Module 1

FLUID PROPERTIES AND DEFINITIONS

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:

 explain the difference between fluid mechanics from hydraulics..
 distinguish gas from liquid, and solid from fluid.
 identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior.
 calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information.
 use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension

.
II. OVERVIEW

Hydraulics is the term generally used to specify that branch of mechanics that deals
with the laws controlling the behavior of water or other fluids in the states of rest and
motion. The science of hydraulics is largely a subject in mathematics, since it deals with
an imaginary ideal fluid that is completely frictionless, cohesionless and inelastic. Most
of the time, the study deals largely with water and was limited in scope and practical
value. Thus, the results of the study is empirical, one which did not give adequate
consideration to the rational approach to the mechanics of gases and all liquids based
on the classical principles of mathematics and physics.

The history of hydraulics dates back into the ancient past. Although none of the ancient
science of hydraulics has been revealed by historical or technical writings, the evidence
of its accomplishments is recorded. The highlights of these recordings are:

 The actual hydraulic projects and structures which still stand today as
monuments to the ability of those past civilizations.
 1712 B.C. - Joseph’s well was dug in Cairo.
 From 312 B.C. to 130 A.D. – the Romans constructed more than 350
miles of masonry aqueducts to bring water into the city of Rome.
 About 250 B.C. - Archimedes, the Greek scientist explained the law of
buoyancy of submerged objects. His contribution is one of the very few that are
considered to be as true today as some 2200 years ago.
 From 1400 A.D. to 1600 A.D. was the development of simple equation of flow
through an orifice: V= 2gh .
√
 After 1700 A.D., many men came forth with substantial contributions in the field
of experimental hydraulics. The following are well known for their contributions:
Chezy, Venturi, Dubuat, Hagen, Poiseulle, Bazin, Weisbach, Ganguillet, Kutter,
Manning, Darcy, Francis, Froude, Russell etc.

By the end of the 19th century, the empirical science of hydraulics was replaced by a
new science with the study of real fluids where both theory and experiment played an
important role. From this new approach, it has been determined that certain basic
principles apply to all fluids; that fluids have dissimilar behavior due to their differences
in such physical properties as density, viscosity, cohesion, and compressibility; and that
it is possible to analyze and correlate the effects of these properties and arrive at a
unified course of general fluid motion known as fluid mechanics.
III. COURSE MATERIALS

1.0 FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is one of the engineering sciences that form the basis for all
engineering. The subject branches out into various specialties such as aerodynamics,
hydraulic engineering, marine engineering, gas dynamics, and rate processes. It deals
with the statics, kinematics, and dynamics of fluids, since the motion of a fluid is caused
by unbalanced forces exerted upon it. Available methods of analysis stem from the
application of the following principles, concepts, and laws: Newton’s laws of motion, the
first and second laws of thermodynamics, the principle of conservation of mass,
equations of state relating fluid properties, Newton’s law of viscosity, mixing-length
concepts, and restrictions caused by the presence of boundaries.

Fluid mechanics is the application of the laws of force and motion to fluids, i.e. liquids
and gases. Hence, it is the science of the mechanics of liquids and gases based on the
fundamental principles of mathematics and physics for which the effect due to
compressibility is neglected. The gases with appreciable compressibility effects are
governed by the laws of Thermodynamics which are dealt with under the subject Gas
dynamics.

1). Three branches of fluid mechanics

Fluid mechanics may be divided into three branches. These are

a. Fluid statics which is the study of the mechanics of fluids at rest.

Hydrostatics is the term used when the fluid used is water.

The main equation required for this is Newton's second law for
nonaccelerating bodies, i.e.  ∑ F=0

b. Kinematics which deals with velocities and streamlines (the geometry of

motion of liquids) without considering forces or energy causing that motion.

c. Fluid dynamics which concerned with the relations between velocities and
accelerations and the forces exerted by or upon fluids in motion.

The main equation required for this is Newton's second law for accelerating
bodies, i.e.∑ F=ma. 

2.0 FLUIDS

There are three common states of matter. These are solid, liquid, and gas. A fluid is
either a liquid or a gas. If surface effects are not present, flow behaves similarly in all
common fluids, whether gases or liquids

A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the application of a shear

stress. Fluids are substance capable of flowing, having particles which easily move and
change the relative position without a separation of mass. Fluids offer practically no
resistance to change form. They readily conform to the shape of solid body with which
they come in contact.
 y

b b’ c c’ V F

v
t
y
a d x

Figure 1.1 Deformation resulting from application constant shear force

In Figure 1.1, a substance is placed between two closely spaced parallel plates, so
large that conditions at their edges may be neglected. The lower plate is fixed, and a
shear force F is applied to the upper plate, which exerts a shear stress F / A on any
substance between the plates. A is area of the upper plate. When the force F causes
the upper plate to move with a steady (nonzero) velocity, no matter how small the
magnitude of F, one may conclude that the substance between the two plates is a fluid.
The fluid in immediate contact with a solid boundary has the same velocity as the
boundary, i.e., there is no slip at the boundary. The fluid in the area abcd flows to the
new position ab ’ c ’ dwith each fluid particle moving parallel to the plate and the velocity
v varying uniformly from zero at the stationary plate to F at the upper plate. Experiments
show that other quantities being held constant, F is directly proportional to A and to V
and is inversely proportional to t . In equation from

AV
F=μ
t

In which μ is the proportionality factor and includes the effect of the particular fluid. If
τ =¿ F / A for shear stress,

V
τ =μ
t

The ratio V /t is the angular velocity of line ab , or it is the rate of angular deformation of
the fluid, i.e., the rate of decrease of angle bad . The angular velocity may also be written
dv /dy , as bothV /t and dv /dy express the velocity change divided by the distance over
which the change occurs. However, dv /dy is more general as it holds for situations in
which the angular velocity and shear stress change with y . The velocity gradient dv /dy
may be visualized as the rate at which one layer moves relative to an adjacent layer. In
differential form,

dv
τ =μ Eqn 1.1
dy

is the relation between shear stress and rate of angular deformation or one-dimensional
flow of a fluid. The proportionality factor μ is called the coefficient viscosity of the fluid,
and Eqn. 1.1 is Newton’s law of viscosity. This law states that the shear stress ( τ ) on a
fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain

1) Fluid has the following characteristics:

a) It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the
containing vessel.
b) Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to
undergo a deformation which continuous as long as the force continues to
be applied.
 2) Fluid may be classified as follows:
a) (i). Liquid, (ii) Gas, (ii) Vapour
b) (i) Ideal fluids, (ii) Real fluids

Liquid:
 A liquid is a fluid which possesses a definite volume (which varies only
slightly with temperature and pressure).

 Liquids have bulk elastic modulus when under compression and will store
up energy up energy in the same manner as a solid. As the contraction of
volume of a liquid under compression is extremely small, it is usually
ignored and the liquid is assumed to be incompressible. A liquid will
withstand a slight amount of tension due to molecular attraction between
the particles which will cause an apparent shear resistance, between two
adjacent layers. This phenomenon is known as viscosity.
 All known liquids vaporize at narrow pressures above zero, depending on
temperature.

Gas:
 It possesses no definite volume and is compressible.

Vapour:
 It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near
the liquid state (e.g. steam)

3.0 TYPES OF FLUIDS

a) Ideal Fluids – An ideal fluid is one which is incompressible and has zero
viscosity (or in other words shear stress is always zero regardless of the
motion of fluid, ( τ =0 ). Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids,
which exist, have some viscosity.

b) Real Fluids – Real fluids are fluids which possess viscosity. All the fluids, in
actual practice, are real fluids.

c) Newtonian Fluids – These are real fluid in which the shear stress is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), or fluid that
follow the Newton’s law of viscosity. For such fluids μ does not change with
rae of deformation.
Examples of these are: water, kerosene, air, etc

d) Non-Newtonian Fluids – These are real fluid in which the shear stress is
not proportional to the rate of strain (or velocity gradient). Fluids which do not
follow the linear relationship between shear stress and rate of deformation
and are relatively uncommon.
Examples of these are: Solutions or suspension (slurries), mud flows,
polymer solutions blood, etc. These fluids are generally complex mixtures
and are studied under rheology, a science of deformation and flow.

e) Plastic Fluids – A plastic substance which are non-Newtonian fluids, are

fluids in which shear stress is more than the yield stress value to cause a
continuous deformation, and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity gradient).

An ideal plastic (or Binigham plastic) has a definite yield stress and a constant
linear relation between shear and the rate of angular deformation.
 Examples of these are: Sewage sludge, drilling mud, etc.

A thyxotropic substance, which is non-Newtonian fluid, has non-linear

relationships between shear stress and the rate of angular deformation, beyond
an initial yield stress.
Example is the printer’s ink

Figure 1.2 shows the variation of shear stress with velocity gradient of the different
types of fluids.

( dvdx )
Figure 1.2. Variation of shear stress with velocity gradient

1) Distinction between a gas and a liquid:

The principal differences are:

a) A liquid has a free surface, and a given mass of a liquid occupies only a
given volume in a container, whereas a gas does not have a free surface,
and a given mass occupies all portions of any container regardless of its
size.
b) Liquids are practically incompressible and usually may be so considered
without introducing appreciable error. On the other hand, gases are
compressible and usually must be so treated.

2) Distinction between a solid and a fluid:

a) A solid is deformed by a shearing stress, the amount of unit deformation up

to a certain point being proportional to the unit stress; a fluid is also
deformed by a shearing stress but at a time rate of deformation which is
proportional to the stress.
b) If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the application of a given unit shearing
stress to a solid produces a certain unit deformation which is independent
of the time of application of the force, and when the stress is removed the
solid returns to its original form. On the other hand, if a given shearing
 stress is applied to a fluid, deformation continues to take place at a uniform
rate with time, and when the stress is removed the fluid does not return to
its original form.

4.0 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

The properties of fluids which are of fundamental importance in the study of fluid
mechanics / hydraulics are as defined:

a) Weight (W ) : is the earth’s gravitational pull upon a body, (N).

b) Mass (M ) : is the quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given body ,

(kg).

The relationship between the weight and the mass of a body is,

W
M=
g (kg) and W=Mg
c) Specific Weight or Weight Density (w∨γ): Specific weight or weight density
of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Also, it is the
force exerted by the earth’s gravity (g) upon a unit volume of a substance or
fluid.

Thus mathematically,

Weight of fluid ¿
w= = ( Mass of fluid ) x Acceleration due ¿ gravity
Volume of fluid Volume of fluid

Massof fluid x g
w=¿
Volume of fluid

W
w = V (N / m3)
Mass of fluid
but ρ=¿
Volume of fluid

then
w=ρ g (N / m3)

d) Density or Mass Density ( ρ ) : Density or mass density of a fluid is the ratio

of the mass of fluid to its volume or a density of a fluid is defined as the mass of
fluid contained in a unit volume. The density of liquids may be considered as
constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.

Mathematically, mass density is written as

Mass of fluid
ρ=¿
Volume of fluid

M W w
ρ = V = Vg = g (kg / m3)
and w=ρg
 e) Specific Volume v: Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid
occupied by a unit mass ,or the volume per unit of mass of fluid, Also, it is the
reciprocal of the density.

Mathematically, it is expressed as

Volume of fluid V
v=¿ = ( kg / m3)
Mass of fluid M

1
v= =¿ 1
or Mass of fluid
ρ
Volume

V 1 1
= ρ=
hence, ν = M ρ or ν

Note: Specific volume is commonly applied to gases.

f) Specific Gravity ( s) or Relative Density (r . d .). Specific gravity is defined as

the dimensionless quantity which is the ratio of the weight density (or density) of
a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the
standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air.

Weight density ( ¿ density ) of liquid

Mathematically, s (for liquids) =
Weight density ( ¿ density ) of water

wliquid ρliquid x g
s (for liquids) =
w water = ρwater x g
ρliquid
or s (for liquids) =
ρwater

Weight density ( ¿ d ensity ) of gas

s (for gases) =
Weight density ( ¿ density ) of air

w gas ρgas x g
s (for gases) =
w air = ρair x g

ρgas
or s (for gases) =
ρair

Thus weight density of a liquid = s x Weight density of water

= s x 1000 x 9.81 N/m3
The density of a liquid = s x Density of water
= s x 1000 kg/m3

If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will
be equal to the specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of
water. For
example the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence the density of
mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m3.

g) Viscosity (μ), dynamic or absolute, is defined as the property of a fluid, which

by virtue of cohesion and interaction between fluid molecules offers resistance
to shear deformation or to the movement of one layer of fluid over adjacent layer
of the fluid.
 When two layers of a fluid, a distance ' dy ' apart, move one over the other
at different velocities, say v and v+ dv as shown in Figure 1.3, the viscosity
together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid
layers.

v+ dv

dy v
dv

Velocity Profile

v
Figure 1.3. Velocity variation near a solid boundary

The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the
lower layer causes a shear stress on the top adjacent layer. This shear
stress, τ , is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y . .

dv
Mathematically, τ∝
dy
dv
or τ =μ
dy

where μ is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of

dynamic viscosity or only viscosity. dv /dy represents the rate of strain or rate
of shear deformation or velocity gradient.

dv
From the shear equation τ =μ
dy

μ=τ
dy
dv ( Newton−sec
m 2 ) N
= ( ) sec
m 2 or (Pa-s)

where ; μ = is the viscosity defined as the shear stress required to

produce unit rate of shear strain
τ = shear stress

h) Kinematic Viscosity ( ). It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity

and density of fluid.

μ μg
ν= =
Mathematically, ρ w (m2 / sec)
i) Surface Tension ( σ ), is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a
liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids
such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension. Similarly,
it is the attraction between molecules forming an imaginary film capable of
resisting tension at the interface between two liquids. Also, it is a liquid property
which enables it to resist tensile stress due to the cohesion between molecules
at the surface of liquid.

j) Capillary, is define as a phenomenon which deflects (rise or fall) of a liquid

surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the
 tube is held vertically in the liquid due to the intermolecular cohesive and
adhesive forces. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall
of the liquid surface is capillary depression. Its value depends upon the specific
weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.

Figure 1.4. Capillary in circular glass tubes

k) Adhesion - means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the

molecules of a solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid. Or simply, it is
the property of a liquid that enables to stick to other body.

l) Cohesion – means inter-molecular attraction between molecules of the same

liquid. That means it is a tendency of the liquid to remain as one assemblage of
particles. Also, it is the ability of the liquid to resist tension.

m) Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (E), it is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to
the corresponding volume change per unit volume.

5.0 PROPERTIES OF WATER

At 40 C
a. Density
a.1 Fresh water :  = 1000 kg/m3
a.2 Salt water :  = 1030 kg/m3
b. Specific Weight
b.1 Fresh water :  = 9810 N/m3
b.2 Salt water :  = 10,000N/m3
c. Specific Gravity : s =1

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Problem 1
A body requires a force of 100 N to accelerate it at a rate of 0.20 m/s 2. Determine the
mass of the body in kilograms and slugs.

Solution:

Note : 1 slug = 14.59 kg

Problem 2
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of liquid which
weighs 7 N.

Problem 3
Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity,
s = 0.7

Solution.
Given :

Sp. gravity s = 0.7

Problem 4
The weight of a body is 100 lb. Determine
a) its weight in Newtons;
b) its mass in kilogram, and
c) the rate of acceleration [ both in ft/s 2 and m/s2 ] if a net force of 50 lb is applied to
the body.

Solution
a)
b)

c)

Problem 5
A reservoir of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has a mass of 500 kg and a volume of 0.315
m3. Find the carbon tetrachloride’s
 a. weight c. specific weight
b. mass density d. specific gravity

Solution
a)
b)
c) w=

wCC l 15570
d) s= 4
=¿ = 1.59
w water 9810

Problem 6
A vessel of 4 m3 volume contains an oil, which weighs 30.2 kN. Determine the specific
gravity of the oil.

Solution
The specific weight of oil
Weight 30.2
w = =¿ =¿ 7.55 kN / m3
Volume 4

and specific gravity of oil is

Specific weight of liquid 7.55
s = =¿ = 0..77
Specific weight of pur water 9.81

Problem 7

IV.ACTIVITIES /
ASSESSMENT

References
1. HYDRAULICS (Reference/Text) SI Edition by Ruben del a
Fuente, Ma. Trinidad de la Rosa, Pedro Templo Jr.
2. A Textbook of FLUID MECHANICS And HYDRAULIC
MACHINES by Dr. R. Bansal