18-12-2020

Thermodynamics : Lecture notes

Laltu Chandra
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi

Disclaimer: This lecture notes is for sharing to the B. Tech. Chemical Engineering, and other1st year students of 2020-
2024/2025 batch of this institute, and the members of this study group, and not for publishing/sharing to any other platform,
for any other purpose, within or outside India, without proper permission.
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First Law of Thermodynamics

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First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy transfer : by heat and work
First Law of Thermodynamics : energy can be neither created nor destroyed during
a process; it can only change forms.
Example :
falling stone : conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy
Change (decrease) in potential energy : ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑍 − 𝑍 )
Change (increase) in kinetic energy: ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑉 − 𝑉 )
Neglecting air resistance, the conservation of energy leads to:
∆𝑃𝐸= ∆𝐾𝐸

For an adiabatic process: Q = 0 (no heat transfer)

Statement from Joule’s experiment: For all adiabatic processes between two specified
states of a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the
closed system and the details of the process.
Realize : There are infinite number of ways of energy interaction by work, during
adiabatic process, the above statement has far reaching consequence.
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First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy balance :

Energy Change of a System, ∆𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 :

Point Function

Energy exists in numerous forms such

as internal (sensible, latent, chemical,
and nuclear), kinetic, potential,
electric, and magnetic, and their sum
constitutes the total energy E of a
system as follows: Laltu Chandra 4

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First Law of Thermodynamics

Stationary systems: No change in kinetic and potential energy, i.e. ΔKE =0, ΔPE = 0. Therefore, ΔE = ΔU for such systems.

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout:

Closed system : heat and work
Open system/Control Volume : heat, work and mass
Heat Transfer, Q (path function):
Heat gain (Qin ): heat transfer to a system  increase the energy of molecules or the internal energy
Heat loss (Qout ): heat transfer from a system  decrease the energy of molecules or the internal energy
Work Transfer, W (path function):
Work done to a system, (Win ): increase the energy of a system (e.g. pump, compressor, mixers consume energy)
Work done by a system, (Wout ): decrease the energy of a system (e.g. hydraulic/gas turbine, car engine produce work)
Mass flow/transfer, m:
mass flow to a system, (min ): increase the energy of a system (e.g. cold water enters a tank)
mass flow out a system, (mout ): decrease the energy of a system (e.g. hot water leaving a tank)

Enet, in Qnet, in Wnet, in Laltu Chandra Emass, net, in 5

First Law of Thermodynamics : Mechanism of energy transfer

Path function Point function

For steady process

=0

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Mass Transfer Through a Control Surface

mass flow rate (𝑚̇): The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time

The differential mass flow rate of fluid (of density ρ), flowing across a small area
element dAc , having normal velocity component Vn is given by:

̇ = ρ𝑉 𝑑𝐴
𝛿𝑚

Here, 𝛿 and d indicates differential quantities; inexact differential 𝛿 is used for path
functions; the exact differential d is used for point function.

For example, in a flow through an annulus of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2, we
have:

Note: 𝑚̇ ≠ 𝑚̇ -𝑚̇
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First Law of Thermodynamics : Cyclic process of a closed system

the quantities Ein and Eout

Path function Point function

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First Law of Thermodynamics : Cyclic process of a closed system

Consider a system that undergoes a cycle in
which it changes from state 1 to state 2 by
process A and returns from state 2 to state
1 by process B.
From the first law for a cycle, 
  Q    W
2 1 2 1

  QA    QB   WA   WB
1 2 1 2

Now consider another cycle in which the control mass changes

from state 1 to state 2 by process C and returns to state 1 by
process B, as before
2 1 2 1

  Qc    QB   Wc   WB
1 2 1 2

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First Law of Thermodynamics : for a process

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First Law of Thermodynamics : for a closed system

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Illustrative solved example 1

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Illustrative example 2:

Note: for steady process

=0

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Illustrative solved example 3:

Conservation of Energy for an Oscillating Steel Ball
Problem: The motion of a steel ball in a hemispherical bowl of radius h
is to be analyzed. The ball is initially held at the highest location at point
A, and then it is released. Obtain relations for the conservation of energy
for the cases of frictionless and actual motions.
Solution:
Assumptions The motion is frictionless, and thus friction between the ball, the bowl, and the air is negligible.
Analysis: The actual motion involves the conversion of the kinetic and potential energies of the ball, together with
overcoming resistance to motion due to friction (doing frictional work). The general energy balance for any system
undergoing any process is
a. The heat generated by frictional heating is dissipated to the
surrounding air.
b. The frictional work represents the loss (conversion) of mechanical
energy into thermal energy.

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Enthalpy specific enthalpy or enthalpy, ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃υ (J/kg)

Where, specific volume υ = 1/ρ ( )

Total enthalpy, H = U + PѴ
Where, volume of fluid is Ѵ (m3)

Saturated liquid – Saturated Vapor

The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of

vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization). It
represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a
unit mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or
pressure.

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Saturated liquid – Saturated Vapor mixture

Quality : During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor (as mixture).
Quality x analyze this mixture properly, and is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the
mixture:

x = 0 for saturated liquid

x = 1 for saturated vapor
0 < x < 1 for mixture

Note: Quality is defined for saturated mixture (combination of the

saturated liquid and the saturated vapor) only.

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Saturated liquid – Saturated Vapor mixture

Using the above approach we can determine:

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Energy Analysis of Closed Systems

Moving boundary work:
Example : expansion or compression of a gas in a piston–cylinder device.
Application: Automobile engines; expansion (combustion of gases)  force to
piston  crankshaft to rotate.

Real Engine/compressors: Usually fast process  difficult to maintain quasi

equilibrium  difficult to specify state  moving boundary work, being path
function, cannot be determined analytically  need measurements to determine
moving boundary work.
Note: the present analysis is valid for quasi-static/quasi-equilibrium/slow process.

Moving boundary work (Analysis): Consider piston-cylinder system at an absolute

gas pressure P at the inner side of piston, the total volume V, and the cross-sectional
area of the piston is A. If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi-
equilibrium manner, the differential work done during this process is

Expansion: ΔѴ > 0; Compression: ΔѴ < 0

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Moving boundary work (Pd work)

The total boundary work done during the entire process:

The functional relationship between P and Ѵ i.e. P = f (Ѵ), during the

process, should be available for evaluating the integral. For example, for
an ideal gas, PѴ = mRT.

For non-quasi-equilibrium process, the pressure is not uniform

throughout the gas. Thus, the generalized form of the above equation is:

where Pi is the pressure at the inner face of the piston.

Work OUTPUT by the system during the expansion process (area under path A) = 𝑊
Work INPUT on the system during the compression process(area under path B) = 𝑊

Net work OUTPUT (colored area) 𝑊 =𝑊 -𝑊 >0

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Pd work for different processes

 a. P=constant, Isobaric process
2
W12   PdV  P(V2  V1 )
1
n=1

b. PѴ = constant, Isothermal process n >1

2
V2
W12   PdV  PV
1 1 ln
For an ideal gas: PѴ = mRT
1 V1
1 2
c. PѴn=constant, Polytropic process
1 1  P2V2
PV P V  PV
2
W12   PdV   2 2 1 1 Actual compression/expansion processes
1 n 1 1n

d. Ѵ=constant, Isochoric process

2
W12   PdV  0
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Problem 1: A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.07 m3 of Problem 2: piston–cylinder device

nitrogen gas at 130 kPa and 120°C. The nitrogen is now expanded with a set of stops initially contains
polytropically to a state of 100 kPa and 100°C. Determine the 0.3 kg of steam at 1.0 MPa and
boundary work done during this process. 400°C. The location of the stops
corresponds to 60 percent of the
initial volume. Now the steam is
cooled. Determine the compression
work if the final state is (a) 1.0
MPa and 250°C and (b) 500 kPa.
(c) Also determine the temperature
at the final state in part (b).

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Problem 3: A gas is compressed from an initial volume of 0.42 m3 to a final volume of 0.12 m3. During the
quasi-equilibrium process, the pressure changes with volume according to the relation P = aV + b, where a =
1200 kPa/m3 and b = 600 kPa. Calculate the work done during this process (a) by plotting the process on a P-
V diagram and finding the area under the process curve and (b) by performing the necessary integrations.

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Problem 4: A well-insulated rigid tank contains 5 kg of a saturated liquid–vapor mixture of water at l00 kPa. Initially, three-
quarters of the mass is in the liquid phase. An electric resistor placed in the tank is connected to a 110-V source, and a current of 8
A flows through the resistor when the switch is turned on. Determine how long it will take to vaporize all the liquid in the tank.
Also, show the process on a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.
Assumptions: 1 The tank is stationary, ΔKE = ΔPE = 0. 2 The device is well-insulated, Q = 0. 3 The energy stored in the
resistance wires, and the heat transferred to the tank itself is negligible.
Analysis: System: contents of the tank; System type: closed (no mass enters or leaves) ; V = constant, Wb = 0;
the energy balance for this stationary closed system can be expressed as

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Problem: A piston–cylinder device contains 0.05 m3 of a gas initially at 200 kPa. At this state, a linear spring
that has a spring constant of 150 kN/m is touching the piston but exerting no force on it. Now heat is
transferred to the gas, causing the piston to rise and to compress the spring until the volume inside the cylinder
doubles. If the cross-sectional area of the piston is 0.25 m2, determine (a) the final pressure inside the cylinder,
(b) the total work done by the gas, and (c) the fraction of this work done against the spring to compress it.
Without the spring, the pressure of the gas
would remain constant at 200 kPa while the
piston is rising (to balance the heat input).
But under the effect of the spring, the
pressure rises linearly from 200 kPa to,
200 + 120 = 320 kPa, at the final state.

b) An easy way of finding the work done is to plot the

process on a P-V diagram and find the area under the
process curve. Total work done by the gas : 13 kJ

(c)
Region I: work done against
the piston and the atmosphere.
Region II : Work done against
the spring.

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Forms of First law of thermodynamics

In absence of Kinetic and potential energy changes, we can write

 Q  dU   W
or, in the integral form
Q12  U  W1 2
Q12  U 2  U1   W12

If only pdV work is present

2
Q12  U 2  U1    pdV
1

or, in the differential form

 Q  dU  pdVLaltu Chandra 25

In an ideal gas there are no intermolecular forces of

attraction and repulsion

U  f T  only
•Internal energy U, an extensive property of a system
•Specific internal energy u, internal energy /unit mass, kJ/kg
H (=U+PV), Enthalpy an extensive property

In a constant pressure process

Q  U   pdV
Q  U2  p2V2   U1  p1V1 
Q  H2  H1
In a constant pressure process, amount of heat transfer
is equal to change in enthalpy
•Specific enthalpy h (=u+pv), enthalpy/unit mass, kJ/kg
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Problem: 0.4 kg of a certain gas in a piston–cylinder assembly undergoes an expansion

process for which the relationship between pressure and volume is given by PV1.5
=constant. The initial pressure is 3 bar, the initial volume is 0.1 m3 , and the final volume
is 0.2 m3. The change in specific internal energy of the gas in the process is u2-u1=-
55kJ/kg. Determine the net heat transfer for the process, in kJ. (-4.4kJ)

1st Law
Q12  U  W12
Work Transfer

1 1  P2V2
PV P V  PV
2
W12   PdV   2 2 1 1
1 n 1 1n

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Free or Unrestrained Expansion of Water (illustrative example)

A rigid tank is divided into two equal parts by a partition. Initially, one side of the tank contains 5 kg
of water at 200 kPa and 25°C, and the other side is evacuated. The partition is then removed, and the
water expands into the entire tank. The water is allowed to exchange heat with its surroundings until
the temperature in the tank returns to the initial value of 25°C. Determine (a) the volume of the tank,
(b) the final pressure, and (c) the heat transfer for this process.

Assumptions:
1 The system is stationary and thus, ΔKE = ΔPE = 0 and ΔE = ΔU.
2 The direction of heat transfer is to the system (heat gain, Qin). A negative result for
Qin indicates the assumed direction is wrong and thus it is a heat loss.
3 The volume of the rigid tank is constant, and thus moving boundary work (Wb = 0)
4 The water temperature remains constant during the process.
5 There is no electrical, shaft, or any other kind of work involved.

Analysis
System : tank + space.
System type : closed (no mass crosses the system boundary during the process)
 Water fills the entire tank when the partition is removed (possibly as a liquid–vapor mixture).

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Unrestrained Expansion of Water (illustrative example) c) Energy Transfer by Heat

Note
(a) Initially the water in the tank exists as a compressed liquid
Ѵ = 𝐶 → Wb = 0
since its pressure (200 kPa) is greater than the saturation
pressure at 25°C (3.1698 kPa). Approximating the compressed The total work W = 0
liquid as a saturated liquid at the given temperature, we find (system does not involve
any other forms of
work).

From the first law of

thermodynamics :

initially

finally

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Moving boundary work for a car engine (application)

Car Engine:

The moving boundary work done by the expanding hot gases = work done to overcome friction
between the piston and the cylinder + work done to push atmospheric air out of the way + work
done to rotate the crankshaft. Thus,

Note:
1. work used to overcome friction appears as frictional heat
2. work transmitted through the crankshaft is transferred to other components (such as the wheels) to perform
certain functions.

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First Law of Thermodynamics : Energy Conversion Efficiencies

Efficiency (η): Performance or efficiency, in general, can be as follows:

energy delivered to the house by hot water

E.g. η =
energy supplied to the water heater

Question: how to define the efficiency of gas-based water heater?

Answer: The system efficiency is based on the combustion of a fuel or a heating value (HV) of fuel. HV is amount of heat
released when a unit amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion products are cooled to the room
temperature. Then the performance of combustion equipment can be characterized by combustion efficiency, defined as

energy delivered to the house by hot water

η =
η (HV)
lower heating value, or LHV: when the water leaves as a vapor,
higher heating value, or HHV: when the water in the combustion gases is completely condensed
HHV – LHV =𝒎𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 × 𝒉𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 ; 𝒉 = 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚
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First Law of Thermodynamics :

Efficiency of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
Shaft work : Mechanical energy transfer is usually accomplished by a rotating shaft or shaft work.

Mechanical Efficiency of a device or process :

Note : In the absence of any irreversibilities such as friction, mechanical energy can be converted entirely
from one mechanical form to another.
Pump or Fan : shaft work (from an electric motor)  mechanical energy of fluid (less frictional losses).
Turbine : mechanical energy of a fluid  shaft work (to drive a generator or any other rotating device)

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Efficiency of Mechanical and Electrical Devices :

pump and turbine efficiency

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Efficiency of Mechanical and Electrical Devices :

Motor and Generator Efficiency
Electric Motor : Electrical energy  rotating mechanical energy (applications : drive fans, compressors,
robot arms, car starters, and so forth.)

motor efficiency :

Note: The full-load motor efficiencies range from about 35 percent for small motors to over 97 percent for
large high-efficiency motors.

Generator :
Rotating Mechanical (shaft) work  electrical power

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Efficiency of Mechanical and Electrical Devices: system or combined or

overall efficiency
Pump is usually operated with a motor, and turbine is operated with a
generator. Therefore, we are usually interested in the combined or overall
efficiency of pump–motor and turbine–generator combinations. These are
as follows:

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Illustrating solved example

Problem: The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity
by the installation of a hydraulic turbine–generator at a location where
the depth of the water is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000
kg/s. If the electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and
the generator efficiency is 95 percent, determine (a) the overall
efficiency of the turbine–generator, (b) the mechanical efficiency of
the turbine, and (c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the
generator.

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Problem: The 60W fan of a central heating system is to circulate air through the ducts. The analysis of
the flow shows that the fan needs to raise the pressure of air by 50 Pa to maintain flow. The fan is
located in a horizontal flow section whose diameter is 30 cm at both the inlet and the outlet. Determine
the highest possible average flow velocity in the duct.
Solution

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Problem: An escalator in a shopping center is designed to move 30 people, 75 kg each, at a constant speed of 0.8 m/s at 45° slope.
Determine the minimum power input needed to drive

Solution

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Problem: Water is pumped from a lake to a storage tank 20 m above at a rate of 70 L/s while consuming 20.4 kW of
electric power. Disregarding any frictional losses in the pipes and any changes in kinetic energy, determine (a) the
overall efficiency of the pump–motor unit and (b) the pressure difference between the inlet and the exit of the pump.

Solution:

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Specific Heats
specific heat : the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree, depending on the process.
Example: specific heat at constant volume cv and specific heat at
constant pressure cp

For stationary, closed system:

For constant volume process (no
expansion or compression):
For constant pressure expansion or
ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃υ
compression:
Observations:
1. These property relations are independent of the type of processes. They are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
2. cv, is determined by the energy transferred to a system during a constant-volume process per unit mass per unit degree rise
in temperature. This is the only relevance of constant volume. Likewise for cp.
3. More appropriately, cv, is the change in the internal energy of a substance per unit change in temperature at cons. vol.
4. More appropriately, cp is the change in the enthalpy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant pressure
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Open System (Control Volume) Analysis

Many applications in thermodynamics do not readily

lend themselves to control mass (closed system)
approach but are conveniently handled by more general
control volume technique.

A control volume (open system) is a volume in space

of interest for a particular study or analysis. The
surface of this control volume is self-referred to as a
control surface.

Turbo Fan Engine

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IC Engine

Compressor

Turbine

Nozzle

Heat
Exchanger

Diffuser

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Mass as well as heat and work can cross the control surface
and the mass in the control volume as well as the properties
of this mass can change with time.

W cv
inlet i

m i , Pi , Ti ,vi , dmcv dEcv

dt dt exit
hi , ui ,Vi , Z i
e m e , Pe , Te , ve ,
he ,ue ,Ve , Ze
Q cv
Control Volume

Mass Balance or continuity equation

dmcv
 m
 i  m
e
dt
Rate of change of mass Net rate of mass transfer

Energy Balance or 1st Law of thermo. equation

Rate of change of energy in control volume must be caused
by net rate of energy transfer
dE  
 Q  W   additional terms 
dt
Fluid flowing across the control surface 1
at inlet , ei  ui  Vi 2  gZ i
enters or leaves with an amount of 2
energy per unit mass as, 1
1
at outlet , ee  ue  Ve 2  gZ e
e  u  V 2  gZ 2
2

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Another form of work is involved ‘pv’, which is known as flow work,

related only open system. Whenever a fluid enters a control volume
at state (i) or exits at state (e), there is a boundary movement work
associated with that process.

Thus, the work done in pushing

the fluid element across the
boundary (i.e., the flow work) is
Wflow  FL  PAL  PV
The flow work per unit mass of
the fluid element: w flow  Pv

at inlet , W flow in  m
 i Pv
i i

at outlet , W flow out  m

 e Pev e

Energy Balance or 1st Law of thermo. equation

dE  
 Q  W   additional terms 
dt
dE cv 
 Qcv  W cv  m
 i ei  m e ee  W flowin  W flowout
dt
dE cv 
i i   me  ee  Pe ve 
 i  ei  Pv
 Qcv  W cv  m 
dt
dEcv  1 2 1 2
 i  ui  Pv
 Qcv  W cv  m    
i i  Vi  gZ i   me  ue  Peve  Ve  gZe 
dt  2   2 
dEcv  1 1
 i  hi  Vi 2  gZi   m
 Qcv  W cv  m  e  he  Ve2  gZe 
dt  2   2 

For multiple inlet and outlet

dEcv  1 1
 i  hi  Vi 2  gZ i    m
 Qcv  W cv   m  e  he  Ve2  gZ e 
dt  2   2 

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Steady state steady flow:

Assumptions
•The state of the mass at each point in the control volume does
not vary with time.
•As for the mass flux and the state of this mass at each discrete
area of flow on the control surface does not vary with time.
•The rate at which heat and work cross the control surface
remains constant.
dmcv dE
 0; cv  0
dt dt
Energy balance (1st Law):
Mass balance:
1 1
0  m  i  m e 0  Q cv  W cv   m  i  hi  Vi 2  gZ i    m e  he  Ve2  gZ e 
 2   2 
 m i   m e 1 1
Q cv   m i  hi  Vi 2  gZ i    m  e  he  Ve2  gZ e   W cv
 2   2 

For single inlet and single outlet

Mass balance: i m
m e m


1 1
Energy balance  i  hi  Vi 2  gZ i   m
Q cv  m  e  he  Ve2  gZ e   W cv
(1st law):  2   2 

 1   1 
or, q   hi  Vi 2  gZ i    he  Ve2  gZ e   w
 2   2 

Q cv W cv
where , q  , kJ / kg; w , kJ / kg
m m

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Turbine (Positive work)

Energy: i
w
1 1
 i  hi  Vi 2  gZ i   m
Q cv  m  e  he  Ve2  gZ e   W cv
 2   2 
Or,
 1   1 
q   hi  Vi 2  gZ i    he  Ve2  gZ e   w e
 2   2 
q
Neglecting K.E and P.E Changes
q  hi  he  w
w  q   hi  he  kJ / kg
  hi  he 
W cv  Q cv  m

Pump/ Compressor (Negative work) 1

Energy:
1 1
 1  h1  V12  gZ1   m
Q cv  m  2  h2  V22  gZ2   W cv
 2   2 
or,
 1   1  q
q   h1  V12  gZ1    h2  V22  gZ2   w 2
 2   2 

Neglecting K.E and P.E Changes

  h1  h2 
W cv  Q cv  m

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nozzle
diffuser
cv Qcv  0
W
 1   1 
q   hi  Vi 2  gZ i    he  Ve2  gZ e   w
 2   2 
 1   1 
0   hi  Vi 2    he  Ve2   0
 2   2 

Home Assignment

Do the 1st law analysis for

(i)Heat Exchanger
(ii)Throttling Device
(iii) Combustion Chamber

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Argon gas enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 900kPa and 4500C with a velocity
of 80m/s and leaves at 150kPa with a velocity of 150m/s. The inlet area of turbine
is 60cm2. Power output is 250kW. Determine the exit temperature.
R=0.2081kJ/kgK ,cp=0.5203kJ/kgK (267.30C)

1
w
1 1
 1  h1  V12  gZ1   m
Q cv  m  2  h2  V22  gZ2   W cv
 2   2 
1 1
  h1  V12   m
0m   h2  V22   W cv
2  2   2 
q  h1  h2  
W cv 1 2
 V  V12 
m 2 2
A1V1 A1V1P1
   AV 
m  250 1
v1 RT1 cp T1  T2   
2.874 2*1000
1502  802 
0.006*80*900
  2.874 kg / s T2  540.3K  267.30 C
0.2081*723

Air enters a compressor operating at steady state at a pressure of 1bar, a

temperature of 290K and a velocity of 6m/s through an inlet with an area of
0.1m2. At the exit the pressure is 7bar, the temperature is 450K and the
velocity is 2m/s. Heat transfer from the compressor to its surroundings occurs
at a rate of 180kJ/min. Employing the ideal gas model, calculate the power
input to compressor in kW. -118.76kW

1 1 1
 1  h1  V12  gZ1   m
Q cv  m  2  h2  V22  gZ2   W cv
 2   2 
1
 V12  V22 
  h1  h2   m
W cv  Q cv  m
2
cv 180  0.72*cp T1 T2   0.72* 1  62 22 
W
60 2*1000
q 2
A1V1 A1V1P1 W  118.76 kW
   AV 
m 
v1 RT1
0.1*6*100
  0.72kg / s
0.287*290

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Air modeled as an ideal gas flows through the compressor and heat exchanger shown
in Fig. The power input to the compressor is 100 kW. A separate liquid cooling water
stream flows through the heat exchanger. All data are for operation at steady state.
Stray heat transfer with the surroundings can be neglected, as can all kinetic and
potential energy changes. Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the air, in kg/s, and (b)
the mass flow rate of the cooling water, in kg/s. (0.4523kg/s, 1.623kg/s)

Turbine:
1 1
 1  h1  V12  gZ1   m
Q cv  m  2  h2  V22  gZ2   W cv
 2   2 
W cv 100
1  m
m 2  
 h1  h2  1.005*(280  500)
 0.4523 kg / s

Heat Exchanger:
 2  h2  h3   m
m  4  h5  h4 
0.4523*1.005*(500  350)  m
 4 * 4.2*(30  20)
m 4  1.623 kg / s

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The transient process:

(Uniform state, uniform flow process)
Many processes of thermodynamics
involve unsteady flow and examples
are filling closed tanks with gas liquid,
discharge from cold vessels.
Assumptions:
•The state of the mass within the
control volume may change with
time, but at any instant of time
the state is uniform throughout
the entire control volume.
•The state of the mass flow rates
may vary with time.

Mass as well as heat and work can cross the control surface
and the mass in the control volume as well as the properties
of this mass can change with time.

W cv
inlet i

m i , Pi , Ti ,vi , dmcv dEcv

dt dt exit
hi , ui ,Vi , Z i
e m e , Pe , Te , ve ,
he ,ue ,Ve , Ze
Q cv
Control Volume

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•Lets the overall process occurs during time t.

•At any time instant of time during the process
Mass Balance or continuity equation

dmcv
 m
 i  m
e
dt
Integrating over time t gives the change of mass in the control
volume during the overall process
t
 dmcv  t t

  dt  dt     mi dt     m e dt

0  0 0

 m2  m1 cv   mi   me

Net mass change in Net mass transferred

control volume across control volume

1st law of the transient process which applies at any

instant of time during the process

1 dE 1
 i  hi  Vi 2  gZ i   cv   m
Q cv   m  e  he  Ve2  gZ e   W cv
 2  dt  2 

Integrating over time t gives the change of energy in the control

volume during the overall process
t t
 1 2  t
dE cv
 Qcv dt    m i  hi  2 v i  gz i dt   dt dt 

0 0   0
t
 1 2  t

 e  e 2 e
m h  v  gz e dt   W cv dt
0   0

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 1   1 
Qcv  mi  hi  vi2  gzi   E2 E1 cv  me  he  ve2  gze  Wcv
 2   2 

 1    1   1 
Qcv  mi  hi  vi2  gzi   m2  u2  V22  gZ2   m1 u1  V12  gZ1  
 2    2   2 cv
 1 
me  he  ve2  gze  Wcv
 2 

Simplified Form: For single inlet and single outlet and

neglecting K.E and P.E Changes

Mass:  m2  m1 cv  mi  me
Energy: Qcv  mi hi   m2u2  m1u1   me he  Wcv
cv

Filling of an empty tank from pipe line

0 0
 m2  m1 cv  mi  me
m2  mi
0 0 0 0
i i   mu
Qcv  mh 1 1 cv  mehe Wcv
2 2  mu

i i  mu
mh 2 2 ; u2  hi

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A 25-L tank that is initially evacuated is connected by a valve to an

air supply line flowing air at 200C, 800 kPa. The valve is opened, and
air flows into the tank until the pressure reaches 600 kPa.
Determine the final temperature and mass inside the tank,
assuming the process is adiabatic.
0 0
 m2 m1 cv  mi me
m2  mi
0 0 0 0
Qcv  mh
i i   2 2 1 1 cv e e Wcv
mu  mu  m h

pV mhi i  m2u2 ;
mi  m2  2 2 u2  hi
RT2
600*0.025 cpTi 1.005*293
 T2    410K  1370 C
0.287* 410 cv 0.718
 0.1275kg

A 2m3 rigid tank initially contains air at 100kpa and 220C. The tank is
connected to a supply line through a valve. Air is flowing in the
supply line at 600kPa and 220C. The valve is opened and air is
allowed to enter the tank until the pressure in the tank reaches the
line pressure at which point the valve is closed. A thermometer
placed in the tank indicated that the air temperature at the final
state is 770C. Determine (a) the mass of air that has entered the
tank (b) the amount of heat transfer. (9.584kg, -339.72kJ)
p1V1 100*2
m1    2.362kg
RT1 0.287*295
pV 600*2
m2  2 2   11.946kg
RT2 0.287*350
 m2  m1 cv  mi  me
mi   m2  m1 cv  11.946  2.362
 9.584kg

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i i   m2u2  m1u1 cv  me he  Wcv

Qcv  mh
Energy:

Qcv   m2u2  m1u1 cv  mi hi  0  0

  m2 cvT2  m1cvT1    m2  m1  * cpTi
 11.946*0.718*350  2.362*0.718*295  9.584*1.005*295
 3002  500.3  2841.42
 339.72kJ

Acknowledgement

The author hereby acknowledge the following resources used for

preparing the lecture notes:

a. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Y. A. Cengel, M. A.

Boles, M. Kanoglu, McGraw Hill Publication (India) Pvt Ltd.
b. Engineering Thermodynamics by P. K. Nag, McGraw Hill Publication
(India) Pvt Ltd.
c. Lecture notes by Dr. S. S. Mondal
d. Any other.

18-12-2020 Laltu Chandra 78

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