UNDERSTANDING

POWER SYSTEM
HARMONICS
CIRILO C. CALIBJO, Ph.D., PEE, ACPE, ASEAN Engr.
2019 – IIEE National President
2018 – IIEE Vice President for Internal Affairs
2017 – IIEE National Secretary
2016 – IIEE National Treasurer
2012 - IIEE-WV Regional Governor
Dean, CEA, Angeles University Foundation
OUTLINE

• Introduction
• Theory and Computation Techniques
• Quantifying Harmonics
• Sources
• Effects and Symptoms
• Standards
• Solutions
Introduction
Utility Power to a Facility

• Voltage from the utility is delivered in sinusoidal

form, at a frequency of 60 Hz.
• All electrical equipment in the plant traditionally
designed to operate at this frequency and draw
sinusoidal currents
Utility Power to a Facility

• However, certain types of loads produce currents

and voltages with frequencies that are integral
multiples of the 60 Hz fundamental frequency.
• These higher frequencies are a form of electrical
pollution known as power system harmonics.
Utility Power to a Facility

• The most common sources of harmonics are power

electronic loads such as adjustable-speed drives (ASDs)
and switching power supplies.
• Electronic loads use diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs), power transistors, and other electronic switches to
either chop waveforms to control power, or to convert
60Hz AC to DC.
Introduction: Example

• A single-phase power electronic load that you are

familiar with is the single-phase light dimmer as
shown below.
Introduction: Example

• A single-phase power electronic load that you are

familiar with is the single-phase light dimmer as
shown below.
Introduction: Example

• A single-phase power electronic load that you are

familiar with is the single-phase light dimmer as
shown below.
Introduction: Example

• By adjusting the potentiometer, the light dimmer

current waveforms for firing angles α = 30º, 90º,
and 150º
Introduction: Example

• By adjusting the potentiometer, the normalized

power delivered to light bulb versus α
Introduction

• The light dimmer is a simple example, but it represents

two major benefits of power electronic loads −
controllability and efficiency.
• The “tradeoff” is that power electronic loads draw
nonsinusoidal currents from AC power systems, and
these currents react with system impedances to create
voltage harmonics and, in some cases, resonance.
• Studies show that harmonic distortion levels in
distribution feeders are rising as power electronic loads
continue to proliferate and as shunt capacitors are
employed in greater numbers to improve power factor
closer to unity.
Introduction

• Unlike transient events such as lightning that last for a

few microseconds, or voltage sags that last from a few
milliseconds to several cycles, harmonics are steady-
state, periodic phenomena that produce continuous
distortion of voltage and current waveforms.
• Harmonics are not spikes, dips, impulses, oscillations
and other forms of transients, and not even grounding
problems.
• These periodic nonsinusoidal waveforms are described
in terms of their harmonics, whose magnitudes and
phase angles are computed using Fourier analysis.
Introduction

• Ordinarily, the DC term is not present in power

systems because most loads do not produce DC
and because transformers block the flow of DC.
• Even-ordered harmonics are generally much smaller
than odd-ordered harmonics because most
electronic loads have the property of halfwave
symmetry, and half-wave symmetric waveforms
have no even-ordered harmonics.
Introduction

• The current drawn by electronic loads can be made

distortion-free (i.e., perfectly sinusoidal), but the
cost of doing this is significant and is the subject of
ongoing debate between equipment manufacturers
and electric utility companies in standard-making
activities.
• Two main concerns are:
1. What are the acceptable levels of current
distortion?
2. Should harmonics be controlled at the source,
or within the power system?
Theory and
Computation
Techniques
Definition: What Are Harmonics?
Technical Description

A high frequency sinusoidal current or voltage produced by

certain non-linear and switching processes in the system
during normal periodic operation (steady state);
• The harmonic frequency is an integer multiple of the
system operating frequency (fundamental).
• The non-sinusoidal part in a periodic voltage or
current is the harmonic ripple or harmonic
distortion—comprised of harmonic frequencies.
Definition: What Are Harmonics?
Mathematical Definition
Non-Harmonic
Non-periodic Distortion
Steady
AC DC Disturbance/Distortion
offrom
State:
Input anSubharmonic
AC
an Voltage Component
Inverter
Current Ripple

• Sine and cosine functions

1
1
1001
of time with frequencies
0.5
0.5
100
0.5

that are integer multiples 0

of a fundamental 80
-0.5
50
Actual
frequency -1
-1
60
Desired
0 0.5 1 1.5

Volts
Current
• Harmonic sine and 0
Transient
Non-periodicDCSteady
Input State:aResponse
from Interharmonic
Diode RectifierComponent
cosine functions sum up
40

%%
11

to a periodic (non-
1
20
0.5
-50
sinusoidal) function 0.5
0
0 Specified

• Terms of the Fourier series

-0.5
Actual
Actual
-100
-1

expansion of a periodic Ripple Distortion

-1 Specified Actual Desired
-200

function;
00 0.5
0.5 11 1.5
1.5
0 0.5 Time 1 1.5
Time
Time
Definition: Harmonic Analysis

What is it?
– Principles, properties and methods for expressing
periodic functions as sum of (harmonic) sine and cosine
terms:
• Fourier Series
• Fourier Transform
• Discrete Fourier Transform
Definition: Harmonic Analysis

Where is it used?
– Obtain the response of a system to arbitrary periodic
inputs; quantify/assess harmonic effects at each
frequency
– Framework for describing the quality of the system input
and output signals (spectrum)
Definition: Generalization-Fourier Series

• The Fourier theorem states that a bounded periodic

function f(t) with limited finite number of
discontinuities can be described by an infinite series
of sine and cosine terms of frequency that is the
integer multiple of the fundamental frequency of
f(t).
Definition: Generalization-Fourier Series

• Rectangular Form

1 ∞ 2𝜋
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴
2 0
+ 𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡) , 𝜔 = 𝑇

𝑡𝑜 +𝑇 𝑡𝑜 +𝑇
2 2
where 𝐴0 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑡 cos(𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡𝑜 𝑇 𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑜 +𝑇
is the zero frequency 2
𝐵𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑡 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
or average value of 𝑇 𝑡𝑜
f(t).
Definition: Generalization-Fourier Series

• Polar Form

1 ∞
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴 + 𝑛=1 𝐶𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )
2 0

where
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐴2𝑛 + 𝐵𝑛2

𝐴𝑛
tan 𝜃𝑛 =
𝐵𝑛
 Example: Square Wave Pulse

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
−1 −0.50 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −0.25
0
𝑓 𝑡 = 1 −0.25 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.25
-0.2
−1 0.25 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0.50
-0.4

-0.6
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑇 = 1
-0.8

-1 2𝜋
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ω= 2𝜋𝑓 = = 2𝜋
𝑇
Example: Square Wave Pulse

2 𝑡𝑜 +𝑇 −1 −0.50 < 𝑡 < −0.25

𝐴𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑡 cos(𝑛𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 = 1 −0.25 < 𝑡 < 0.25
𝑇 𝑡𝑜
−1 0.25 < 𝑡 < 0.50
−0.25 0.25
2𝜋 2𝜋
−1 cos 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 1 cos 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 −0.5 1 −0.25 1
𝐴𝑛 = 0.5
1 2𝜋
+ −1 cos 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0.25 1

−0.25 0.25
−1 cos 2𝑛𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 1 cos 2𝑛𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−0.5 −0.25
𝐴𝑛 = 2 0.5
+ −1 cos 2𝑛𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0.25
Example: Square Wave Pulse

−1 −0.25 1 0.25 −1 0.5

𝐴𝑛 = 2 sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) + sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡) + sin(2𝑛𝜋𝑡)
2𝑛𝜋 −0.5 2𝑛𝜋 −0.25 2𝑛𝜋 0.25

−1 1
sin −0.5𝑛𝜋 − sin −𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 − sin −0.5𝑛𝜋
𝐴𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
−1
+ sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 0.5𝑛𝜋
2𝑛𝜋

−1 1
sin −0.5𝑛𝜋 − sin −𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 − sin −0.5𝑛𝜋
𝐴𝑛 = 2 2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
−1
+ sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 0.5𝑛𝜋
2𝑛𝜋
Example: Square Wave Pulse
−1 1
−sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 + sin 𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋
𝐴𝑛 = 2 2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
−1
+ sin 𝑛𝜋 − sin 0.5𝑛𝜋
2𝑛𝜋
1 sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 − sin 𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋
𝐴𝑛 =
𝑛𝜋 − sin 𝑛𝜋 + sin 0.5𝑛𝜋

1
𝐴𝑛 = 4 sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 − 2sin 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋

𝟒
𝑨𝒏 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟎. 𝟓𝒏𝝅
𝒏𝝅
Example: Square Wave Pulse
4
𝐴𝑛 = sin 0.5𝑛𝜋 n A B
𝑛𝜋
4 4 1 4/p 0
𝑛 = 1: 𝐴𝑛 = sin 0.5𝜋 =
𝜋 𝜋 2 0 0
4 3 -4/3p 0
𝑛 = 2: 𝐴𝑛 = sin 𝜋 = 0
2𝜋
4 4
4 0 0
𝑛 = 3: 𝐴𝑛 = sin 1.5𝜋 = −
3𝜋 3𝜋 5 4/5p 0
4 6 0 0
𝑛 = 4: 𝐴𝑛 = sin 2𝜋 = 0
4𝜋
n ±4/np 0
𝑡𝑜 +𝑇
2
𝐵𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑇 𝑡𝑜
Example: Waveform Recovery

1
0.5 n=1-3
n=1-9
n=1-7
n=1-5
n=1
0

-0.5
-1

-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

1
0.5
E  0 as N  
0

-0.5
-1

-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Example: Approximation of the Rectified sine

v(t)
Vm
v (t )  Vm sin(t )
2p

T

A periodic signal= (constant part)+(oscillating tpart)

vo(t)
Vm

T/2 T t
d=T/2
Example: Average Value
vo(t)
Vm

T/2 T t
d=T/2

d T /2
1 2
A0   Vm sin( t )  dt  V m sin( t )  dt 
d 0 T 0
p
Vm Vm 2
 sin( t )  dt  p  cos(t ) 
t p
 Vm
p 0
t 0
p
Example: Harmonic Terms
vo(t)
Vm

T/2 T t
d=T/2

2p
d
2
Ak   Vm sin( t )  cos(k t )  dt 
d 0 d
T /2
4Vm
T  sin( t )  cos(2kt )  dt 
0
p
Vm 4Vm
p  sin( 2k  1)t  sin( 2k  1)t  dt  
0
p (2k  1)( 2k  1)
Example: Summary

v(t) 2 4Vm 1
Vm
v (t )  Vm sin(t )
vo (t ) 
p
Vm  
p k 1, 2, (2k  1)( 2k  1)
cos( 2kt )
2p

T

t ( n  2k ) 

2 4Vm 1
vo(t)
vo (t ) 
p
Vm  
p n 2, 4, (n  1)( n  1)
cos( nt )
Vm

T/2 T t
Example: Numerical Problem-DC Drive

Find the armature current io(t) below

io

+ E=150 V
is Ra=1 W
La=5 mH

vo

 s  2  240  sin(2p 60  t ), V
-
Example: Procedure to obtain response

Step 1: Obtain the harmonic composition of the input

(Fourier Analysis)

Step 2: Obtain the system output at each input

frequency (equivalent circuit, T.F. frequency
response)

Step 3: Sum the outputs from Step 2.

Example: Numerical Problem-DC Drive
io

+ E=150 V
is Ra=1 W
La=5 mH

vo
Input Voltage

200

v,V
0

s
 s  2  240  sin(2p 60  t ), V -200
-
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

Output Voltage
Input Voltage

300
200
200
v,V
v,V

0
s

100
-200
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 Time, s

Output Voltage

300

200
v,V
o
Example: Input Harmonic Approximation

Input Voltage

200
s  2  240  sin( 2p 60  t )  339.4  sin( 377  t ) Average or dc component
v,V

2
s

-200
Vo ,dc 
2
Vm  216.1 V Vo ,dc  Vm  216.1 V
0 0.005 0.01
p 0.015 0.02 0.025 p
Output Voltage

300
Harmonic Expansion
200
v,V
o


4Vm 1

100
o  Vo,dc   cos(2p 60n  t )
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
p n2,4, (n  1)  (n  1)
Time, s

Truncated Approximation (n=2, 4, and 6)

o  216.1  (144.1 cos(2p 120  t )  28.8  cos(2p  240  t )  12.3  cos(2p  360  t ))
Example: Equivalent Circuit
io

+ E=150 V
is Ra=1 W
La=5 mH

vo

 s  2  240  sin(2p 60  t ), V
-

o  216.1  (144.1 cos(2p 120  t )  28.8  cos(2p  240  t )  12.3  cos(2p  360  t ))
Example: Equivalent Circuit
io

Vo ,dc  216.1 V

+ La= 0.005 H
 o , 2  144.1  cos( 2p  120  t ) V
-
+
 o, 4  28.8  cos( 2p  240  t ) V Ra=1 W
-

+ E=150 V
 o,6  12.3  cos( 2p  360  t ) V
-

o  216.1  (144.1 cos(2p 120  t )  28.8  cos(2p  240  t )  12.3  cos(2p  360  t ))
Example: Superimpose Sources: DC Source

io
Vo ,dc  E
Vo ,dc  216.1 V
I o ,dc   66.1 A
+
Ra
La= 0.005 H
 o , 2  144.1  cos( 2p  120  t ) V
-
+
 o, 4  28.8  cos( 2p  240  t ) V Ra=1 W Ra=1 W
-
Vo ,dc  216.1 V
+ E=150 V
 o,6  12.3  cos( 2p  360  t ) V
- E=150 V
Example: Superposition: n=2, f=120 Hz

io 2  36.9 cos( 2p 120  t  p  75 )  36.9 cos( 2p 120  t  75 )

io

Vo ,dc  216.1 V
Vo , 2 144.1
I o, 2   p  75  36.9(p  75) A
+ Za 3.9 La= 0.005 H
 o , 2  144.1  cos( 2p  120  t ) V
-
+
iX a  i (2p 120) La
+  o, 4  28.8  cos( 2p  240  t ) V  i3.77 W Ra=1 W Z a (2)  Ra  iX a
Vo , 2  144.1p V
-
 1  i3.77  3.9 75 W
-+ Ra=1 W E=150 V
 o,6  12.3  cos( 2p  360  t ) V
-
Example: Superposition: n=4, f=240 Hz

io

Vo ,dc  216.1 V

Vo, 4 28.8
+ I o, 4   p  82L.a4=0.005
  3.78
H  (p  82.4) A
 o , 2  144.1  cos( 2p  120  t ) V Za 7.61
-
+ iX a  i (2p 240) La
 o, 4  28.8  cos( 2p  240  t ) V
+  i 7.54 W Ra=1 W Z a (4)  Ra  iX a
- V  28.8p V
o,4  1  i 7.54  7.6182.4 W
+- Ra=1 W E=150 V
 o,6  12.3  cos( 2p  360  t ) V
-
Example: Superposition: n=6, f=360 Hz

io

Vo ,dc  216.1 V
Vo , 6 12.3
I o,6   p  85  1.08(p  85) A
+ Za 11.35
La= 0.005 H
 o , 2  144.1  cos( 2p  120  t ) V
- iX a  i (2p 360) La
++  i11.31 W Z a (4)  Ra  iX a
 o, 4  28.8  cos( 2p  240  t ) V Ra=1 W  1  i11.31  11.3585 W
- Vo , 6  12.3p V
- Ra=1 W
+ E=150 V
 o,6  12.3  cos( 2p  360  t ) V
-
Example: Summary

Freq., Vo ampl, V Io ampl, A Za magn, W Power

Hz loss, W
Po,dc  Ra I o2,dc  1W  66.1A
2

0 (dc) 216.1 66.1 1 4,369.2

120 144.1 36.9 3.9 680.8
36.9 A
2
240 28.8 3.78 P
2
 I o, 2  7.61I o,2
 Ra    Ra  1W 
2
7.14
h,2
 2  2 2
360 12.3 1.08 11.35 .583
Total
RMS 240 71.1 Power 5,057.7
Loss
Output
Power 9,915
(66.1A)(150V)
Example: Output Time and Frequency Response
io
Output Voltage
Output Spectra
250 Input Voltage and Current +
300 is Voltage
 36.9 cos(2p 120  t  75)  3.78 cos(2p
io  66.1300 cos(2p
 240  t  82.4)  1.08Current  360  t  85) A
200
v,V

200 vo
o

200
100
V , V and I , A

100 0 150
-
v , V and i , A

oh

0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

s

0 Output Current
100
oh

100
s

-100
i ,A

-20050 50
o

-300
0
0
00 0.005
0.005 0
0.01
0.01 0.015
2 0.015 0.02
4
0.02 0.025
0.025 6
Time,
Time, s
sHarmonic Number
Quantifying
Harmonics
Root Mean Square

• The squared rms value of a periodic current (or

voltage) waveform is defined as
𝑡0 +𝑇
2
1
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑖(𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0

• For a sinusoidal waveform,

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
Root Mean Square

• If the waveform has Fourier series

∞

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )
𝑛=1

then

2 2 2 2 1 ∞ 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝐼2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 +𝐼3,𝑟𝑚𝑠 +⋯ =2 𝑛=1 𝐼𝑛
Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD) Level

• Percentage of individual harmonic relative to

fundamental

𝐼𝑛
𝐼𝐻𝐷𝑛 = 𝑥100%
𝐼1
Total Harmonic Distortion

• THD is defined as the rms value of the harmonics

above fundamental, divided by the rms value of the
fundamental
1 ∞ 2
𝑛=2 𝐼𝑛
2
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 =
𝐼1
2
or
2 2 2
𝐼2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝐼3,𝑟𝑚𝑠 + 𝐼4,𝑟𝑚𝑠 +⋯
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼 =
𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠
Total Harmonic Distortion

• Since
∞
2 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑛,𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑛=1

• Thus, the equation linking THD and rms is

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼2

Total Harmonic Distortion

• Then line losses always increase when harmonics

are present because
1. line losses are proportional to the square of rms
current (and sometimes increase more rapidly
due to the resistive skin effect), and
2. rms increases with harmonics,.
Total Demand Distortion (TDD)

• Ratio of rms of all harmonics current relative to the

maximum load current

2
∞
𝐼
𝑛=2 𝑛 𝐼2 2 + 𝐼3 2 + 𝐼4 2 + ⋯
𝑇𝐷𝐷 = =
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐿
Average Power

• Harmonic powers (including the fundamental) add

and subtract independently to produce total
average power. Average power is defined as
𝑡0 +𝑇 𝑡0 +𝑇
1 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 𝑇 𝑡0

∞ ∞
𝑉𝑛 𝐼𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = cos(∅𝑛 − 𝜃𝑛 ) = 𝑉𝑛,𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ 𝐼𝑛,𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∗ 𝑑𝑝𝑓𝑛
2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑃1,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑃2,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑃3,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + ⋯

Average Power

• Electric utility generating plants produce sinusoidal

terminal voltages.
• If there is no harmonic voltage at the terminals of a
generator, then the generator produces no
harmonic power.
• Due to nonlinear loads, harmonic power does
indeed exist in power systems and causes
additional losses.
Average Power

• Thus, it is accurate to say that

1. Harmonic power is parasitic and is due to nonlinear
equipment and loads.
2. The source of most harmonic power is power
electronic loads.
3. By chopping the 60 Hz current waveform and
producing harmonic voltages and currents, power
electronic loads convert some of the “60 Hz” power
into harmonic power, which in turn propagates back
into the power system, increasing system losses and
impacting sensitive loads.
True Power Factor

• To examine the impact of harmonics on power

factor, it is important to consider the true power
factor, which is defined as
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑝𝑓𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
• In sinusoidal situation, this reduces to the familiar
displacement power factor
𝑉1 𝐼1
𝑃1,𝑎𝑣𝑔 cos(∅1 − 𝜃1 )
𝑑𝑝𝑓1 = = 2 = cos(∅1 − 𝜃1 )
𝑉1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉1 𝐼1
2
True Power Factor

• When harmonics are present

𝑃1,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑃2,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑃3,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + ⋯
𝑝𝑓𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 =
𝑉1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑉2 ∗ 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼2

• In most instances, the harmonic powers are small

compared to the fundamental power, and the
voltage distortion is less than 10%.
𝑃1,𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑝𝑓1
𝑝𝑓𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ≈ =
𝑉1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑉2 ∗ 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼2 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼2
True Power Factor

• Maximum True Power Factor of a Nonlinear Load

Current Maximum
THD pftrue
20% 0.98
50% 0.89
100% 0.71
K Factor

• Losses in transformers increase when harmonics are

present because
1. harmonic currents increase the rms current
beyond what is needed to provide load power,
2. harmonic currents do not flow uniformly
throughout the cross sectional area of a
conductor and thereby increase its equivalent
resistance.
K Factor

• Dry-type transformers are especially sensitive to

harmonics.
• The K factor was developed to provide a convenient
measure for rating the capability of transformers,
especially dry types, to serve distorting loads without
overheating.
• The K factor formula is

∞ 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑛 𝐼𝑛
𝐾= ∞ 2
𝑛=1 𝐼𝑛

• In most situations, K ≤10

Phase Shift

• There are two types of phase shifts pertinent to

harmonics.
2𝑇
1. The first is a shift in time, e.g. the ± among
3
the phases of balanced a-b-c currents.

Example:
If
∞

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )
𝑛=1
Phase Shift
When delayed by ΔT
∞

𝑖 𝑡 − ∆𝑇 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔(𝑡 − ∆𝑇) + 𝜃𝑛 )
𝑛=1

𝑖 𝑡 − ∆𝑇 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 − 𝑛𝜔∆𝑇)
𝑛=1

𝑖 𝑡 − ∆𝑇 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 − 𝑛𝜃1 )
𝑛=1
Phase Shift

2. The second type of phase shift is in harmonic angle,

which occurs in wye-delta transformers. Wye-delta
transformers shift voltages and currents by ± 30°.
ANSI standards require that, regardless of which side
is delta or wye, the a-b-c phases must be marked so
that
o for positive sequence, the high voltage side
voltages and currents lead those on the low-
voltage side by 30°
o lag by 30° for negative sequence
o zero sequences are blocked by the three-wire
connection so that their phase shift is not
meaningful.
Phase Sequence

• In a balanced three-phase power system, the

currents in phases a-b-c are shifted in time by
±120° of fundamental. Therefore,
∞

𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )
𝑛=1
∞
2𝜋
𝑖𝑏 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 − 𝑛 )
3
𝑛=1
∞
2𝜋
𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛 sin(𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 + 𝑛 )
3
𝑛=1
Phase Sequence

• Picking out the first three harmonics shows an

important pattern. Expanding the above series,

𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 + 𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 )

2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑖𝑏 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 − + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 −
3 3
6𝜋
+𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 − )
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖𝑏 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 − + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 +
3 3
+𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 )
Phase Sequence

• Picking out the first three harmonics shows an

important pattern. Expanding the above series,
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 +
3 3
6𝜋
+𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 + )
3
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 −
3 3
+𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 )
Phase Sequence

• Picking out the first three harmonics shows an

important pattern. Expanding the above series,

𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 + 𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 )

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖𝑏 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 − + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 +
3 3
+𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 )

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐼1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃1 + + 𝐼2 sin 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃2 −
3 3
+𝐼3 sin(3𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃3 )
Phase Sequence

• By examining the current equations, it can be seen

that
o the first harmonic (i.e., the fundamental) is
positive sequence (a-b-c) because phase b lags
phase a by 120º, and phase c leads phase a by
120º,
o the second harmonic is negative sequence (a-c-
b) because phase b leads phase a by 120º, and
phase c lags phase a by 120º,
o the third harmonic is zero sequence because all
three phases have the same phase angle.
Phase Sequence

• The pattern for a balanced system repeats and is

shown in the Table.

Harmonic Phase Sequence

1 +
2 ̶
3 0
4 +
5 ̶
6 0
… …
Phase Sequence

• Because of Kirchhoff’s current law, zero sequence

currents cannot flow into a three-wire connection such
as a delta transformer winding or a delta connected
load.
• Delta-grounded wye transformer at the entrance of an
industrial customer usually blocks the flow of triplen
harmonic load currents into the power system.
• Unfortunately, the transformer does nothing to block
the flow of any other harmonics, such as 5th and 7th.
Phase Sequence

• Zero sequence currents flow through neutral or

grounding paths. Positive and negative sequence
currents sum to zero at neutral and grounding points.
• Line-to-line voltages never have zero sequence
components because, according to Kirchhoff’s voltage
law, they always sum to zero.
• Line-to-line voltages in commercial buildings are
missing the 3rd harmonic that dominates line-to-neutral
voltage waveforms.
• The THDV of line-to-line voltages is often considerably
less than for line-to-neutral voltages.
Transformers

• Consider the example shown where twin, idealized

six-pulse current source ASDs are served by parallel
transformers. Line-to-line transformer voltage
ratios are identical. The top transformer is wye-wye
or delta-delta, thus having no phase shift. The
bottom transformer is wye-delta or delta-wye, thus
having 30° phase shift.
Transformers
Transformers

• Because the top transformer has no phase shift, then

the line-side current waveform (in per-unit) is the same
as the load-side current, except for its magnitude
• Now, because the fundamental voltage on the load-
side of the bottom transformer is delayed in time by
30°, then each harmonic of the load-side current of the
bottom transformer is delayed by n*30°
• The various phase sequence components of the current
through the bottom transformer are shifted when going
from the load-side to the line-side
Transformers

• Adding the top and bottom line-side currents leads

to the classification “twelve-pulse converter.”
• Transformer phase shifting may be used to create
net 18-pulse, 24-pulse, and higher-pulse
converters.
Sources
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Transformers

• For economic reasons, power transformers are

designed to operate on or slightly past the knee of
the core material saturation curve.
• The resulting magnetizing current is slightly peaked
and rich in harmonics. The third harmonic
component dominates.
• Magnetizing current is only a few percent of full-
load current.
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Transformers

• The magnetizing current for a 25 kVA, 12.5kV/240V

transformer

• The fundamental current component lags the fundamental

voltage component by 66°.
• Even though the 1.54Arms magnetizing current is highly
distorted (76.1%), it is relatively small compared to the rated
full-load current of 140Arms.
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Machines

• As with transformers, machines operate with peak

flux densities beyond the saturation knee.
• Unless blocked by a delta transformation, a three-
phase synchronous generator will produce a 30%
third harmonic current.
• There is considerable variation among single-phase
motors in the amount of current harmonics they
inject. Most of them have THDI in the 10% range,
dominated by the 3rd harmonic.
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Machines

• The current waveforms for a refrigerator and

residential air conditioner are shown below.

120V Refrigerator Current 240V Refrigerator ACU Current

THDI = 6.3% THDI = 10.5%
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Fluorescent Lamps (w/
Magnetic Ballast)
• Fluorescent lamps extinguish and ignite each half-
cycle, but the flicker is hardly perceptible at 60Hz.
• Ignition occurs sometime after the zero crossing of
voltage.
• Once ignited, fluorescent lamps exhibit negative
resistive characteristics.
• Their current waveforms are slightly skewed,
peaked, and have a characteristic second peak.
• The dominant harmonics is the 3rd, on the order of
15% - 20% of fundamental
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Fluorescent Lamps (w/
Magnetic Ballast)
• A typical waveform is shown below,

277V Fluorescent Lamp Current (w/ Magnetic Ballast)

THDI = 18.5%
84
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Fluorescent Lamps (w/
Electronic Ballast)
Electronic Ballast in Energy-Efficient Lighting

277V Fluorescent Lamp Current (w/ Electronic Ballast)

THDI = 25.9%
85
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Energy-Efficient
Lighting
Incandescent
Harmonic Characteristics

Compact Fluorescent

White LED
Classical Nonlinear Loads: Arc Furnace

• These are not strictly periodic and, therefore,

cannot be analyzed accurately by using Fourier
series and harmonics.
• Actually, these are transient loads for which flicker is
a greater problem than harmonics.
• Some attempts have been made to model arc
furnaces as harmonic sources using predominant
harmonics 3rd and 5th.
Power Electronic Loads: Line Commutated
Converters
• These are the
workhorse circuits of
AC/DC converters
above 500HP.
• The magnitudes of
the AC current
harmonics decrease
by the 1/k rule, i.e.
the fifth harmonic is
1/5 of fundamental,
the seventh
harmonic is 1/7 of
fundamental, etc.
Power Electronic Loads: Line Commutated
Converters
• The even-ordered harmonics are missing due to
half-wave symmetry, and the triple harmonics are
missing because the converter is a three-wire load
served by a transformer with a delta or
ungrounded-wye winding.
• Two or more six-pulse converters can be operated
in parallel through phase-shifting transformers to
reduce the harmonic content of the net supply-side
current. This principle is known as phase
cancellation.
Power Electronic Loads: Variable Frequency Drives

– VFDs allow motor speed to be varied at full torque

– Enable precise process control
– Provide real energy savings
– High degree of penetration in past two decades
Power Electronic Loads: Variable Frequency Drives

• Harmonics/Front End Issue/ System

VFDs are typically the largest contributor of harmonics back

on to the grid.
Power Electronic Loads: Variable Frequency Drives

• 6 Pulse VFD
Power Electronic Loads: Variable Frequency Drives

• 6 Pulse VFD
Power Electronic Loads: Voltage-Source
Converters
• For applications
below 500HP,
voltage source
converters
employing pulse-
width modulators
with turn-on/turn-
off switches on the
motor side are often
the choice for ASDs.
Power Electronic Loads: Switched-Mode Power
Supplies.
• These power supplies
are the "front-end" of
single phase 120V loads
such as PCs and home
entertainment
equipment.
Power Electronic Loads: Switched-Mode Power
Supplies.
• Typically, they have a full-wave diode rectifier
connected between the AC supply system and a
capacitor, and the capacitor serves as a low-ripple
“battery” for the DC load.
• Unfortunately, low ripple means that the AC system
charges the capacitor for only a fraction of each
half-cycle, yielding an AC waveform that is highly
peaked
Other Nonlinear Loads

120V Microwave Oven Current 120V Vacuum Cleaner Current

THDI = 31.9% THDI = 25.9%
Effects and
Symptoms
Common Effects and Symptoms of Harmonics

• Resonance • SCADA issues

• Circuit breaker tripping • VFD problems
• Fuse meltdown • Skin effect on cables
• Capacitor bank failure • Welding problems
• PLC I/O can change • Motor failure
state • Transformer failure
• Loss of lighting ballasts
Resonance

• Resonance occurs when the harmonic currents

injected by nonlinear loads interact with system
impedance to produce high harmonic voltages.
• Resonance can cause nuisance tripping of sensitive
electronic loads and high harmonic currents in
feeder capacitor banks.
• In severe cases, capacitors produce audible noise
and sometimes bulge.
Resonance

• Consider the simple parallel case shown below.

Resonance

• Parallel resonance occurs when the power system

presents a parallel combination of power system
inductance and power factor correction capacitors
at the nonlinear load.
• The product of harmonic impedance and injection
current produces high harmonic voltages.
• For parallel resonance, the highest voltage
distortion is at the nonlinear load.
Resonance

• Consider the simple series case shown below

Resonance

• Series resonance occurs when the system

inductance and capacitors are in series, or nearly in
series, from the converter point of view.
• For series resonance, the highest voltage distortion
is at a remote point, perhaps miles away or on an
adjacent feeder served by the same substation
transformer.
Wiring Requirements

• Measure of heating in
conductor is product of
squared current I and
impedance Z (I2Z)
• Harmonics increase
heating in conductors
due to
– additional load current
flowing through conductor
– current redistribution inside
conductor (skin effect)
Overheating Distribution Transformers

• The increase in heat from

harmonic currents can
cause transformers to fail.
• Increased iron and copper
losses or eddy currents due
to stray flux losses cause
excessive overheating.
• NEC states a 7-10 degree increase in heat can reduce
the life of insulation by 50%
Overheating Distribution Transformers

• There are two reasons for overheating.

1. Losses in a conductor increase when harmonics are
present because losses are proportional to the square
(at least) of rms current, and rms current increases with
current distortion according to

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 1 + 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼2

2. Because of the resistive skin effect and winding

proximity effect, one ampere of harmonic current
produces more losses than does one ampere of
fundamental current.
Tripping/Overheating of Breakers

• Harmonic currents can

cause false circuit breaker
tripping.
• Peak sensing circuit breakers
often will trip even though
the amperage value has not
been exceeded.
• Harmonic current peak values can be many times
higher than sinusoidal waveforms.
Cable Insulation Breakdown

• The added heat from harmonic

currents can cause insulation
breakdown on cables.
• Skin Effect Increases - Higher
frequencies cause electrons to
flow toward the outer sides of a
conductor.
• This reduces the ability of the
conductor to carry current by
reducing the cross sectional
diameter of the conductor.
• This reduces the ampere capacity rating of the
conductor and adds more heat.
Motor thermal problems

• Higher frequency voltage

components produce additional
hysteresis and eddy current
losses in the core of AC motors.
• These losses increase the
operating temperature of the
core and the winding
surrounding the core.
• May cause undesirable torque
pulsations
Motor thermal problems

• To illustrate this phenomenon, current waveforms

for a 2HP, 230V, fully loaded motor were measured,
with and without significant 5th harmonic voltage
applied.
• The strong 5th harmonic current causes additional
heating and produces noticeable audible noise.
Generator Problems

• Excessive harmonic distortion will cause multiple

zero crossings of the current waveform, affecting
the timing of the voltage regulator. This can cause
the generator to shut down.
Power Factor Capacitor Problems

• Harmonic distortion has a

direct affect on power factor.
More harmonics = lower
power factor.
• The heat losses generated by
harmonics transpose into
using and paying for more
reactive power from your
utility.
• Harmonic current can cause
capacitors to fail.
Power Factor Capacitor Problems

• RMS Capacitor Current (in pu for harmonics through

the 25th) versus Voltage Distortion (assuming that
voltage harmonics decrease in proportion to frequency)
RMS Capacitor
THDV
Current (pu)
0.00 1.000
0.05 1.112
0.10 1.396
• Thus, it is reasonable to expect a 40% increase in
capacitor rms current when voltage distortions are in
the 10% range.
Power Factor Capacitor Problems

• Capacitors may also fail because of overvoltage

stress on dielectrics.
• A 10% harmonic voltage for any harmonic above
the 3rd increases the peak voltage by approximately
10% because the peak of the harmonic often
coincides, or nearly coincides, with the peak of the
fundamental voltage.
Overloaded Neutral Conductors in Commercial
Buildings
• What is special about 3rd Harmonics?
– Add arithmetically in the Neutral
(assuming balanced 3-phase system)
– Many electronic loads produce
them.
– Neutral size in commercial building
of particular concern.
Overloaded Neutral Conductors in Commercial
Buildings
• Overloaded neutral currents are usually only a local
problem inside a building, for example on a service
panel.
• When personal computer loads dominate a building
circuit, it is good engineering practice for each phase to
have its own neutral wire, or for the common neutral
wire to have at least twice the current rating of each
phase wire.
• At the service entrance, the harmonic currents
produced by PCs and other nonlinear loads are diluted
by the many linear loads including air conditioners,
pumps, fans, and incandescent lights.
Increase Business Costs

• Increased maintenance
– Excessive heat burdens electrical infrastructure, from
transformers, cables, bussing, to across the line motors.

• Interruption of production causing downtime

• Replacement Costs of equipment failing
prematurely
Increase Business Costs

• Reduced system capacity

– Requires costly equipment upgrades to support
expansion Harmonics Increase Business Costs

Today almost every business is affected by harmonics,

but what guidelines are there for harmonics – how
much is too much?
Standards
Harmonic Standards: Philippine Grid Code

 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) – ratio of the RMS

value of the harmonic content to the RMS value of the
fundamental quantity in percent.
– Limits for 500kV rated systems: THD ≤ 1.5% with
individual harmonics Vh#odd ≤ 1.0% and Vh#even ≤
0.5%.
– Limits for 115-230kV rated systems: THD ≤ 2.5% with
individual harmonics Vh#odd ≤ 1.5% and Vh#even ≤
1.0%.
– Limits for 69kV rated systems: THD ≤ 3.0% with
individual harmonics Vh#odd ≤ 2.0% and Vh#even ≤
1.0%.
Harmonic Standards: Philippine Grid Code

 Total Demand Distortion (TDD) – ratio of the RMS value

of the harmonic content to the RMS value of the rated
or maximum fundamental quantity in percent.
• Limits for 500kV rated systems: TDD ≤ 1.5% with
individual harmonics Ih#odd ≤ 1.0% and Ih#even ≤ 0.5%.
• Limits for 115-230kV rated systems: TDD ≤ 2.5% with
individual harmonics Ih#odd ≤ 2.0% and Ih#even ≤ 0.5%.
• Limits for 69kV rated systems: TDD ≤ 5.0% with individual
harmonics Ih#odd ≤ 4.0% and Ih#even ≤ 1.0%.
Harmonic Standards: Philippine Distribution Code

 The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) shall be

defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the sum of
the squared individual harmonic amplitudes to the
RMS value of the fundamental frequency of a
complex waveform.
- At any User System, the THD of the voltage shall not
exceed 5% during normal operating conditions.
Harmonic Standards: Philippine Distribution Code

 The Total Demand Distortion (TDD) shall be defined

as the total root-sum-square harmonic current
distortion in percent of the maximum demand load
current (15-minute or 30-minute demand).
- At any User System, the TDD of the current shall not
exceed 5% during normal operating conditions.
Harmonic Standards: IEC

• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

European Standards.
– EN 61000-3-2 Harmonic Emissions standards were first
published as IEC 55-2 1982 and applied only to
household appliances. It was revised and reissued in 1987
and 1995 with the applicability expanded to include all
equipment with input current 16A per phase. However,
until January 1st, 2001 a transition period is in effect for
all equipment not covered by the standard prior to 1987.
Harmonic Standards: IEC

• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

European Standards.
– The objective of EN 61000-3-2 (harmonics) is to test the
equipment under the conditions that will produce the
maximum harmonic amplitudes under normal operating
conditions for each harmonic component. To establish
limits for similar types of harmonics current distortion,
equipment under test must be categorized in one of the
following four classes.
Harmonic Standards: IEC

CLASS-A: Balanced three-phase equipment and all other

equipment except that stated in one of the
remaining three classes.
CLASS-B: Portable electrical tools, which are hand held
during normal operation and used for a short time
only (few minutes)
CLASS-C: Lighting equipment including dimming devices.
Harmonic Standards: IEC

CLASS-D: Equipment having an input current with special

wave shape (e.g. equipment with off-line capacitor-
rectifier AC input circuitry and switch Mode power
Supplies) and an active input power 600W.

• Additional harmonic current testing, measurement

techniques and instrumentation guidelines for these
standards are covered in IEC 1000-4-7.
Harmonic Standards: IEEE

• IEEE 519-1992 United States Standards on

harmonic limits

- IEEE limits service entrance harmonics.

- The IEEE standard 519-1992 limits the level of harmonics
at the customer service entrance or Point of Common
Coupling (PCC).
- With this approach the costumer’s current distortion is
limited based on relative size of the load and the power
supplier’s voltage distortion based on the voltage level.
Harmonic Standards: IEEE

• IEEE 519-1992 United States Standards on

harmonic limits

IEEE 519 and IEC 1000-3-2 apply different philosophies,

which effectively limit harmonics at different locations. IEEE
519 limits harmonics primarily at the service entrance while
IEC 1000-3-2 is applied at the terminals of end-user
equipment. Therefore, IEC limits will tend to reduce
harmonic-related losses in an industrial plant wiring, while
IEEE harmonic limits are designed to prevent interactions
between neighbors and the power system.
Harmonic Standards: IEEE Std 519TM - 2014
TABLE I
CURRENT DISTORTION LIMITS FOR GENERAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
(120-69000 V)
Isc/IL <11 11<h<17 17<h<23 23<h<35 35<h TDD
<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1,000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1,000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Source: IEEE Standard 519-1992.
Note: Even harmonics are limited to 25 percent of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a direct current offset; for example, half wave
converters are not allowed.
Table I is for 6-pulse rectifiers. For converters higher than 6 pulse, the limits for
characteristic harmonics are increased by a factor o f q/6 , where q is the pule number,
provided that the
amplitudes of noncharacteristic harmonics are less than 25 percent.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of
actual ISC/IL.
Where ISC = Maximum short circuit at PCC.
And IL = Average Maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency
component at PCC).
Harmonic Standards: IEEE Std 519TM - 2014

• Utility PCC Voltage THD Limits

• New V<1kV level with high VTHD levels

• Elimination of Special, Typical and Dedicated System
recommendations
• Moving away from being for internal facility buss info.
Example: Industrial Power Distribution System
Example:

Harmonic Limits Evaluation when Power-factor-correction

Capacitors are Used
- As it can be seen from the power distribution circuit the
power-factor-correction capacitor bank, which is connected
on the 400 Volts bus, can create a parallel resonance
between the capacitors and the system source inductance.
- The single phase equivalent circuit of the distribution system
is shown below.
Example

2 R sys
kVLL   X 
R sys   cos tan 1  , R sys  (33)
MVA sc   R  2
α
2
kVLL  1 X  Xsys
Xsys   sin tan   , Xsys  (34)
MVA sc   R  α 2
α = The turns ratio of the transformer at PCC
2
1000  kVLL (35)
R tr  R pu 
kVA tr

2
1000  kVLL (36)
X tr  X pu 
kVA tr
Example

R tot  Rsys  R tr (37)

X tot  Xsys  X tr (38)

2
1000  kVcap
Xc  (39)
kVAR cap
1 (40)
C
ωX c
1
Xc  (41)
ωC
X tot X tot
L tot   (42)
ω 2 πf
Example

The impedance Zin looking into the system from the load, consists
of the parallel combination of source impedance R tot  jX totand the
capacitor impedance

Zin 
R tot  jωL tot    j / ωC
1 (43)
R tot  jωL tot  j
ωC
1 1 (44)
ωo L tot  , fo 
ωo C 2πωo
The equation for Zincan be used to determine the equivalent system
impedance for different frequencies. The harmonic producing loads
can resonate (parallel resonance), the above equivalent circuit.
Designating the parallel resonant frequency by ωo(rad/sec) or f o(HZ)
and equating the inductive and capacitive reactances.
Example
- Harmonic current components that are close to the parallel
resonant frequency are amplified.
- Higher order harmonic currents at the PCC are reduced because
the capacitors are low impedance at these frequencies.
- The figure below shows the effect of adding capacitors on the 400
Volts bus for power factor correction.
Example
• This figure shows that by adding some typical sizes of power
factor correction capacitors will result in the magnification of the
5th and 7th harmonic components, which in turns makes it even
more difficult to meet the IEEE 519-1992 harmonic current
standards .
• Power factor correction capacitors should not be used without
turning reactors in case the adjustable speed drives are >10% of
the plant load.
Example

Let us examine an industrial plant with the following data:

• Medium voltage = 20KVLL
• Low voltage = 0.4 KVLL
• Utility three phase short circuit power = 250 MVA
• For asymmetrical current, the 𝑋 ratio of system impedance  2.4
𝑅
The Transformer is rated:
1000 KVA, 20 KV-400 Y/230 V
Rpu = 1%, Xpu = 7%

• The system frequency is: fsys = 50 HZ.

• For power factor correction capacitors the following cases are examined:
a. 200 kVAR c. 600 kVAR
b. 400 kVAR d. 800 kVAR
Example

The parallel resonant frequencies for every case of power

factor correction is calculated as follows:

R sys 
202
250
 
 cos tan 12.4  0.6154Ω

Xsys 
202
250
 
 sin tan 12.4  1.4769Ω

20
α  50
0.4
Example

R sys  0.6154 502  0.000246Ω

Xsys  1.4769 502  0.000591Ω

1000  0.42
R tr  0.01  0.00160Ω
1000
1000  0.42
X tr  0.07   0.0112Ω
1000
R tot = 0.000246 + 0.0016 = 0.001846 Ω
X tot  0.000591 0.0112  0.011791Ω
0.011791
L tot   37.55  10 6 H
2  π  50
Example
Case a:
1000  0.42
Xc   0.8 Ω
200
1
C   3.98  103 F
2 π  50  0.8
1
fo   412.18HZ
2 π  37.50  10 6  3.98  103
For 200 KVAR, the harmonic order at which parallel resonance occurs is:

h  412.18 50  8.24
Example

Case b: Case c:
1000  0.42 1000  0.42
Xc   0.4 Ω Xc   0.267 Ω
400 600
C  7.96 103 F C  11.94 103 F
f o  291.45HZ f o  237.97HZ
h  5.83 h  4.76
Example
Case d:
1000  0.42
Xc   0.2 Ω
800
C  15.92 103 F
f o  206.08HZ

h  4.12

It is clear for the above system that in the 600 KVAR case,
there exists a parallel resonant frequency f o close to the 5th
harmonic.
Solutions
Harmonic Solutions

6 Pulse Drive + Built in Solution

Line Reactor / DC Choke 12 Pulse
Passive Filter 18 Pulse
Active Filter Active Front End
Harmonic Solutions: AC Line Reactors

• Dual Purpose: harmonic

mitigation, transient blocker.
• Impedance – slows the rate of
change in AC waveform.
• Impedance Choices – 3%, 5%,
10%
• Prolongs the life of drive
components.
• Series Passive device
Harmonic Solutions: Transient Blocker

• What Components are

susceptible or likely to fail due
to a current surge condition?
– Input Bridge Diodes
– PCB Power Traces
– Precharge Relay Contacts
Harmonic Solutions: Line Reactors and DC Link
Chokes
• Very similar but location is everything! DC choke smooth’s
DC bus ripple, reduces harmonics but does not protect the
diode bridge! About half the impedance value of an AC
reactor unless located on the + & - of the DC bus.
Harmonic Solutions: Passive Harmonic Filter

• Harmonic reduction to 5-7% ITHD.

• Broadband filter with a 5th
harmonic trap
• Use when need to meet IEEE-519
specification and other harmonic
problems
• Use built in contactor to protect
against leading power factor
• Built in series inductor to protect
from resonance issues
• Can be used with Standard Six
Pulse VFD.
• Filter Caps may need to be
managed….PF / Generator.
• Series/Shunt passive device
Harmonic Solutions: 18 Pulse - legacy solution

• 5% Solution out of the box. No

calculations.
• Phase shifting transformer and
more diodes limit harmonics.
• Series Passive device
Harmonic Solutions: 18 Pulse - legacy solution

• Line unbalance reduces

performance
• Large Physical Size
• Custom -Long Lead time
for Manufacture & Repair
• Cost
• Limited HP Range
• Less efficient than 6 pulse
Harmonic Solutions: Active Front End Drive

• 5% Solution out of the box. • High components count

No calculations. equivalent to 2 VFDs and a
passive filter
• No major issues with loading
• Larger and more expensive
or unbalance.
than 6 pulse.
• Ideal for regenerative loads • Devices in series – lower
– Elevators and Cranes efficiency
• Series active device – in critical
path
Harmonic Solutions: Active Harmonic Filter
• System applied on standard 6 pulse
VFDs
• Very cost effective for multiple or
redundant drives
• Harmonic reduction – 5% TDD
• Monitors bus, injects counter current
to cancel out harmonic currents
• Provides Power Factor Correction
• Corrective Current / ratings –
50/100/150/200/300
• HMI – Modbus / Ethernet
• Shunt active device – not critical pat
References
• Tutorial on Harmonics, Theory and Computation Techniques, C.J.
Hatziadoniu: hatz@siu.edu,
https://slideplayer.com/slide/7341796/, January 4, 2019.
• Harmonic Studies. Presented to IEEE IAS – Atlanta Chapter.
September 15, 2014. Presented by Bonita S. Martin, PE. TRC
Engineers. A Year 2014 Approach, January 2, 2019.
• Harmonic Treatment In Industrial Power Systems, Stefanos
Manias,
http://users.ntua.gr/manias/HARMONIC%20TREATMENT%20IN%
20INDUSTRIAL%20POWER%20.ppt, July 14, 2018.
• Power Quality And Safety, NGCP, 40th IIEE Annual National
Convention and 3E XPO 2015.
• ISA Northern California Section, South Bay, Craig Chidester,
https://slideplayer.com/slide/6949056/, July 14, 2018.
References
• Impact of Non-Linear Loads on Wiring Requirements, Jens
Schoene,
http://www.academia.edu/3997975/Evaluation_of_the_Impac
t_on_Non-
Linear_Power_On_Wiring_Requirements_for_Commercial_Bui
ldings_by_Jens_Schoene_Ener_Nex_The_Fire_Protection_Rese
arch_Foundation, July 14, 2018.
• Harmonics in Modern Electrical Power Systems, Ashish
Bendre TCI, LLC,
http://www.ece.iit.edu/~flueck/chicago_pes/2014/PES-
Dec10-TCI-Harmonics.pdf, January 4, 2019
• Understanding Power System Harmonics, Prof. Mack Grady
Dept. of Electrical & Computer Engineering University of
Texas at Austin mack@ieee.org, www.ece.utexas.edu/~grady
ccalibjo@yahoo.com
09176239490