œ œ œ ‰
j œ #œ œ œ
j
? # # 6 œœ ‰ œœ œœ #œ ‰
8 J ‰ ‰
J
? ## 6 . œœœ œ
8 œ œ.
Fig. 53: Prelude in B Minor, m. 64 (BWV 544)
123
5. The Music
the line over m. 7 to the next cadence. Such a prolongation of the phrase would
be indicated with a phrasing-slur in a composition of today. This interpretation is
valid also in the parallel places in mm. 33 (see Fig. 52) and 64 (see Fig. 53), which
indicates that it is not a coincidence in m. 7.
Perhaps the final chord (see Fig. 54) of the prelude is an example of a notation
where Bach tries to minimize the effect of the rather dissonant major third B–D#.
The unconventional notation of the final measure could be a result of the tem-
perament.
# 6 œ œ. œ j
& # 8 # œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ # œœ œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ ‰
œ ‰ J
j
œ œ œœ œ œ #œ
? ## 6 œ ‰ œ œ œ
8 œ ‰ J ‰ ‰ Œ ‰
? ## 6 ‰ œ œ j
8 œ œ œ ‰ ‰ Œ ‰
Fig. 54: Prelude in B Minor, end (BWV 544)
The Toccata in F major (BWV 540) allows to a certain degree the performer to
effect the result of the temperament by making it possible to shorten the articula-
tion of the eight-note chords, on the second and third eight-note. The problem
with the passage in the examples above is the very dense texture. It would have
been desirable to have different plenum registrations to experiment with, espe-
cially in this example. The role of the registration remains unclear and also raises
the question of whether or not it should be based on 16' or 8'.
In the Prelude in Eb major (BWV 552) it is not possible to “hide” the disso-
nances imposed by the temperament. Placing a crucial note on a syncopation
makes this difficult, if not impossible. The option then would be that it is desir-
able to hear that particular note. If this is the case, then the intonation of a tem-
perament has a clear role in creating the soundscape and the affekt, and also
shaping the performance. But, the effect of the temperament is, to a certain de-
gree, mitigated in this example by the thinner texture (manualiter). Even a tem-
perament like DORF is therefore not very dissonant on the notes at the borders of
the tonal content of the temperament (Db and Gb).
The question of modulation is in focus in the Fantasia (BWV 540). It is a good
example of how a well-tempered temperament allows the composer to use dis-
tant keys. It also shows that the enharmonic use of C# and Db is made possible
through the introduction of well-tempered temperaments in the style of Andreas
Werckmeister.
124
5.3. Discussion
Many more examples could have been discussed and analyzed, but the frame
of the present work does not permit investigating all the organ music of J. S.
Bach. Rather, the aim of the present work is to enable a comparison with regard
to temperament. A new methodology had to be developed and tested with these
examples. A general conclusion regarding the effect of temperament is that there
are two main aspects that must be considered: 1) the general suitability of a tem-
perament, and 2) its interpretative implications. If a composition well exceeds
the tonal content of a temperament, it was most likely not conceived in that ton-
al context. If the tonal content is only exceeded in a single, or in only a few in-
stances, it could be considered a musical expression, which has to be evaluated
from case to case. This leads to the second point regarding interpretative implica-
tions. The introduction of well-tempered temperaments and the contemporary
discussion about key characteristics show the importance of the question. A gen-
eral consensus was, and is still, not reached. The reason for this is the character of
the compositional process: it is open to choices. In this it resembles the interpre-
tative process. A composer can make choices with regard to many aspects. Mat-
theson’s list of key characteristics (1713) received some heavy criticism, precisely
because it was too definite or closed. Therefore every composition must be ap-
proached individually, taking into account the freedom of the composer. A com-
position in C major might, or might not, modulate quite far from the tonic key,
which has consequences for the soundscape in a well-tempered temperament.
The examples discussed above have shown that the temperament clearly has
a role for J. S. Bach’s organ music. They should, therefore, be considered to con-
tribute to the discussion about appropriate temperaments, for instance, when
planning restorations or new organ projects. The temperament also contributes
to the musical expression of Bach’s organ music.
125
5. The Music
126
6. Conclusions
The aim of the present work was to enable an organist to compare several tem-
peraments in a musical setting. A new methodology had to be developed, and
based on an investigation of the historical background and context of J. S. Bach’s
organ music with regard to temperament, a comparison of a selection of music
examples was discussed.
The investigation of the sources relevant for J. S. Bach’s organ music showed
that there is a wide range of different temperaments relevant for the musical con-
text. This can partially be explained by the fact that Bach did not stay in just one
place during his lifetime. Consequently, Bach met the different styles of several
regions such as the north, Thuringia, and Saxony. The time was also a time of
transition, when a gradual shift from mean-tone over unequal temperaments to
equal temperament occurred. However, there is no indication in the available
sources that J. S. Bach played on an organ tuned to equal temperament. Further,
there is an agreement between the written sources and the instrument sources
with regard to temperaments presented and used. This indicates that the writings
of theorists were read, and that they, not too long after their publication, were
applied in practice. An exception here seems to be EQ. An example of this is the
case in the chapel in Altenburg. EQ was strongly recommended by J. G.
Neidhardt in 1706, but the introduction of EQ was not as successful, at least not
in the context of Bach’s organ music. This is also clear from the later writings of
Neidhardt where he presented several well-tempered temperaments. This would
not have been necessary if EQ had been adopted by organ builders and musi-
cians. If Andreas Werckmeister can be regarded as the leading figure in the field
of temperament around 1700, Johann Georg Neidhardt can be seen as his succes-
sor as the most important German writer in the field of tuning and temperament
in the first half of the eighteenth century.
Some factors can be used as markers for the general suitability of a tempera-
ment in organ music. One is the tonal content of the music in relation to the ton-
al content of the temperament. Here, 1/4-comma mean-tone is the strictest in this
sense, and does not tolerate overstepping the limits of its tonal content. Adding
127
6. Conclusions
subsemitones to the instrument extends the tonal content, since Eb and D#, for ex-
ample, are not enharmonically interchangeable in 1/4-comma mean-tone. The use
of the dominant seventh is the second important marker, indicating the gradual
entrance of the major-minor tonality. This is well exemplified in the first musical
examples, O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656) and the Canzona (BWV 588).
The appearance and experience of dissonance and consonance is related to
the musical context. It is more difficult to hear the difference between dissonanc-
es in a generally more dissonant context. Consider the third musical example,
the Prelude in B minor (BWV 544). Why are mean-tone temperaments so intoler-
ant to dissonances? It is the pure, or nearly pure, thirds that make the dissonanc-
es stand out in an stark way. The uniformity of equal temperament results in the
opposite. The relatively dissonant thirds of EQ are not experienced as such, since
all the thirds are equally impure. An example of the latter is the first musical ex-
ample O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656).
A temperament can also have interpretative consequences, affecting the artic-
ulation and phrasing in the music. Examples of that are the Prelude in B minor
(BWV 544), the Prelude in Eb major (BWV 552), and the Toccata in F major (BWV
540).
The role of different musical textures can be seen in the Toccata in F major
(BWV 540) and the Prelude in Eb major (BWV 552). A dense texture does not nec-
essarily mean a thick and full sound and stronger dissonances, if only the nota-
tion permits a lighter articulation (BWV 540). A thin texture, on the other hand,
can through the notation (syncopation) emphasize the effect of a temperament
(BWV 552).
Andreas Werckmeister stated in the title of Musicalische Temperatur (1691) that
in his temperament “all modi ficti, can be used to make a pleasant and tolerable
harmony”. 278 An example of this is the Fantasia in G minor (BWV 542), where
the modulations demand a well-tempered temperament that allows modulations
into distant keys.
The characteristics of a temperament can influence a performance, both with
regard to choice of repertoire with a certain instrument and temperament in
mind, but also with regard to choices of interpretative character, which can be
compared to using historical sources on registration practice when preparing a
registration. A style sheet for integrating the aspect of temperament in interpreta-
tion can be outlined and further subdivided as follows:
1) understanding the construction of temperament
• how are the fifths tempered?
• is there a wolf?
• which intervals/keys have the best/poorest intonation?
278 Werckmeister 1691, title page. See above, p. 25.
128
5.3. Discussion
2) observing the historical context of the music with regard to both written
sources and instruments,
• what historical temperaments are described in the sources?
• what historical temperaments are used in organs?
3) analysing the composition from the perspective of temperament
• does the music exceed the tonal content of the temperament?
• is any harmonic/melodic material affected by the temperament?
4) interpretative decisions with regard to articulation, phrasing, choice of tempo,
registration, etc.
• mitigate or emphasize the effect of the temperament trough articulation,
phrasing, choice of tempo and registration.
Finally, one could also argue that interpretative decisions based on such an
approach could influence a performance without a historical soundscape. Per-
forming the Prelude in B minor (BWV 544) on a modern (or historical) instru-
ment tuned to equal temperament could well integrate a phrasing of m. 7 (and
mm. 33, 64) based on the interpretation that the temperament suggests a less
prominent cadence and instead a continuation of the musical flow. In the same
way, an organist can respect a historical registration indication asking for a cer-
tain reed, by using any available reed even if it is far from the original.
Two general conclusions can be made. First, every single piece has to be ap-
proached individually with regard to temperament, since the choices and modu-
lations made by the composer can result in very different tonal soundscapes.
Therefore, a general list of key characteristics like Johann Mattheson’s of 1713
cannot be presented. Secondly, the best recommendation with regard to temper-
ament for the organ works of J. S. Bach is a historical one. The four tempera-
ments defined by Johann Georg Neidhardt are a perfect solution, obviously born
out of practical experience, providing a solution for the various needs in different
contexts. If the organ frequently is to be used together with an orchestra, a flexi-
ble temperament with regard to transpositions is desirable. Here the tempera-
ments for the court and for a large city are appropriate, providing smaller differ-
ences between the keys. On the other hand, the temperaments for a village and a
small city provide purer intonation in keys more often used, and are also acousti-
cally rewarding for the organ sound. The key signatures used in J. S. Bach’s organ
works, never exceeding four accidentals, fit well within the boundaries of such
temperaments.
My personal opinion is that temperament primarily affects the choice of tem-
po because it tends to put a focus on details in the intonation. This is more prev-
alent in music written with more accidentals, such as the Prelude in Eb major
(BWV 552). The expressiveness of the Db and Gb is easily lost if a tempo and char-
acter is chosen that does not allow them to be heard. Choosing a more majestic
129
6. Conclusions
rather than festive tempo would better incorporate the aspect of intonation in
the performance.
Cadenza
At first, it might seem that the present work is quite far from music, occupied as
it is with computers and numbers. But, if we return to medieval times, we would
study at a university according to the seven liberal arts. These are grouped into
quadrivium and trivium (4+3). The quadrivium consists of arithmetic, music, geom-
etry, and, astronomy. The trivium consists of grammar, rhetoric, and, logic.279
Music was seen as a numerical art side by side with arithmetic, geometry, and,
astronomy. The present work fits more comfortably into this medieval perspec-
tive. Perhaps we are returning to a situation where we have to reevaluate our
view of music as a part of the humanities, or perhaps we need to loosen up our
categorizations. Today interdisciplinary research is again in fashion, and the
present work can be seen as an attempt within musicology to answer a musical
question with the help of acoustics and digital technology.
We have also touched upon the thorny question of interpretation. When try-
ing to reach an historically informed performance, one encounters some dangers.
An analysis must be interpreted and result in something; in this case, a perfor-
mance based on choices governed by the knowledge achieved through the analy-
sis. Otherwise the analysis is made for its own sake, an effort with little value. It
would be like the child who took its toy apart (deconstruction) and could not put
it back together (reconstruction), resulting in nothing but a pile of parts rather
than a toy to play with. The result of the reconstruction will naturally always be
subject to discussion.
But, even though the interpreters cannot decide which interpretation is the privileged
one, they can agree on the fact that certain interpretations are not contextually legiti-
mated. 280
279 Butt 1994: xiii.

280 Eco 1990: 41.
130
Appendix A –
Introduction to
Temperament
The question of temperament is crucial for keyboard instruments with fixed into-
nation (keys) in general, and particularly in the organ due to its sound produc-
tion. Several excellent books and articles have been written on the subject.281 For
the present work this can serve as a short introduction.
There are two factors that serve as points of departure: the laws of acoustics,
and the musical scale in our western tradition. A pure interval, an interval with-
out beats, can be described in simple ratios: 2:1 for the octave, 3:2 for the fifth,
and 5:4 for the major third. These ratios correspond to the harmonic overtones
of for example a flue pipe. A small deviation from this in one of the frequen-
cies/tones will result in beats, as a result of interference between the overtones of
the two tones. This phenomenon is used to tune musical instruments such as the
organ. Today the most common way to represent intervals is the logarithmic sys-
tem introduced by Alexander J. Ellis around 1880,282 where an octave equals
1200 cent (1 cent = 1200√2). The cent-value (C) for an interval (i) can be calculat-
ed with the following formula: C= 1200 log i/log 2. Without decimals the pure
fifth (3:2) is 702 cents.
In our western tradition, the octave is divided into twelve tones.283 If we use
the ratio 3:2 for the fifth and 2:1 for the octave, 12 fifths ((3:2)^12) does not
equal seven octaves ((2:1)^7). The difference between 12 pure fifths and seven oc-
taves is ca. 24 cents (the Pythagorean comma), while the difference between 4
pure fifths and, an octave and a pure major third is ca. 22 cents (the syntonic
comma). A temperament is basically a division of this excess: the comma
(Pythagorean or syntonic comma), between the fifths. The equal temperament
distributes the difference equally over all twelve fifths.
The chromatic scale can be defined through a chain of fifths (transposed
down an octave when necessary). Consequently, the distance between two tones
281 For example Padgham 1986 and Kent 1998. A good pedagogical tool is also Pierre Lewis’ Java-
Tuner at <http://pages.globetrotter.net/roule/accord.htm> (2002-07-24).
282 <www.grovemusic.com>, s.v. interval.
283 Here we distinguish between the tone (sounding) and a note (written in a score).
131
Appendix A – Introduction to Temperament
can be different in different temperaments, depending on how the fifths are tem-
pered. It is only the octave which always is a pure (not tempered) interval. The
1/4 syntonic comma mean-tone temperament consists of eleven tempered
fifths, 284 which results in a twelfth fifth which is so large that it is unusable as a
fifth (ca. 738 cents) – the wolf. Temperaments with fifths tempered equally are
also called regular.
The chain of four fifths (C–G–D–A–E) defines the major third (C–E) above the
tone of departure. In the 1/4 syntonic comma mean-tone, the major third is pure
(386 cents). This gives eight pure thirds. To increase the number of usable major
thirds one has to incorporate subsemitones since a G# (major third on E) is not
usable as Ab for the major third Ab–C. This means splitting a key into two parts,
allowing both a G# and an Ab.
Towards the end of the seventeenth century Andreas Werckmeister defined
his well-known “No. III,” which is a so-called well-tempered tuning (tempera-
ment). In a well-tempered tuning, the fifths are usually of two, or more, types.
They can be tempered in different ways, or pure. In Werckmeister III the fifths C–
G, G–D, D–A, and B–F# are tempered by a 1/4 Pythagorean comma. The rest of
the fifths are pure. This gives no pure intervals in the scale, except for the octave,
but all intervals are usable (the wolf is domesticated). The different sizes of the
major thirds give every key a different definition when it comes to the size of the
intervals in the scale. This was one of the causes for theorists assigning different
characteristics to different keys.285 Because there is no wolf-fifth in these temper-
aments, they are also called circulating (or closed) temperaments, or well-tem-
pered temperaments since they allow the transposition through the circle of
fifths.
284 This is in a sense an equal temperament. All fifths, except for the wolf which is a result of the other
tempered fifths, is equally tempered.
285 See Steblin 1981 for a history of key characteristics.
132
Appendix B –
Digital Sound
A tone is pressure waves propagating through the air. The wave has amplitude
(loudness) and frequency (pitch). When we record a sound, we convert this
movement-energy recorded with the microphone into electrical energy (ADC –
Analog Digital Converter). This can be stored magnetically on tapes, or one can
convert it into digital data. Through the speakers, the information is converted
back into pressure waves (DAC – Digital Analog Converter). The words analog
and digital are key words, and understanding them is important for understand-
ing digital sound.
Comparing a normal thermometer with a digital helps to explain the differ-
ence. The mercury in a normal thermometer follows the changes in temperature.
If the change is 0,01°C the mercury moves accordingly. For a digital thermometer
the problem is that the scale is divided into steps. If the thermometer has a preci-
sion of 0,5°C it can only show differences of this size, and consequently it will
not change its display until the threshold is reached. Another example is analog
and digital watches. If an analog watch has a second hand moving in steps of a
second this is sufficient for everyday use, but not if we want to time a 100-meter
run. Then we need to be able to measure down to a hundredth of a second. We
need better precision, or resolution. Time is quantized into respectively chosen
increments – minutes or seconds. This means that an exact position in time, with
adequate precision for the purpose, can be described with a number – a momen-
tary value.
In the computer we use the binary notation to represent numbers. A comput-
er can only interpret two positions – on or off (like a light switch). Numbers or
letters are represented by using a system based on eight “switches” that can be ei-
ther on or off. This is called a byte, with eight bits (binary digit). 00000000
means zero, and 00000001 means one. 00000010 means two since this system is
binary and moving to the next position doubles the value. In the decimal system
moving a position increases the value ten times – 10 and 100. The on-position
for the eight positions gives this row: 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, and 1.
Digitalizing sound means that we have to quantize two dimensions – sound
133
Appendix B – Digital Sound
pressure (loudness) and frequency (pitch) – and represent them in numbers. With
the Compact Disc some standards were set for the equipment used. The sample
frequency should cover the audible range of ca 20–20000 Hz and is set to
44100Hz (or 48000). 286 The dynamic range (96dB, in increments of 6dB) is de-
scribed in 16 bits (24 and 32 bit-technology is already in use, increasing the pre-
cision).
One of the benefits of digital sound is that it can be copied several times with-
out loss of quality. It also gives new possibilities to manipulate sound, as the
present work shows. With the computer revolution during the 90’s, and the
hardware prices going down, the digital technique is made available to everyone.
Now a private person can afford a fast computer with a good soundcard and soft-
ware for editing the music.
286 The sample frequency has to be 2 times the sounding frequency according to Nyqvist’s law.
134
Appendix C –
Neidhardt’s
Temperaments
(1732)
Neidhardt 1732 – Erste Art

1 (Equal temperament) 2 3 4
Fifths Beats Fifths Beats Fifths Beats Fifths Beats
c:g 1 c:g 2 c:g 0 c:g 3
g:d 1 g:d -2 g:d 2 g:d 0
d:a 1 d:a 2 d:a 0 d:a 0
a:e 1 a:e 2 a:e 2 a:e 3
e:h 1 e:h 2 e:h 0 e:h 0
h:fs 1 h:fs -2 h:fs 2 h:fs 0
fs:cs 1 fs:cs 2 fs:cs 0 fs:cs 3
cs:gs 1 cs:gs 2 cs:gs 2 cs:gs 0
gs:ds 1 gs:ds 2 gs:ds 0 gs:ds 0
ds:b 1 ds:b -2 ds:b 2 ds:b 3
b:f 1 b:f 2 b:f 0 b:f 0
f:c 1 f:c 2 f:c 2 f:c 0
12 12 12 12
5 6 7 8 (Large city)
c:g 1 c:g 1 c:g 3 c:g 2
g:d 1 g:d 3 g:d 2 g:d 2
d:a 2 d:a -1 d:a 2 d:a 2
a:e -1 a:e 1 a:e -3 a:e 1
e:h 1 e:h 3 e:h 2 e:h 0
h:fs 2 h:fs -1 h:fs 2 h:fs 1
cs:gs 1 cs:gs 3 cs:gs -2 cs:gs 1
gs:ds 2 gs:ds -1 gs:ds 2 gs:ds 0
ds:b -1 ds:b 1 ds:b 2 ds:b 0
b:f 1 b:f 3 b:f 2 b:f 1
f:c 2 f:c -1 f:c -2 f:c 1
12 12 12 12
135
Appendix C – Neidhardt’s Temperaments (1732)
9 10 11 12
c:g 1 c:g 3 c:g 1 c:g 1
g:d 3 g:d 0 g:d 2 g:d 2
d:a 0 d:a 3 d:a 3 d:a 0
a:e 0 a:e 2 a:e 1 a:e 3
e:h 1 e:h 0 e:h -1 e:h 0
h:fs 3 h:fs 0 h:fs 1 h:fs 0
cs:gs 0 cs:gs 0 cs:gs -1 cs:gs 2
gs:ds 1 gs:ds 0 gs:ds 3 gs:ds 0
ds:b 3 ds:b 2 ds:b 1 ds:b 3
b:f 0 b:f 0 b:f -1 b:f 0
f:c 0 f:c 0 f:c 1 f:c 0
12 12 12 12
Neidhardt 1732 – Andre Art

1 (A village) 2 (Small city) 3 4 5
Fifths Beats Fifths Beats Fifths Beats Fifths Beats Fifths Beats
c:g 1 c:g 2 c:g 2 c:g 2 c:g 1
g:d 2 g:d 2 g:d 2 g:d 2 g:d 1
d:a 3 d:a 2 d:a 1 d:a 2 d:a 1
a:e 3 a:e 2 a:e 2 a:e 0 a:e 2
e:h 0 e:h 1 e:h 2 e:h 2 e:h 1
h:fs 1 h:fs 1 h:fs -2 h:fs 0 h:fs 1
fs:cs 0 fs:cs 0 fs:cs 2 fs:cs 1 fs:cs 0
cs:gs 1 cs:gs 0 cs:gs 1 cs:gs 1 cs:gs 1
gs:ds 0 gs:ds 1 gs:ds 1 gs:ds 1 gs:ds 1
ds:b 0 ds:b 1 ds:b -2 ds:b -1 ds:b 1
b:f 1 b:f 0 b:f 2 b:f 2 b:f 0
f:c 0 f:c 0 f:c 1 f:c 0 f:c 2
12 12 12 12 12
136
Appendix D –
Index of CD
Sound examples
BWV 540
540DORF.aif
540EQ.aif
540GRSTADT.aif
540KLSTADT.aif
540QUARTER.aif
540VOSCH.aif
540WERCK.aif
BWV 542
542DORF.aif
542EQ.aif
542GRSTADT.aif
542KLSTADT.aif
542QUARTER.aif
542SILB.aif
542WERCK.aif
542VOSCH.aif
BWV 544
544DORF.aif
544EQ.aif
544GRSTADT.aif
544KLSTADT.aif
544QUARTER.aif
544SILB.aif
544WERCK.aif
544VOSCH.aif
137
Appendix D – Index of CD
BWV 552
552DORF.aif
552EQ.aif
552GRSTADT.aif
552KLSTADT.aif
552QUARTER.aif
552SILB.aif
552WERCK.aif
552VOSCH.aif
BWV 588
588DORF.aif
588EQ.aif
588GRSTADT.aif
588KLSTADT.aif
588QUARTER.aif
588SILB.aif
588WERCK.aif
588VOSCH.aif
BWV 656
656DORF.aif
656EQ.aif
656GRSTADT.aif
656KLSTADT.aif
656QUARTER.aif
656SILB.aif
656WERCK.aif
656VOSCH.aif
Other material
Tuning & temperament bibliography
138
Bibliography
Primary sources
Adlung 1758 Jakob Adlung. Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit, Erfurt 1758.
Facsimile. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1953.
Adlung 1768 Jakob Adlung. Musica Mechanica Organoedi, vol. i-ii, Berlin 1768.
Bach 1753/62 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu
spielen, Berlin, part i 1753, part ii 1762. Facsimile. Leipzig: Breitkopf
& Härtel, 1957.
Bendeler 1690 Johann Philipp Bendeler. Organopoeia, Franckfurt and Leipzig, ca
1690. Facsimile. Amsterdam: Frits Knuf, 1972.
Buttstett 1716 Johann Heinrich Buttstett. Ut, mi, sol, re, fa, la, Tota Musica et
Harmonia Aeterna, Erfurt s.a. (1716 according to Friedrich Blume in
MGG).
Heinichen 1728 Johann David Heinichen. Der Generalbaß in der Komposition, Dresden
1728. Facsimile. Hildesheim: Olms, 1994.
Hülphers 1773 Abraham Abrahamsson Hülphers. Historisk Afhandling om Musik och
Instrumenter, Westerås 1773. Facsimile. Stockholm: Svenskt
musikhistoriskt arkiv, 1969.
Janowka 1701 Thomas Balthasar Janowka. Clavis ad Thesaurum Magnæ Artis
Musicæ, Prag 1701. Facsimile. Amsterdam: Frits Knuf, 1973.
Kircher 1662 Athanasius Kircher. Musurgia Universalis, Schwäbisch-Hall 1662
(German translation of the 1650 latin version). Facsimile. Kassel:
Bärenreiter, 1988.
Kuhnau 1700/1710 Johann Kuhnau. Musicalische Vorstellung einiger Biblischer Historien,
Leipzig 1700/1710. Facsimile. Leipzig: Peters, 1973.
Kuhnau 1703 Johann Kuhnau. Fundamenta compositionis, Ms, Staatsbibliothek zu
Berlin, Germany. (1703 according to MGG.)
Marpurg 1759 Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg. Kritische Einleitung in die Geschichte und
Lehrsätze der alten und neuen Musik. Facsimile. Laaber: Laaber-Verlag,
1980.
Mattheson 1713 Johann Mattheson. Das Neu=Eröffnete Orchestre, Hamburg 1713.
Facsimile. Hildesheim: Olms, 21997.
Mattheson 1722 Johann Mattheson. Critica Musica, Hamburg 1722/1725. Facsimile.
Amsterdam: Frits A. M. Knuf, 1964.
Mattheson 1731 Johann Mattheson. Grosse General=Baß=Schule, Hamburg 1731.
Facsimile. Hildesheim: Olms, 1994.
139
Bibliography
Mattheson 1739 Johann Mattheson. Der Vollkommene Capellmeister, Hamburg 1739.

Mizler 1739/43/52/54 Lorenz Christoph Mizler. Neu eröffnete musikalische Bibliothek oder
Gründliche Nachricht nebst unpartheyischem Urtheil von musikalischen
Schriften und Büchern, vol. i, Leipzig, 1739 (part 1, 1736, parts 2–
3,1737, parts 4–6, 1738); vol. ii, Leipzig, 1743 (parts 1–2, 1740, part
3, 1742, part 4, 1743); vol iii, Leipzig, 1752, (parts 1–2, 1746, part
3, 1747, part 4, 1752); vol iv, Leipzig, 1754. Facsimile in three
volumes. Hilversum: Frits Knuf, 1966.
Neidhardt (s. a.) Johann Georg Neidhardt. Compositio harmonica problematice tradita,
MS Lit. G. Nr 1, Lund University Library, Sweden.
Neidhardt 1706 Johann Georg Neidhardt. Beste und leichteste Temperatur, Jena 1706.
Neidhardt 1724 Johann Georg Neidhardt. Sectio canonis harmonici, Königsberg 1724.
Neidhardt 1732 Johann Georg Neidhardt. Gäntzlich erschöpfte Mathematische
Abtheilungen, Königsberg 1732.
Niedt 1710 Friedrich Erhardt Niedt. Musicalische Handleitung, Erster Theil, 2nd
edition Hamburg 1710. Facsimile. Buren: Frits Knuf, 1976.
Niedt 1717 Friedrich Erhardt Niedt. Musicalische Handleitung, Dritter Theil, ed.
Johann Mattheson, Hamburg 1717. Facsimile. Buren: Frits Knuf,
1976.
Niedt 1721 Friedrich Erhardt Niedt. Musicalische Handleitung, Anderer Theil, ed.
Johann Mattheson, 2nd edition Hamburg 1721. Facsimile. Buren:
Frits Knuf, 1976.
Praetorius 1619a Michael Praetorius. Syntagma Musicum: De Organographia, vol ii,
Wolffenbüttel 1619. Facsimile. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1929.
Praetorius 1619b Michael Praetorius. Syntagma Musicum: Termini Musici, vol iii,
Wolffenbüttel 1619. Facsimile. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1967.
Printz 1696 Wolffgang Caspar Printz. Phrynis Mitlinaeus, oder Satyrischer
Componist, Dresden and Leipzig 1696.
Sinn 1717 Christoph Albert Sinn. Temperatura Practica, Wernigerode 1717.
Facsimile. Michaelstein: Kultur- und Forschungsstätte Michaelstein,
1988.
Sorge 1744 Georg Andreas Sorge. Anweisung zur Stimmung und Temperatur
sowohl der Orgelwerke, als auch anderer Instrumente, sonderlich aber
des Claviers, Hamburg 1744.
Sorge 1748 Georg Andreas Sorge. Gespräch zwischen einem Musico theoretico und
einem Studioso musices, Lobenstein 1748.
Spiess 1746 Meinrad Spiess. Tractatus musicus compositorio-practicus. Das ist
Musichalischer Tractat..., Augsburg 1746 (translation from Latin).
Trost 1677 Johann Caspar Trost Jr. Ausführliche Beschreibung deß neuen
Orgelwercks Auf der Augustus=Burg zu Weißenfels, Nürnberg 1677
(Mus Ms Mus pr 80 Mus th 3408).
Walther 1708 Johann Gottfried Walther. Praecepta der Musicalischen Composition.
Transcribed reprint of MS. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1955.
Walther 1732 Johann Gottfried Walther. Musicalisches Lexicon, Leipzig 1732.
Werckmeister 1681 Andreas Werckmeister. Orgel-Probe, Quedlinburg 1681.
Werckmeister 1691 Andreas Werckmeister. Musicalische Temperatur, Quedlinburg 1691.
Facsimile. Utrecht: The Diapason Press, 1983.
Werckmeister 1697 Andreas Werckmeister. Hypomnemata Musica, Quedlimburg 1697.
Facsimile. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970.
140
Secondary literature
Werckmeister 1698a Andreas Werckmeister. Erweiterte und verbesserte Orgel-Probe,

Quedlinburg 1698. Facsimile. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970.
Werckmeister 1698b Andreas Werckmeister. Die Nothwendigsten Anmerckungen und
Regeln wie der Bassus Continuus oder General=Baß wol könne tractiret
werden, Aschersleben 1698. Facsimile. Michaelstein: Kultur- und
Forschungsstätte Michaelstein, 1985.
Werckmeister 1700 Andreas Werckmeister. Cribrum Musicum, Quedliburg 1700.
Werckmeister 1702 Andreas Werckmeister. Harmonologia Musica, Quedlinburg 1702.
Werckmeister 1705 Andreas Werckmeister. Organum Gruningense Redivivum,
Quedlinburg 1705.
Werckmeister 1707 Andreas Werckmeister. Musicalische Paradoxal-Discourse, Quedliburg
1707. Facsimile. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970.
Ahrend 1995 Jürgen Ahrend. ”Die Restaurierung der Arp Schnitger-Orgel von St.
Jacobi in Hamburg” (edited by Günter Lade, with a contribution by
Cornelius H. Edskes), in Die Arp Schnitger-Orgel der Hauptkirche St.
Jacobi in Hamburg, edited by H. Reinitzer, 127–265. Hamburg:
Christians Verlag, 1995.
Andersen 1955 Poul-Gerhard Andersen. Orgelbogen. Klangteknik, arkitektur og
historie. København: Munksgaard, 1955.
Arlt 1983 Wulf Arlt. “Zur Handhabung der ‘inventio’ in der deutschen
Musiklehre des frühen achtzehnten Jahrhunderts”, in New Mattheson
Studies, edited by G. J. Buelow and H. J. Marx, 371–91. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Barbour 1951 John Murray Barbour. Tuning and temperament. Michigan 1951.
Barnes 1979 John Barnes. “Bach’s Keyboard Temperament. Internal Evidence
from the Well-Tempered Clavier”. Early Music 7, no. 2 (1979): 236–
249.
Bartel 1985 Dietrich Bartel. Handbuch der musikalischen Figurenlehre. Laaber:
Laaber-Verlag, 1985.
Behrens 1988 Michael Behrens. ”Nachwort”, in Christoph Albert Sinn: Temperatura
Practica, Wernigerode 1717. Michaelstein: Kultur- und
Forschungsstätte Michaelstein, 1988.
Belotti 1995 Michael Belotti. Die freien Orgelwerke Dietrich Buxtehudes,
Überlieferungsgeschichtliche und stilkritische Studien. Frankfurt am
Main: Peter Lang, 1995.
Benade 1990 Arthur H. Benade. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York:
Dover, 21990.
Bicknell 2000 Stephen Bicknell. “J. S. Bach and the Organ – Some Neglected
Threads”, lecture read at the International Organ Festival at St.
Albans 2nd December 2000 [www]. <http://www.organfocus.com/
features/scholarly_works/bicknell.php3> (2002-07-24).
Blanchard 1985 Homer D. Blanchard. The Bach Organ Book. Delaware: The Praestant
Press, 1985.
141
Bibliography
Bonds 1991 Mark Evan Bonds. Wordless Rhetoric. Musical Form and the Metaphor
of the Oration. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991.
Boyd 1983 Malcolm Boyd. Bach. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 (reprint
of the second edition 1990 with corrections).
Braun 1999 Werner Braun. “Ein unbekanntes Orgelbau-Attestat von Johann
Sebastian Bach”, Bach-Jahrbuch 85 (1999): 19–33.
Brett 1988 Philipp Brett. “Text, Context, and the Early Music Editor”, in
Authenticity and Early Music, edited by N. Kenyon. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1988.
Bruhin 1970 Rudolf Bruhin. ”Nachwort” in Johann Philipp Bendeler: Organopoeia,
Franckfurt and Leipzig, ca 1690. Facsimile. Amsterdam: Frits Knuf,
1972.
Buelow 1983 George J. Buelow. “Johann Mattheson and the Invention of the
Affektenlehre”, in New Mattheson Studies, edited by G. J. Buelow and
H. J. Marx, 393–407. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Busch 1995 Hermann J. Busch. ”Orgeln um Johann Sebastian Bach”, in Zur
Interpretation der Orgelmusik Joh. Seb. Bachs, edited by E. Kooiman,
G. Weinberger, and H. J. Busch, p. 119–140. Kassel: Merseburger,
1995.
Butler 1983 Gregory G. Butler. “Der Vollkommene Capellmeister as a Stimulus to
J. S. Bach’s Late Fugal Writing”, in New Mattheson Studies, edited by
G. J. Buelow and H. J. Marx, 293–305. Cambridge: Cambridge
Butt 1994 John Butt. Music Education and the Art of Perfomance in the German
Baroque. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Butt 1997a Johan Butt. “Bach’s Metaphysics of Music”, in The Cambridge
Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt, 46–59. Cambridge: Cambridge
Butt 1997b John Butt. “‘A Mind Unconscious that It is Calculating’? Bach and the
Rationalist Philosophy of Wolff, Leibniz and Spinoza”, in The
Cambridge Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt, 60–71. Cambridge:
Cannon 1983 Beekman C. Cannon. “Johann Mattheson’s ‘Inquiring Composer’”,
in New Mattheson Studies, edited by G. J. Buelow and H. J. Marx,
125–168. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Chiapusso 1980 Jan Chiapusso. Bach’s World. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1980.
Christensen 1998 Thomas Christensen. “Bach among the Theorists”, in Bach
Perspectives, Vol. 3, Creative Responses to Bach from Mozart to
Hindemith, edited by M. Marissen, 23–46. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 1998.
Cook 1999 Perry R. Cook, ed. Music, Cognition, and Computerized Sound. An
Introduction to Psychoacoustics. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press,
1999.
Cortum 1928 Theodor Cortum. Die Orgelwerke der Evangelisch=lutherischen Kirche
im Hamburgischen Staate. Ein Bestands= und Prüfungsbericht aus dem
Jahr 1925. Kassel: Bärenreiter Verlag, 1928.
Crist 1997 Stephen A. Crist. “The Early Works and the Heritage of the
Seventeenth Century“, in The Cambridge Companion to Bach, edited
by J. Butt, 75–85. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Damman 1967 Rolf Damman. Der Musikbegriff im Deutschen Barock. Laaber: Laaber
Verlag, 31995.
David 1951 Werner David. Johann Sebastian Bach’s Orgeln. Berlin 1951.
142
David et al. 1998 The New Bach Reader: a Life of Johann Sebastian Bach in Letters and
Documents, edited by Hans T. David and Arthur Mendel; revised and
enlarged by Christoph Wolff. New York: W.W. Norton & Company,
1998.
Davidsson 1991 Hans Davidsson. Matthias Weckmann: the Interpretation of his Organ
Music, Volume I. Stockholm: Gehrmans Musikförlag AB, 1991.
Daw 1997 Stephen Daw. “Bach as Teacher and Model”, in The Cambridge
Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt, 195–202. Cambridge:
Dreyfus 1997a Laurence Dreyfus. Bach and the Patterns of Invention. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Dreyfus 1997b Laurence Dreyfus. “Bachian Invention and its Mechanism”, in The
Cambridge Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt, 171–192.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Dähnert 1962 Ulrich Dähnert. Der Orgel- und Instrumentenbauer Zacharias
Hildebrandt. Sein Verhältnis zu Gottfried Silbermann und Johann
Sebastian Bach. Leipzig: VEB Breitkopf & Härtel, 1962.
Dähnert 1980 Ulrich Dähnert. Historische Orgeln in Sachsen. Ein Orgelinventar.
Frankfurt am Main: Verlag das Musikinstrument, 1980.
Dähnert 1983 Ulrich Dähnert. “Bach-Orgeln in Thüringen und Sachsen”, in Johann
Sebastian Bach. Lebendiges Erbe, Beiträge zur Bachplege der DDR,
Heft 11. Leipzig: Nationale Forschungs- und Gedenkstätten, 1983.
Dähnert 1986 Ulrich Dähnert. “Organs Played and Tested by J.S. Bach”, in J. S. Bach
as Organist, His Instruments, Music, and Performance Practices, edited
by G. Stauffer and E. May, 3–24. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1986.
Dähnert 1988 Ulrich Dähnert. “Temperatur der Trost-Orgel in der Altenburger
Schloßkirche”, Acta Organologica 20 (1988): 383–386.
Eco 1990 Umberto Eco. The Limits of Interpretation. Bloomington: Indiana
Edskes 1996 Cornelius H. Edskes. ”Über die Stimmtonhöhe und Temperatur der
Arp Schnitger-Orgel von St. Jacobi in Hamburg”, in Cornelius H.
Edskes, Doctor Honoris Causa: Publication in Honor of Cornelius H.
Edskes, 19–42. Göteborg: Göteborg University, 1996.
Edwards 1991 Lynn Edwards. “The Thuringian Organ 1702–1720: ‘…ein
wohlgerathenes gravitätisches Werk’”, The Organ Yearbook 22
(1991): 119–139.
Eggebrecht 1991 Hans-Heinrich Eggebrecht. Musik in Abendland, Prozesse und
Stationen vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. München: Piper, 1991.
Ekström 1996 Lars Ekström. Stora midiboken. Stockholm: Warner/Chappel Music
Scandinavia AB, 1996.
Eldénius 1998 Magnus Eldénius. Formalised Composition, on the Spectral and Fractal
Trails. Göteborg: Göteborg University, 1998.
Fahnestock 1996 Jeanne Fahnestock. “Arrangement”, in Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and
Composition, Communication from Ancient Times to the Information
Age. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996.
Faulkner 1984 Quentin Faulkner. J. S. Bach’s Keyboard Technique, A Historical
Introduction. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1984.
Fellinger 1983 Imogen Fellinger. “Mattheson als Begründer der ersten
Musikzeitschrift (Critica Musica)”, in New Mattheson Studies, edited
by G. J. Buelow and H. J. Marx, 179–197. Cambridge: Cambridge
143
Bibliography
Fock 1974 Gustav Fock. Arp Schnitger und seine Schule. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte
des Orgelbaues im Nord- und Ostseeküstengebiet. Kassel: Bärenreiter,
1974.
Fock 1997 Gustav Fock. Hamburg’s Role in Northern European Organ Building,
edited and translated by L. Edwards and E. C. Pepe. Easthampton,
Mass.: Westfield Center of Keyboard Studies, 1997.
Forchert 1987 Arno Forchert. “Bach und die Tradition der Rhetorik”, in Alte Musik
als ästhetische Gegenwart: Bach, Händel, Schütz; Bericht über den
internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongreß Stuttgart 1985, Band
1, 169–178. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1987.
Forsblom 1957 Enzio Forsblom. Studier över stiltrohet och subjektivitet i J. S. Bachs
orgelkompositioner. Åbo: Åbo Akademi, 1957.
Forsblom 1985 Enzio Forsblom. Mimesis – På spaning efter affektuttryck i Bachs
orgelverk. Helsingfors: Sibelius-Akademins publikationsserie, 1985.
Friedrich 1983 Felix Friedrich. “Johann Sebastian Bach und die Trost-Orgel zu
Altenburg. Bemerkungen zur Problematik der ‘Bach-Orgel’”, Bach-
Jahrbuch, 60 (1983): 101–107.
Friedrich 1989 Felix Friedrich. Der Orgelbauer Heinrich Gottfried Trost. Leben – Werk –
Leistung. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1989.
Friedrich 2000 Felix Friedrich. ”Leben und Werke von Zacharias und Johann
Gottfried Hildebrandt”, in Die Hildebrandt-Orgel zu Naumburg, St.
Wenzel. Festschrift anlässlich der wiedereinweihung nach vollendeter
Restaurierung am 3. Dezember 2000, 12–20. Naumburg 2000.
Friedrich 2001 Felix Friedrich. “Christian förner und die Orgel der Schlosskirche zu
Weißenfels”, Acta Organologica, 27 (2001): 21–108.
Gernhardt 1977 Klaus Gernhardt. ”Die wichtigsten Stimmungsarten der Bach-Zeit,
ihre praktische Durchführung und ihr musikalischer Wert – aus der
Sicht des Musikinstrumenten-Restaurators”, in Bericht über die
Wissenschaftliche Konferenz zum III. Internationalen Bach-Fest der DDR,
Leipzig, 18./19. September 1975, 355–360. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher
Verlag für Musik, 1977.
Godlovitch 1998 Stan Godlovitch. Musical Performance: a Philosophical Study. London:
Routledge, 1998.
Goens 1984 Jan Goens. “Bach auf der mitteltönigen Orgel”, Ars Organi 32, no. 3
(1984): 153–157.
Greß 1989 Frank-Harald Greß. Die Klanggestalt der Orgeln Gottfried Silbermanns,
Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1989.
Greß 2001a Frank-Harald Greß. Die Orgeln Gottfried Silbermanns, Dresden: Michel
Sandstein Verlag, 2001.
Greulich 2000 Irene Greulich. ”Die Hildebrandt-Orgel in der St. Wenzelskirche zu
Naumburg”, in Die Hildebrandt-Orgel zu Naumburg, St. Wenzel.
Festschrift anlässlich der Wiedereinweihung nach vollendeter
Restaurierung am 3. Dezember 2000, 21–26. Naumburg, 2000.
Hall 1980 Donald E. Hall. Musical Acoustics. An Introduction. Belmont:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1980.
Hambitzer 2000 Gerald Hambitzer. ”Temperatur”, in Bachs Orchestermusik, edited by
S. Rampe and D. Sackmann, 318–322. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2000.
Harmon 1971 Thomas Fredric Harmon. The Registration of J. S. Bach’s Organ Works.
Buren: Frits Knuf, 21981.
Harriss 1983 Ernest Harriss. “Johann Mattheson’s Historical Significance:
Conflicting Viewpoints”, in New Mattheson Studies, edited by G. J.
Buelow and H. J. Marx, 462–484. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
144
Haupt 1986 Hartmut Haupt. “Bachs Organs in Thuringia”, in J.S. Bach as

Organist, His Instruments, Music, and Performance Practices, edited by
G. Stauffer and E. May, 25–30. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1986.
Haynes 2000 Bruce Haynes. ”Stimmtonhöhe”, in Bachs Orchestermusik, edited by
S. Rampe and D. Sackmann, 311–317. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 2000.
Heinke 1998 Theophil Heinke. ”Stimmtonhöhe und Stimmungsart der Trost-
Orgel”, in Die Trost-Orgel und Stadtkirche ”Zur Gotteshilfe”
Waltershausen, Festschrift zur Orgelweihe und 275-jährigen Jubiläum
der Stadtkirche, 92–95. Waltershausen, 1998.
Henkel 1985 Hubert Henkel. “Die Orgeln der Köthener Kirchen zur Zeit Johann
Sebastian Bachs und ihre Geschichte”, Cöthener Bach-Hefte, no. 3
(1985): 5–28.
Hermerén 1988 Göran Hermerén. “Representation, Truth and the Languages of the
Arts” in Essays on the Philosophy of Music, edited by V. Rantala, L.
Rowell, and E. Tarasti, 179–209. Acta Philosophica Fennica, vol. 43.
Helsinki, 1988.
Hermerén 1993 Göran Hermerén. “The Full Voic'd Quire: Types of Interpretations of
Music” in The Interpretation of Music, Philosophical Essays, edited by
M. Krausz, 14–31. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993.
Humphreys 1985 David Humphreys. “Did J. S. Bach Compose the F minor Prelude and
Fugue BWV 534?”, in Bach, Handel, Scarlatti, Tercentary Essays,
edited by P. Williams, 173–184. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1985.
Huray and Butt 1985 Peter le Huray and John Butt. “In Search of Bach the Organist”, in
Bach, Handel, Scarlatti, Tercentary Essays, edited by P. Williams, 185–
206. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Jira 1997 Martin Jira. Musikalische Temperaturen in der Klaviermusik des 17. und
frühen 18. Jahrhunderts. Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 1997.
Jira 2000 Martin Jira. Musikalische Temperaturen und musikalischer Satz in der
Klaviermusik von J. S. Bach. Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 2000.
Jones 1997 Richard D. P. Jones. “The Keyboard Works: Bach as Teacher and
Virtuoso”, in The Cambridge Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt,
Keller 1948 Hermann Keller. Die Orgelwerke Bachs. Ein Beitrag zu ihrer Geschichte,
Form, Deutung und Wiedergabe. Leipzig: C. F. Peters, 1948.
Kent 1998 Christopher Kent. ”Temperament and Pitch”, in The Cambridge
Companion to the Organ, edited by N. Thistlethwaite and G. Webber,
Kenyon 1988 Authenticity and Early Music, edited by N. Kenyon. Oxford: Oxford
Kerman 1985a Joseph Kerman. Contemplating Music: Challenges to Musicology.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Kleiner 1998 Mendel Kleiner. Audioteknik & Akustik. Göteborg: Department of
Applied Acoustics, Chalmers University of Technology, 1998.
Klingfors 1991 Gunno Klingfors. Bach går igen. Källkritiska studier i J S Bachs
uppförandepraxis. Göteborg: Göteborgs universitet, 1991.
Kloppers 1966 Jacobus Kloppers. Die Interpretation und Wiedergabe der Orgelwerke
Bachs. Frankfurt am Main, 1966.
145
Bibliography
Kobayashi 1983 Yoshitake Kobayashi. “Der Gehrener Kantor Johann Christoph Bach
(1663–1727) und seine Sammelbände mit Musik für
Tasteninstrumente”, in Bachiana et alia musicologica. Festschrift Alfred
Dürr zum 65. Geburtstag am 3. März 1983, edited by W. Rehm, 168–
177. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1983.
Kooiman et al. 1992 Ewald Kooiman, Gerhard Weinberger, Hermann J. Busch. Zur
Interpretation der Orgelmusik Johann Sebastian Bachs. Kassel:
Merseburg, 1992.
Koschel 2000 Alexander Koschel. “Christian Förner und seine Orgel in der
Schloßkirche St. Trinitatis zu Weißenfels” Händel-Hausmitteilungen 2
(2000): 36–45.
Krummacher 1986 Friedhelm Krummacher. “Bach’s Free Organ Works and the Stylus
Phantasticus”, in J.S. Bach as Organist, His Instruments, Music, and
Performance Practices, edited by G. Stauffer and E. May, 157–171.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
Kröhner 1995 Christine Kröhner. “Johann Sebastian Bach und Johann Friedrich
Bach als Orgelexaminatoren im Gebiet der freien Reichsstadt
Mühlhausen nach 1708”, in Bach-Jahrbuch 81 (1995), 83–91.
Lange 1972 Helmut K. H. Lange. ”Gottfried Silbermann’s Organ Tuning. A
Contribution to the Manner of Performing Ancient Music. 1st
sequel.”, ISO-Information 8 (September 1972): 543–556.
Lange 1973a Helmut K. H. Lange. ”Gottfried Silbermann’s Organ Tuning. A
Contribution to the Manner of Performing Ancient Music. 2nd
installment”, ISO-Information 9 (February 1973): 647–658.
Lange 1973b Helmut K. H. Lange. ”Gottfried Silbermann’s Organ Tuning. A
contribution to the manner of performing ancient music.
Concluded”, ISO-Information 10, (November 1973), 721–730.
Laukvik 1990 Jon Laukvik. Orgelschule zur historischen Aufführungspraxis. Stuttgart:
Carus, 1990.
Leaver 1997 Robin A. Leaver. “Music and Lutheranism”, in The Cambridge
Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt, 35–45. Cambridge: Cambridge
Lester 1992 Joel Lester. Compositional Theory in the Eighteenth Century,
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 21994.
Lindley 1985 Mark Lindley. “J. S. Bachs Klavierstimmung”, in Alte Musik als
ästhetische Gegenwart: Bach, Händel, Schütz; Bericht über den
internationalen musikwissenschaftlichen Kongreß Stuttgart 1985, Band
2, 409–421. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1987.
Lindley 1987 Mark Lindley. “Stimmung und Temperatur”, in Geschichte der
Musiktheorie, Band 6, Hören, Messen und Rechnen in der frühen
Neuzeit, edited by C. Dahlhaus et al., 109–331. Darmstadt:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1987.
Lindley 1989 Mark Lindley. “The Baroque Era: Tuning and Intonation”, in The New
Groves Handbooks in Music, Performance Practice, Music after 1600.
London: MacMillan Publishers Ltd., 1989.
Lindley 1997 Mark Lindley. “A Quest for Bach's Ideal Style of Organ
Temperament”, in Stimmung im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert, Vielfalt oder
Konfusion? 15. Musikinstrumentbau-Symposium in Michaelstein am 11.
und 12. November 1994. Michaelsteiner Konferenzberichte 52.
Michaelstein: 1997.
Lindley 2001 Mark Lindley. “Temperaments”, in New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, 2nd edition, edited by S. Sadie, vol. 25, 248–269.
London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2001.
146
Mackenzie 1979 Alexander C. N. Mackenzie of Ord. “The Well-Tuned Organ. An

Introduction to the Keyboard Temperaments in 18th and 19th
Century England”, BIOS 3 (1979): 56–72.
Mann 1985 Alfred Mann. “Bach and Handel as Teachers of Thorough Bass”, in
Meister 1990 Hubert Meister. “Zur musikalischen Rhetorik in J. S. Bachs
Orgelwerken”, in Schriftenreihe der Hochschule für Musik in München,
band 6: Musikalische Aufführungspraxis und Edition. Johann Sebastian
Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, 33–79.
Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1990.
Meyer 1978 Jürgen Meyer. Acoustics and the Performance of Music. Frankfurt am
Main: Verlag Das Musikinstrument, 1978.
Newman 1985 Anthony Newman. Bach and the Baroque: A Performing Guide to
Baroque Music with Special Emphasis on the Music of J. S. Bach. New
York: Pendragon Press, 1985.
Norrback 1991 Johan Norrback. Affekten i J. S. Bachs preludium i h-moll, BWV 544 – En
analys (unpublished masters thesis), Helsingfors, 1991.
Ortgies 2000 Ibo Ortgies. “Subsemitoetsen bij historische orgels tussen 1468 en
1721” Het Orgel 96, no. 6 (2000): 20–26.
Padgham 1986 Charles A. Padgham. The Well–Tempered Organ. Oxford: Positif Press,
1986.
Padgham et al. 1979 Charles Padgham, Peter Collins, G. Parker. “A Trial of Unequal
Temperaments on the Organ”, BIOS Journal 3 (1979): 73-91.
Panthaleon van Eck 1981 C. L. van Panthaleon van Eck. J. S. Bach’s Critique of Pure Music.
Culemborg, 1981.
Parncutt 1989 Richard Parncutt. Harmony: a Psychoacoustical Approach. Heidelberg:
Springer Verlag, 1989.
Piersig 1935 Fritz Piersig. “Die Orgeln der bremischen Stadtkirchen im 17. und
18. Jahrhundert”, Bremisches Jahrbuch (1935): 379–425.
Plomp 1976 Reinier Plomp. Aspects of Tone Sensation. A Psychophysical Study.
London: Academic Press, 1976.
Pollard 1985 Joseph Victor Pollard. Tuning and Temperament in Southern Germany
to the End of the Seventeenth Century. PhD dissertation, University of
Leeds, Department of Music, 1985.
Rasch 1983 A. Werckmeister: Musicalische Temperatur, edited by Rudolf Rasch.
Utrecht: The Diapason Press, 1983.
Rasch 1985 Rudolf Rasch. “Does ‘Well–Tempered’ Mean ‘Equal–Tempered’?”, in
Rasch and Plomp 1999 Rudolf Rasch and Reinier Plomp. ”The Perception of Musical Tones”,
in The Psychology of Music, edited by D. Deutsch, 89–112. San Diego:
Academic Press, 21999.
Rathey 2001 Markus Rathey. “Die Temperierung der Divi Blasii-Orgel in
Mühlhausen”, Bach-Jahrbuch 87 (2001): 163–171.
Ratner 1980 Leonard G. Ratner. Classic Music. Expression, Form, and Style. New
York: Schirmer Books, 1980.
Ratte 1989 Franz Josef Ratte. “Die Temperatur als Mittel der musikalischen
Rhetorik am Beispiel des Orgelbüchleins von Johann Sebastian
Bach”, in Die Sprache der Musik, Festschrift Klaus Wolfgang Niemöller
zum 60. Geburtstag, edited by J. P. Fricke, B. Gätjen, and, M. Gervink,
401–417. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1989.
147
Bibliography
Ratte 1994a Franz Josef Ratte. “Temperirungspraktiken im süddeutschen

Orgelbau, insbesondere zur Zeit Johann Nepomuk Holzheys”, Acta
Organologica 24 (1994): 387–423.
Ratte 1994b Franz Josef Ratte. “Johann Georg Neidhardt als Musiker, Komponist,
Lehrer und Dichter”, in Die Musik der Deutschen im Osten und ihre
Wechselwirkung mit den Nachbarn, edited by K. W. Niemöller and H.
Loos, 229–42. Bonn: Gudrun Schröder Verlag 1994.
Ratte 2000 Franz Josef Ratte. “Die Temperaturen der Bach–Orgeln und die
Konsequenzen für Johann Sebastian Bachs choralgebundene
Orgelmusik”, The Organ Yearbook 29 (2000): 45–58.
Reinitzer 1995 Die Arp Scnhitger-Orgel der Hauptkirche St. Jacobi in Hamburg, edited
by Heimo Reinitzer. Hamburg: Christians Verlag, 1995.
Risset and Wessel 1999 Jean-Claude Risset and David L. Wessel. “Exploration of Timbre by
Analysis and Synthesis”, inThe Psychology of Music, edited by D.
Deutsch, 113–169. San Diego: Academic Press, 21999.
Ritchie and Stauffer 2000 George H. Ritchie and George B. Stauffer. Organ Technique, Modern
and Early. New York: Oxford University Press, 22000.
Rubardt 1961 Paul Rubardt. “Zwei originale Orgeldispositionen J. S. Bachs”, in
Festschrift Heinrich Besseler zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, 495–503.
Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1961.
Russ 1996 Martin Russ. Sound Synthesis and Sampling. Oxford: Focal Press,
1996.
Schmidt 1985 Gernot Schmidt. “Bericht über die Restaurierung der denkmalwerten
Orgel in Abbenrode, Kreis Werningerode – erbaut von Christoph
Contius im Jahre 1708”, in Bericht über das 5. Symposium zu Fragen
des Orgelbaus im 17./18. Jahrhundert, Michaelstein 9./10. November
1984, 77–82. Blankenburg/Michaelstein 1985.
Schneider 1937 Tekla Schneider. “Die Orgelbauerfamilie Compenius”, Archiv für
Musikforschung 2 (1937): 8–76.
Schrammek 1988 Winfried Schrammek. “Orgel, Positiv, Clavicymbel und Glocken der
Schlosskirche zu Weimar 1658 bis 1774”S, in Bach-Händel-Schütz-
Ehrung 1985 der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Bericht über die
Wissenschaftliche Konferenz zum V. Internationalen Bachfest der DDR in
Verbindung mit dem 60. Bachfest der Neuen Bachgesellschaft. Leipzig,
25. bis 27. März 1985, edited by W. Hoffmann and A.
Schneiderheinze, 99–111. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik,
1988.
Schrammek 2000 Winfried Schrammek. “Johann Sebastian Bachs Vorstellung von einer
‘recht grossen und recht schönen Orgel’”, in Die Hildebrandt-Orgel zu
Naumburg, St. Wenzel. Festschrift anlässlich der wiedereinweihung
nach vollendeter Restaurierung am 3. Dezember 2000, 27–34.
Naumburg, 2000.
Schulze 1985 Hans-Joachim Schulze. “Zum Themenbereich der neueren Bach-
Forschung.” in Johann Sebastian Bach und Johann Joseph Fux. Bericht
über das Symposion anlässlich des 58. Bachfestes der neuen
Bachgesellschaft 24.–29. Mai 1983 in Graz, edited by J. Trummer and
R. Flotzinger, 25–37. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1985.
Schütz 1988 Hartmut Schütz. “Nothwendiger Unterricht in der Musikalischen
Temperatur” – Ein Abriß der Stimmungsarten vom 15. bis 18.
Jahrhundert, Kultur- und Forschungsstätte Michaelstein,
Sonderbeitrag, Heft 3. Michaelstein/Blankenburg, 1988.
Schweitzer 1908 Albert Schweitzer. J. S. Bach. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf&Härtel, 1952.
Sethares 1998 William A. Sethares. Tuning, Timbre, Spectrum, Scale. London:
Springer Verlag, 1998.
148
Smets 1931 Die Dresdener Handschrift Orgeldispositionen, edited by Paul Smets.

Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1931.
Snyder 1986 Kerala J. Snyder. “Bach and Buxtehude at the Large Organ of St.
Mary's in Lübeck”, in Charles Brenton Fisk, Organ Builder, Volume One,
Essays in his Honor, edited by F. Douglass, O. Jander, and B. Owen,
175–89. Easthampton, Mass.: The Westfield Center for Early
Keyboard Studies, 1986.
Stauffer 1978 George B. Stauffer. The Organ Preludes of Johann Sebastian Bach. Ann
Arbor: UMI Research Press, 21980.
Stauffer 1983 George B. Stauffer. “Johann Mattheson and J. S. Bach: The Hamburg
Connection”, in New Mattheson Studies, edited by G. J. Buelow and
H. J. Marx, 353–368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Stauffer 1986 George Stauffer. “Fugue Types in Bach’s Free Organ Works”, in J.S.
Bach as Organist, His Instruments, Music, and Performance Practices,
edited by G. Stauffer and E. May, 133–156. Bloomington: Indiana
Steblin 1981 Rita Steblin. A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early
Nineteenth Century. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 31996.
Sumner 1985 William L. Sumner. “The Organs Played by Bach”, The American
Organist (March 1985): 82–99.
Sundberg 1989 Johan Sundberg. Musikens ljudlära. Hur tonen alstras och uppfattas.
Stockholm: Proprius, 31989.
Taylor 1992 Charles Taylor. Exploring Music, The Science and Technology of Tones
and Tunes. Bristol: IOP Publishing, 1992.
Tenney 1988 James Tenney. A History of ‘Consonance’ and ‘Dissonance’. New York:
Excelsior Music Publishing, 1988.
Tessmer 1997 Manfred Tessmer. ”Wie war Bachs wohltemperiertes Clavier
gestimmt?”, Acta Organologica 25 (1997): 177–202.
Tomlinson 1988 Gary Tomlinson. “The History, the Performer, and the Authentic
Meaning in Music”, in Authenticity and Early Music, edited by N.
Kenyon, 115–136. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Towe 1985 Teri Noel Towe. “The Organs Played by Bach: An Update”, The
American Organist (December 1985): 50–58.
Unger 1941 Hans-Heinrich Unger. Die Beziehungen zwischen Musik und Rhetorik
im 16.–18. Jahrhundert. Hildesheim: Olms, 51992.
Veroli 1978 Claudio di Veroli. Unequal Temperaments and their Role in the
Performance of Early Music. Buenos Aires, 1978.
Vier 1987 Peter Vier. ”Zur Frage der Rekonstruktion historischer Stimmungen”,
Acta Organologica 19 (1987): 216–238.
Vier 1990 Peter Vier. ”Die Stimmweise der alten Meister”, Acta Organologica 21
(1990): 103–119.
Vier1985 Peter Vier. “Bachs Tonsprache und die mitteltönige Orgel”, Ars
Organi 33, no. 1 (1985): 3–12.
Vogel 1986a Harald Vogel. “North German Organ Building of the Late
Seventeenth Century: Registration and Tuning”, in J.S. Bach as
Organist, His Instruments, Music, and Performance Practices, edited by
G. Stauffer and E. May, 31–40. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1986.
Vogel 1986b Harald Vogel. “Tuning and Temperament in the North German
School of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries”, in Charles
Brenton Fisk, Organ Builder, Volume One, Essays in his Honor, edited by
F. Douglass, O. Jander, and B. Owen, 237–265. Easthampton, Mass.:
The Westfield Center for Early Keyboard Studies, 1986.
149
Bibliography
Vos 1986 Joos Vos. “Purity Ratings of Tempered Fifths and Major Thirds”,
Music Perception 3, no. 3/Spring (1986): 221–257.
Wegscheider 1986 Kristian Wegscheider. ”Temperierungsprobleme in der Praxis des
heutigen Orgelbauers am Beispiel der großen Silbermannorgel im
Freiberger Dom – einige Gedanken zu den fünf
Werckmeistertemperaturen von 1691”, in Bericht über das
Werckmeister-Kolloquium aus Anlaß des 340. Geburtstages von Andreas
Werckmeister am 30. November 1985. Michaelstein/Blankenburg,
1986.
Wegscheider and Schütz Kristian Wegscheider and Hartmut Schütz. Orgeltemperatur – ein
1988 Beitrag zum Problem der Rekonstruktion historischer Stimmungsarten
bei Orgelrestaurierungen, Kultur- und Forschungsstätte Michalstein,
Heft 5, Michaelstein/Blankenburg, 1988.
Wenke 1993 Wolfgang Wenke. “Die Orgel Johann Sebastian Bachs in Arnstadt.
Erkenntnisse anlässlich der Restaurierung und Rekonstruktion von
1984/1985 des Spieltisches der Wender-Orgel von 1703”, in Der
junge Bach in Arnstadt, 35–59. Arnstadt: Stadtmuseum Arnstadt,
1993.
Werner 1911 Arno Werner. Städtische und fürstliche Musikpflege in Weissenfels bis
zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1911.
Werner 2000 Helmut Werner. “Die Königin unter den ‘Bach-Orgeln’”, Orgel
International, no. 6 (2000): 396–402.
Williams 1980a Peter Williams. The organ music of J. S. Bach , Vol. I, Preludes, Toccatas,
Fantasias, Fugues, Sonatas, Concertos and Miscellaneous Pieces.
Williams 1980b Peter Williams. The organ music of J. S. Bach , Vol. II, Works based on
Chorales. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Williams 1984 Peter Williams. The organ music of J. S. Bach, Vol. III, A Background.
Williams 1985 Peter Williams. “Figurae in the Keyboard Works of Scarlatti, Handel
and Bach: An Introduction”, in Bach, Handel, Scarlatti, Tercentary
Essays, edited by P. Williams, 327–346. Cambridge: Cambridge
Williams 1986 Peter Williams. “The Snares and Delusions of Notation, Bach’s Early
Organ Works”, in J.S. Bach as Organist, His Instruments, Music, and
Performance Practices, edited by G. Stauffer and E. May, 274–294.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
Williams 1996 Peter Williams. Johann Sebastian Bachs Orgelwerke 1. Präludien,
Toccaten, Fantasien, Fugen, Sonaten, Concerti und Einzelwerke. Mainz:
Schott, 1996.
Williams 1998 Peter Williams. Johann Sebastian Bachs Orgelwerke 2.
Choralbearbeitungen. Mainz: Schott, 1998.
Wolff 1986a Christoph Wolff. “Johann Adam Reincken and Johann Sebastian
Bach: On the Context of Bach’s Early Works”, in J.S. Bach as Organist,
His Instruments, Music, and Performance Practices, edited by G.
Stauffer and E. May, 57–80. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1986.
Wolff 1986b Christoph Wolff. “Johann Sebastian Bach’s Third Part of the Clavier-
Übung”, in Charles Brenton Fisk, Organ Builder, Volume One, Essays in
his Honor, edited by F. Douglass, O. Jander, and B. Owen, 283–291.
Easthampton, Mass.: The Westfield Center for Early Keyboard
Studies, 1986.
Wolff 1991 Christoph Wolff. Bach. Essays on His Life and Music, Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 31996.
150
Letters, non-printed sources
Wolff 2000 Christoph Wolff. Johann Sebastian Bach. The Learned Musician.
Oxford: Oxford university Press, 2000.
Young 1991 James O. Young. ”Key, Temperament and Musical Expression”, The
Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 49, no. 3/Summer (1991): 235–
242.
Zenck 1997 Martin Zenck. “Bach Reception: Some Concepts and Parameters”, in
The Cambridge Companion to Bach, edited by J. Butt, 218–225.
Zetterberg 1998 Lennart Zetterberg. Ljudinspelningens ABC. Stockholm: Natur och
Kultur, 1998.
Åberg 1997 Mats Åberg. Orgelskola. Stockholm: Verbum, 1997.
Letters, non-printed sources
Greß 2001b Frank-Harald Greß. Temperatur-Rekonstruktion Schlossorgel

Weissenfels nach Förner. Letter to the author, 2001-02-20.
WWW-resources
The New Grove Dictionary of <http://www.grovemusic.com> (2002-07-24)

Music and Musicians, 2nd
edition
Tuning & Temperament <http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/doc/bib.html> (2002-07-24)
Bibliography
151
Bibliography
152
Index
Buxtehude, Dieterich 19, 46, 63
C
A
Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg
Åberg, Mats 6
2
Adlung 49
Christensen, Thomas 14, 104
Adlung, Jakob 14, 33, 47–52, 57, 59, 78, 86,
Compenius family 88
88
Compenius, Esaias 15
Agricola, Johann Friedrich 14, 51
Compenius, Ludwig 65
Ahrend, Jürgen 71–72
Contius, Christoph 27–28, 62, 64, 67–68, 74,
Albrecht, Johann 64
76
Albrecht, Johann Lorenz 51
Coul, Manuel Op de 61
Altenburg Schloßarchiv 2, 43
Altnickol, Johann christoph 41, 87
Andersen, Poul-Gerhard 61 D
Asplind, Björn 2, 97 Dähnert, Ulrich 26, 42, 61–63, 67, 78, 83–84
David, Hans T. 14
B David, Werner 62, 66
Davidsson, Hans 1
Bach, Anna Magdalena 67
Department of Musicology, Göteborg 1
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel 14, 56–58
Devie, Dominique 61
Bach, Johann Christoph (Gehren) 14
Dressler, Christoph 90–91
Bach, Johann Christoph (Ohrdruf) 63
Bach, Johann Nicolaus 31, 33, 48, 51
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann 77 E
Barnes, John 1, 93 Eco, Umberto 130
Behrens, Michael 28 Edskes, Cornelius H. 71–73, 92
Bendeler, Johann Philipp 19, 29–31, 91–92 Edström, K. Olle 1
Berardi, Angelo 14 Edwards, Lynn 61
Bernskiöld, Hans 1 Eldénius, Magnus 2, 100
Besser, Johann Friedrich 64, 68–69 Ellis, Alexander J. 72, 131
Bicknell, Stephen 61
Blanchard, Homer D. 61–63 F
Böhm, Georg 63
Bresin, Roberto 2, 97 Filosofiska fakulteternas gemensamma dona-
Brombaugh, John 1–2 tions nämd, Göteborg 2
Busch, Hermann J. 61 Fincke, Johann Georg 64
Busch, Johann Dietrich 70 Fisk, Charles 5
Butt, John 14, 130 Fock, Gustav 70–71
Buttstett, Johann Heinrich 44, 47–48 Forkel, Johann Nicolaus 14
153
Index
Förner, Christian 65, 67, 87, 91 Kneise, Ulrich 2, 82, 84

Forsblom, Enzio 1, 44 Kooiman, Ewald 6
Friberg, Anders 2, 97 Koschel, Alexander 91
Friedrich 85 Kuhnau, Johann 41, 58–59, 68, 74–75
Friedrich, Felix 61–62, 67, 82–85, 90 Kungl. Musikaliska Akademien, Stockholm 2
Fritsche, Gottfried 64 Kungliga Vetenskapsakademin, Stockholm 2
Froberger, Johann Jacob 6, 26
Fux, Johann Joseph 14 L
Landgren, Johannes 1
G Lange, Helmut K. H. 64, 78, 92–93
GOArt, Göteborg Organ Art Center 1 Larsson, Pontus 2
Golde, Johann Gottfried 84 Laukvik, Jon 6
Göteborg University Library 2 Leipziger Städtische Bibliotheken – Musikbib-
Gottsched, Johann Christoph 53 liothek 2, 39
Greß, Frank-Harald 74, 78–81, 90, 92 Lewis, Pierre 131
Greulich, Irene 87 Lindblad Studio, School of Music and Musi-
Gripentrog, Helmut 2 cology, Göteborg 2, 97, 100
Lindley, Mark 7, 15, 17, 26, 90
H Lund University Library 2
Haga Church, Göteborg 1
Hall, Donald E. 61, 99 M
Haltmeier, Carl Johann Friedrich 54 Mäkinen, Kalevi 2
Händel, Georg Friederich 46 Manderscheidt, Nicolaus 97
Hartung, Johann Michael 64 Mattheson, Johann 19, 41, 46–50, 52, 55–56,
Haupt, Hartmut 61 58–59, 68, 74–75, 117, 125, 129
Heinichen, Johann David 14, 50 McLaren, Brian 61
Heinke, Theophil 85 Menger, Reinhard 2, 75, 77
Heinrich Julius, duke of Braunschweig-Wolfen- Miklin, Johan 36
büttel 15 Mizler, Lorenz Christoph 14, 42, 49–50, 52–
Henkel, Hubert 67 56, 59, 71, 104, 117
Hermann Eule Orgelbau 2, 86, 88 Mizler, Lorenz Christoph. 52
Hermerén, Göran 9 Moore, Brian C. J. 10
Hildebrandt, Zacharias 41, 51, 62–65, 67–68,
85–87 N
Hülphers, Abraham A. 36
Nederlands Muziek Instituut, The Hague 2,
18, 20, 22–24
J Neidhardt, Johann Georg 4–5, 13–14, 26, 31–
Janowka, Thomas Balthasar 45 38, 40–42, 47–49, 51, 53, 55, 59, 68, 74–76,
Jedrzejewski, Franck 61 83–85, 87, 91, 93, 122–123, 127, 129, 135–
Jira, Martin 7–8 136
Johann Georg, duke of Saxe-Weißenfels 63 Neuß, Heinrich 28
Jullander, Sverker 1 Newman, Anthony 6
Niedt, Friedrich Erhardt 14, 69
K Nilsson, Per-Anders 2, 97
Norrback, Benedikta Åberg 2
Kelber, Rudolf 72–73, 92
Norrback, Johan 1
Keller, Hermann 62
Norrback, Natanael 2
Kellner, Herbert A. 93
Kent, Christopher 6, 131
Kircher, Athanasius 16 O
Kjersgaard, Mads 97 Organ Research Workshop, Göteborg Univer-
Kleiner, Mendel 2 sity 89
154
WWW-resources
Ortgies, Ibo 1, 63, 66, 93 Sorge, Georg Andreas 50, 78, 81, 92–93
Speerstra, Joel 1
P Speerstra, Karen 2
Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kul-
Padgham, Charles 6–8, 10, 90, 105, 131
turbesitz 2, 30, 32, 34–35
Parncutt, Richard 61
Statens musikbibliotek, Stockholm 2
Peeters, Paul 1
Stauffer, George B. 6, 114, 117
Pelto, Pentti 2
Steblin, Rita 46–47, 56, 132
Petojevic, Sandra 2, 79–80
Stölzel, Gottfried Heinrich 84
Piersig, Fritz 72
Sumner, William L. 61
Plomp, Reinier 10, 103
Sundberg, Johan 96, 99, 103
Pollard, Joseph V. 6–7
Praetorius, Jacob 72–74, 92–93
Praetorius, Michael 15–17, 27–28 T
Printz, Wolffgang Caspar 16–17, 45, 52, 58, Telemann, Georg Philipp 16, 70–71
104 Tenney, James 103
Thayßner, Zacharias 26, 64
R Tobin, Henrik 2, 71, 73
Towe, Teri Noel 61
Rasch, Rudolf 10, 22, 103
Trebs, Heinrich Nicolaus 64–65
Ratte, Franz Josef 7, 10, 31, 90
Troje, Herwin 2
Reincken, Johann Adam 46, 63, 68
Trost, Heinrich Gottfried 8, 13, 62, 64, 67–68,
Richborn, Joachim 64, 68–69
82, 84–85
Rioux, Vincent 2
Trost, Johann Caspar 22, 87, 89
Risset, Jean-Claude 95
Ritchie, George 6 Trost, Tobias Gottfried 64
Rolle, Christian Friedrich 74
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm 2, V
97, 100 Veroli, Claudio di 4
Vier, Peter 78, 84–85
S Vogel, Harald 16, 72–74, 92–93
Schäfer, Conrad Wilhelm 65 Vos, Joos 61
Scheibe, Johann 64–65, 67
Scheibe, Johann Adolf 54 W
Scheidemann, Heinrich 72–74, 92–93 Wagner, Joachim 65
Scherer family 64 Walther, Johann Gottfried 14, 17, 19, 44–46,
Schmidt, Gernot 76 48, 58, 104
Schneider, Tekla 88 Wegscheider, Kristian 5, 27, 76, 78–81, 85, 92
Schnitger, Arp 19, 62, 64, 71 Weißhaupt, Johann Conrad 65
School of Music and Musicology, Göteborg 2, Wender, Johann Friedrich 41, 64–65, 68, 74
97 Werckmeister, Andreas 4–5, 13–14, 18–19,
Schulze, Hans-Joachim 5–6 21–29, 31, 33, 39–41, 44–47, 50–53, 57, 59,
Schütz, Hartmut 26–27, 76, 79, 81, 85 68, 70, 74–76, 90–93, 114, 122, 124, 127–
Schweitzer, Albert 61–62 128, 132
Sethares, William A. 103 Werner, Arno 90
Sibelius-Academy, Helsinki 1–2 Werner, Helmut 87
Sieburg, Johann 73 Wessel, David L. 95
Silbermann, Andreas 61 Wich, Sir John 46
Silbermann, Gottfried 41, 61–62, 64, 68, 71, Williams, Peter 27, 67, 76, 105, 111, 114, 121
74, 77–81, 86, 92–94 Wolff, Christoph 14, 63, 66–68, 78, 87, 104
Sinn, Christoph Albert 27–28, 47, 76
Smets, Paul 70
Snyder, Kerala J. 1 Y
Solomon, King 40 Yokota, Munetaka 2, 89
155
Index
Z
Zedler, Johann Heinrich 45
Ziegler, Johann Gotthilf 54
Zuckerriedel, Armin 2
156
SKRIFTER FRÅN MUSIKVETENSKAPLIGA INSTITUTIONEN
G Ö T E B O R G S U N I V E R S I T E T, N R 7 0 , 2 0 0 2
S T U D I E S F R O M T H E D E PA RT M E N T O F M U S I C O L O G Y
G Ö T E B O R G U N I V E R S I T Y, N O . 7 0 , 2 0 0 2
ISBN 91 85974 66-8 ISSN 1650-9285

Afinación Órganos

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Afinación Órganos

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Afinación Órganos

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Passable and Good

Copyright © 2002 by Johan Norrback

Skrifter från Musikvetenskapliga institutionen, Göteborgs universitet, nr 70, 2002

ISBN 91 85974 66-8

List of Illustrations vii

2. The Written Sources 13

3.1.5. St. Wenzel’s church, Naumburg –

5. The Music 103

Appendix A – Introduction to Temperament 131

Appendix B – Digital Sound 133

Appendix C – Neidhardt’s Temperaments (1732) 135

Appendix D – Index of CD 137

Fig. 1: Excerpt from O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656) 3

Fig. 22: Neidhardt for a small city (1732) 38

All pictures printed with due permission.

Pitch and keys

Translation of German quotes

Presentation of Tunings and Temperaments

The Sound Examples on the CD

Towards the end of my studies at the Sibelius-Academy in Helsinki (Finland) I

1.1. Problem and aim

Fig. 1: Excerpt from O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (BWV 656)

mention temperament as a factor to take into consideration? Were Werckmeis-

1.2. Previous research

tionen (es-Moll-Fuge des Wohltemperierten Klaviers I ursprünglich in d-Moll). So ist auch

8 Schulze 1985: 32.

different temperaments. Music with a small deviation is, according to Pollard, a

1.3. Methodological considerations

21 Jira 2000: 30ff.

appropriateness of a certain temperament for a particular category of repertoire.

Composer – Notation – Performer – Instrument – Listener

32 The case is discussed further below, chapter 3.1.4.

33 David et al. 1998: 307.

2.1. Descriptions of tunings and temperaments

2.1.1. Michael Praetorius (1571–1621)

provided. A feasible interpretation would be to try to make the fifths similar,

Fig. 4: 1/4-comma mean-tone

Table 1: 1/4-comma mean-tone

2.1.2. Wolffgang Caspar Printz (1641–1717)

42 Praetorius 1619a: 63ff.

Fig. 5: Title page, Orgelprobe (1681). (Nederlands Muziek Instituut,

2.1.3. Andreas Werckmeister (1645–1706)

49 A second edition was the Erweiterte und verbesserte Orgel=Probe (1698).

Fig. 7: Werckmeister III Fig. 8: Werckmeister IV

Table 2: Werckmeister III

Fig. 10: Description of temperaments, Orgelprobe (1681).

Table 5: Werckmeister VIa

Table 6: Werckmeister VIb

56 See Werckmeister 1691: 82ff, and Rasch 1983: 16.

Fig. 11: Description of temperaments, Musicalische Temperatur (1691).

Further Werckmeister argues for the new temperament by claiming that it is

57 Werckmeister 1697: 32f.

Fig. 12: Title page, Musicalische Temperatur (1691). (Nederlands Muziek

Werckmeister obviously had great trouble introducing the well-tempered tun-

59 Werckmeister 1691, title page.

When it comes to the question whether Werckmeister’s ideas were applied in

63 Werckmeister 1707: 111ff.

Even if equal temperament is known, it is not yet accepted, probably because

§. 8. As this temperament was found to be greatly advantageous when applied in some