Sas

Sharpening Academic Skills
A Focus on Writing Paragraphs and Essays

Dan Cupery
Semra Gönel
Developmental Editor
Birol Çetinkaya
The ITU School of Foreign Languages

English Preparatory Program
Dan Cupery / Semra Gönel
Sharpening Academic Skills

A Focus on Writing Paragraphs and Essays
İTÜ Vakfı Yayınları

ISBN 978-605-9581-00-4
1.Baskı
İstanbul, Eylül 2016
© İTÜ VAKFI İKTİSADİ İŞLETMESİ

Sertifika No: 11858
Bu baskının tüm hakları İTÜ Vakfı’na aittir.

Yayınevinin yazılı izni olmadan, kitabın tümünün veya bir kısmının elektronik,
mekanik ya da fotokopi yoluyla basımı, yayımı, çoğaltımı ve dağıtımı yapılamaz.
All rights belong to İTÜ Vakfı. No part of this book may be reprinted, published,
reproduced, distributed by any electronic, mechanical or any other means such as
photocopying, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Kapak & Uygulama

Gizem Çinik
Baskı
Cenkler Matbaacılık Amb. San. Tic. Ltd. Şti.
İbrahim Karaoğlanoğlu Cad. No: 7A
Seyrantepe / İSTANBUL
Tel. 0212 283 02 77 - 0212 269 04 99
İTÜ Vakfı Yayınları

İTÜ Vakfı, Maçka Kampüsü
Teşvikiye-İstanbul
Tel: 0212 230 73 71 – 291 34 75
www.ituyayinlari.com
ituvakif@ituvakif.org.tr
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors and publisher would like to thank:
- Prof. Dr. Burçkin Dal for the inspiration he provided for the republication of the book,
- Prof. Dr. Nebiye Musaoğlu for the valuable support and encouragement she provided for
the writing of the book,
- Kenan Mete, Hatice Yazıcı, and Gizem Çinik for their support and hard work in publication
of the book,
- Esinç Demirkapu for her valuable contribution to the first chapter,
- Zeynep Kurular, Hacer Şivil, Gamze Moran, Zeynep Ziya, Pınar Yılmaz, Betül Akpınar,
Andrew Hilton, and Rebecca Soble for the useful feedback they provided.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Extending Sentences 10

Extending Simple Sentences 10
Compound and Complex Sentences 15
Additional Tips and Exercises 27
Chapter 2 Cause Paragraphs 29

Language Focus 30
Writing Focus 32
In-Class Writing Tasks 40
Writing Assignments 48
Chapter 3 Effect Paragraphs 49

Language Focus 51
Writing Focus 53
Chapter 4 Comparison/Contrast Paragraphs 68

Language Focus 70
Writing Focus 73
Chapter 5 Cause/Effect Essays 87

Language Focus 88
Writing Focus (Cause Essays) 92
In Class Writing Tasks 1 105
Writing Focus (Effect Essays) 108
In-Class Writing Tasks 2 112
Chapter 6 Comparison and/or Contrast Essays 121

Language Focus 123
Writing Focus 124
Chapter 7 Improving Editing Skills 147

Editing Grammar 147
Editing Vocabulary 156
Editing Spelling, Punctuation, and Capitalization 160
Editing the Links between Ideas 161
In-Class Writing Task 163
v
CHAPTER Writing Focus Language Focus In-Class Additional Tips
(Skills & Strategies) (Structure & Writing Tasks and Exercises
Vocabulary)
1 Constructing and Different types of Various exercises on Tips about word

extending simple sentences extended by sentence construction grammar for verbs,
Extending sentences using prepositional adjectives and nouns
Sentences phrases, infinitives,
Constructing the subject “it”, Improving sentences in a Exercises on
compound and connecting words, paragraph prepositions
complex sentences noun clauses with
“that”, and relative Tips about word usage
clauses (checking usage through
a dictionary and Google)
Adjectives describing
situations, feelings,
and attitudes
Verbs, adjectives and

nouns to introduce
noun clauses with
“that”
2 Parts of a cause Sentence connectors, Improving and editing Word tip: clauses and
paragraph (topic, prepositions, and sample student paragraphs prepositions/phrases of
Cause supporting, and verbs used in cause contrast (although, even
Paragraphs concluding paragraphs though, in spite of,
sentences) despite)
Communication Mind mapping & Cause structures for Writing a cause paragraph Rewrite exercise
& Technology forming related ideas writing topic on social networking sites
sentences
Coherence Connecting words and Editing checklist Suggested online

structures used for dictionaries
giving examples
Things to avoid in Writing assignments
academic writing
3 Recognizing the Verbs and phrases Linking and extending ideas Easily confused or
parts and format of used to introduce misused words/phrases
Effect an effect paragraph effects (according to/compared
Paragraphs Forming a mind map to, affect/effect, on the
other hand/in addition)
Overuse & Analysing and Effect structures for Writing an effect paragraph Exercise on
Addiction producing topic writing topic on the psychological effects differentiating causes
sentences and sentences of computer overuse and effects
supporting ideas in
effect paragraphs Rewrite exercise
Editing checklist
Unity Suggested websites to
read about various topics
Writing assignments
5
vi
Vocabulary)
Recognizing the Comparison and Writing a comparison Easily confused or

parts of comparison contrast vocabulary: paragraph on two famous misused words (than/
4 and contrast sentence connectors, tourist attractions of Turkey then, accept/except/
paragraphs verbs, and expect, choose/chose/
Comparison prepositions choice, quit/quiet/quite)
and Contrast
Paragraphs Writing the topic and Writing a contrast Rewrite exercise
concluding sentences Comparison and paragraph on the
People & Places for comparison and contrast structures differences between men
contrast paragraphs and women
Parallel structures Editing checklist Writing assignments

Useful structures to
build up topic
sentences and
concluding sentences
for comparison and
contrast paragraphs
Recognizing the Reviewing and Writing the body Easily confused verbs
5 parts and format of extending cause and paragraphs of an incomplete (allow/contribute/enable/
cause and effect effect vocabulary and cause essay on youth make/provide)
Cause & Effect essays language violence by using a mind
Essays map and following guiding
questions
Conflict
Strategies for writing Verbs and phrases Forming a mind map and Vocabulary exercises
general statements used to introduce writing a cause essay on
for cause and effect causes and effects televised pop song
essays competitions
Strategies for Useful vocabulary Using prompts to complete Rewrite exercise

moving from the related to violence an effect essay on bullying
thesis statement to and war
the body paragraphs
Strategies for Cause and effect Forming a mind map and Writing assignments
creating the essay structures for writing writing an effect essay on
format and thesis statements and war
developing body topic sentences in
paragraphs cause and effect
essays
Strategies for writing Editing checklists for cause

the concluding and effect essays
paragraph and for
writing the final
comment
6
vii
Vocabulary)
6 Recognizing Review of Drawing a mind map and Easily confused words

point-by-point comparison and writing a thesis statement (associate/correlate/
Comparison organization and contrast vocabulary and topic sentences correspond/differentiate/
and/or Contrast block organization in and structures
distinction/likeness/vary)
Essays comparison and/or
contrast essays
Free Time &
Entertainment Discussing only Useful structures to Completing a comparison Vocabulary exercises
similarities construct thesis and contrast essay on
statements for cinema in the 1990s and
comparison and/or cinema in the 2000s by
contrast essays using prompts
Discussing only Writing a comparison Rewrite exercise

differences and/or contrast essay on
youth in the 1960s and in
the 2010s
Discussing both
similarities and
differences Editing checklist
Writing assignments
Writing thesis
statements and topic
sentences for
comparison and/or
contrast essays
Editing Focus Additional Writing Practice

7
Improving
Errors in determiners
Editing Skills
Errors in prepositions
Errors in noun, adjective, adverb, and verb use
Writing assignments
Errors in subject-verb agreement
Errors in relative clauses and noun clauses
Errors in making comparisons
Errors in word formation and word choice
Editing checklist
Errors in common collocations
Errors in spelling, punctuation, and capitalisation
Errors in connecting words
Errors in parallel structures
Identifying errors in the organisation and content of an essay
and correcting these mistakes
7
viii
Text CredIts
p.20 “Trends in Social Networking” adapted from pewinternet.org, p.40 “Computer Overuse” betterhealth.
vic.gov.au, p.59 “Smarter and Smarter” pcp.lanl.gov, p.78 “Conflict with Classmates” scu.edu, p.81-82 “Less
and Less Violence” sirc.org, p.103 “Effects of Bullying” apa.org, p.104 “Impacts of Wars” pubmedcentral.nih.
gov, p.112 “A Brief History of Turkish Cinema” widescreenjournal.org, p.131-132 “Fun and Fashion in the
1960s” wikipedia.org
PHOTO CredIts
p.1 commons.wikimedia.org, p.3 biosulf.org, p.8 yazarlikyazilimi.meb.gov.tr, p.16 public-domain-photos.

com, p.20 commons.wikimedia.org, p.23 freeofworry.org, p.25 commons.wikimedia.org, p.35 commons.
wikimedia.org, p.44 commons.wikimedia.org, p.54 commons.wikimedia.org, p.55 commons.wikimedia.
org, p.59 commons.wikimedia.org, p.62 commons.wikimedia.org, p.63 commons.wikimedia.org, p.64
commons.wikimedia.org, p.64 tr.wikipedia.org, p.69 upload.wikimedia.org, p.70 commons.wikimedia.org,
p.72 commons.wikimedia.org, p.78 commons.wikimedia.org, p.80 commons.wikimedia.org, p.96 commons.
wikimedia.org, p. 99 upload.wikimedia.org, p.103 upload.wikimedia.org, p.105 upload.wikimedia.org,
p.106 upload.wikimedia.org, p.112 commons.wikimedia.org, p.115 upload.wikimedia.org, p.127 upload.
wikimedia.org, p.129 upload.wikimedia.org, p.130 commons.wikimedia.org, p.132 commons.wikimedia.
org, p.138 commons.wikimedia.org, p.141 commons.wikimedia.org, p.142 commons.wikimedia.org, p.152
upload.wikimedia.org
8
PREFACE
I
n accordance with the mission - to expand the borders of knowledge and its
applications in science, technology, and art for contributing to the sustainable
community - and vision - to become a leading, international university through
its expertise and creativity in science, technology, and art - adopted by Istanbul Technical
University, ITU School of Foreign Languages (SFL) has published its new academic writing
book designed for the current needs of learners not only in our country but also in other
countries by following the latest trends in language teaching methodologies.
In today’s world, where the langugage learning processes are in constant change and
improvement, learners’ needs, habits, and teaching-learning strategies and techniques form
the basis of the language education to be provided for them. The most important factor
that affects achieved success levels in educational endeavours is the learning materials
that are used. Sharpening Academic Skills, written with the contributions of the ITU SFL’s
proficient and experienced academic staff, is the product of an intensive and careful effort
to ensure that learners’ changing needs are met.
I hope that the book will be of assistance to our students and all other users, and I would
like to thank all the academic and administrative staff involved in its production.
Prof. Dr. Burçkin Dal

ITU SFL Director
9
CHAPTER 1 EXTENDING SENTENCES
In this chapter you will be introduced to different types of sentences and will learn how to extend
sentences; that is, you will learn how to write longer and improved sentences. After introducing
different ways of extending simple sentences, the chapter will focus on compound sentences and finally
on complex sentences formed by connectors, noun clauses, and relative clauses.
A. Extending Simple Sentences Formed with the Verb “To Be”

1. Extending Sentences with the Verb “To Be” Using Prepositional Phrases
Flashback
The verb “to be” changes forms The verb “to be” can be followed by a
when used in different tenses. noun/noun phrase, an adjective, or a
prepositional phrase (in, on, at, etc. +
am/is/are noun/pronoun):
was/were
have/has been It is a breakthrough. [be + noun]
had been
will be Nanotechnology is a new field of science.
am/is/are going to be [be + noun phr.]
was/were going to be
Nanotechnology is useful. [be + adj.]
We are in the digital age. [be + prep. phr.]
One way of extending sentences is to add prepositional phrases to the nouns in a sentence, so
we can make our statements more specific. Here are some examples:
People are curious about cultures.

People in the West are curious about cultures in the East.
ITU students are in need of guidance.

All ITU students? For what kind of things?
Many ITU students in their first year of university are in need of guidance for registration,
housing, and course selection. + Guidance from whom?
Many ITU students in their first year of university are in need of guidance from the Student
Affairs Office for registration, housing, and course selection.
10
Exercise 1. Below are some common prepositional phrases that can be used after nouns.
Put them into the suitable boxes.
without under against in with in favour of
financial security peace in the world

disabilities freedom of speech
people ...................... psychological problems people .............................. war
a high IQ countries the death penalty
...................... ..............................
hopes nuclear power
a bright future ethical treatment of animals
jobs
people Europe people threat/attack

citizens ......................... disaster zones countries .................. a tsunami warning
victims coastlines protection
Exercise 2. Now it is your turn to extend the sentences. Working in pairs, add at least two
words to each blank.
1. People with ............................................................................................................................................. are more successful.
2. A developing country without .................................................................................................................. will be under
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
3. People with a strong sense of environmental awareness are in favour of ...............................................
............................................................................... but are against ........................................................................................................... .
4. Children with ....................................................................................................................... are in need of ................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
5. The use of ................................................................................... in ...................................................................... is useful, so

there is a widespread demand.
2. Extending Sentences with the Verb “To Be” Using Infinitives and the Subject “It”
By using the subject “it” and providing other additional information, it is possible to extend
sentences further.
Sbj Verb Adj for Sb/Sth to V1 Object/Place Time

“To Be”
students from throughout
It is nice for teachers to meet different cities of the school
Turkey year.
It can be good for kids to grow in crowded
up families.
in a dormitory during
It could be pleasing for ITU to stay with comfortable university.
students rooms
11
Exercise 3. The adjectives in the table below can be used to describe situations. Put these
adjectives under the correct headword which they are synonymous to. Initial, final, or mid
letters of the words are provided as a clue.
terrific terrible significant extraordinary complex awful
dreadful marvellous essential splendid beneficial crucial
threatening detrimental striking complicated confusing vital
demanding alarming hazardous astonishing devastating fatal
deadly outstanding destructive pleasing damaging
BAD SERIOUS, DANGEROUS, HARMFUL
............................L A.............................G ..................R...............S T.............................G

............................E
D......M....................... ...........T......L ...........................Y
D.........................L
D............S.................... D............R........................ D..............................E
GOOD IMPORTANT INTERESTING, DIFFICULT

B ........................... SURPRISING
...............................T A...............................G C.......................................

P............................
E.............................. E.................................. C....................................D
.............................C
.................C............ .................K.........G .............F..........................

S.............................D
V............................. ..................................G D..................N................
............................. S
Exercise 4. By working in pairs, complete the sentences below.
Example: It is demanding for young researchers to work 12 hours a day

without any weekend holidays at the research centre in TÜBITAK.
1. It is significant for ............................................. to ...........................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
2. It is beneficial for students to .....................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
3. It was hazardous for farmers to …............................................................………………………………………………...... .
4. It is fatal not to …...………………………………………………………………………………………............................………....
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….....… .
5. It will be surprising to …..........………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12
3. Extending Sentences with the Verb “To Be” Using Infinitives and Other Subjects
It is also possible to use other subjects instead of “it” to start the sentence. In this case, we use
adjectives that express feelings or attitudes.
Subject Verb Adjective to V1 Object Place/ Time

“To Manner
Be”
Both young are delighted to meet people with through the
and old similar interests Internet.
people
All the are happy to find students mentally early in
teachers in alert the
ITU morning.
China is determined to set up a manned space on the around

station moon 2020.
University were eager to develop environmentally all together last year.

students friendly projects
from various
countries
Here are some useful adjectives you can use with the structure (adjective + to do). These
adjectives describe feelings or attitudes.
glad/happy fortunate eager reluctant

pleased sorry* willing hesitant
delighted sad*/upset* motivated surprised*
relieved* disappointed* determined amazed*
lucky afraid proud shocked*
* These adjectives are often followed by verbs like “to see, learn, hear, discover, find out, etc.”
Exercise 5. Choose the most suitable adjective in brackets and complete the sentences in
any meaningful way, using prepositional phrases, nouns, adjectives, etc.
Example:
Because disabled people are not part of the business world, they are usually imprisoned in
their homes. Actually, they are (willing/sad/relieved) to ............................... and join .................................... .
Sample answers:
Because disabled people are not part of the business world, they are usually imprisoned in
their homes. Actually, they are (willing/sad/relieved) to work/get out of their homes and join
the outside world/business world/working people.
1. Football fanatics become happy when their favourite team wins. They are
(proud/hesitant/shocked) to talk about ......................................................................................................................... with
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
13
2. As usual, women who are concerned with their looks are (determined/reluctant/
disappointed) to ............................................................................... for the coming swimming season. They are
going ...................................................................................... and joining ........................................................................................................................... to seek
slimming advice from dieticians.
3. Developing countries weren’t (eager/hesitant/fortunate) to ..............................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................ at first.
However, because of pressure from the developed world, they agreed to act responsibly.
4. ITU students with .................................................................................................................................................................. feel

(upset/relieved/motivated) to find out that ............................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................... at the end of the school term.
5. After the earthquake hit Haiti, rescue teams from all around the globe were
(fortunate/eager/afraid) to ..................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
6. Because of overwhelming demand, Bon Jovi added Istanbul to their 2011 Tour. His
Turkish fans were (disappointed/delighted/motivated) to .........................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
B. From Simple Sentences to Compound and Complex Sentences
Before going over compound and complex sentences, we should clarify the terms used with
these sentences. Below is an exercise to test your knowledge. First, identify the terms by
looking at the examples and then match them with their definitions given in the second table.
Exercise 6. Circle the correct answer for each example given.
nanotechnology is a new branch of science This is/is not a clause.

to save endangered animals This is/is not a clause.
robots make our lives easier This is a dependent/an independent clause.
after World War I ended This is a dependent/an independent clause.
Turkish food is one of the best cuisines in the This is a compound/a complex sentence.
world, for it is delicious and healthy.
Although oil prices are rising fast, motorists This is a compound/a complex sentence.
prefer to drive their private vehicles.
14
Match the terms in Column A with their definitions in Column B.
Column A Column B
a) … don’t express a complete thought, so they can’t
1. Clauses ______ stand alone. They are just like small children who cannot
survive alone.
b) … are made up of a group of words and include, at
2. Independent Clauses ______ least, a subject and a verb.
c) … include a subject and a verb and can stand alone,
just like a person who can live on his/her own.
Remember these sentences express a complete thought.
3. Dependent Clauses ______ d) … are formed by one or more dependent clauses and
one independent clause. The more important idea is
given in the independent clause, and the less important
4. Compound Sentences ______ ones are given in the dependent clause.
e) … consist of two or more independent clauses that
could actually stand alone. These sentences are like
5. Complex Sentences ______ roommates who stay together but live independently.
They are joined by coordinators like “but, so, etc.”
1. Compound Sentences
Compound sentences, which consist of independent clauses, can be formed in two ways. One
way is to use coordinators, and the other way is to use sentence connectors.
a) Compound Sentences Formed with Coordinators

By using a coordinator, we can combine two independent clauses. You can remember the
phrase “FANBOYS” to remember the 7 coordinators:
For And Nor But Or Yet So Watch Out!
We often use a
Sbj + Verb (+ Obj), a coordinator Sbj + Verb (+ Obj) comma (,) before
coordinators.
Independent Clause 1 Independent Clause 2
Examples:
1. Fossil fuels provide energy, and they heat homes and power vehicles.
Watch Out!
“For” introduces
2. The Japanese export a lot of goods to the rest of the world, for they a “cause”.
produce the highest quality technology products.
3. Obese people don’t eat healthy food. They don’t exercise Watch Out!
regularly. “Nor” is used to combine
If we combine these two sentences using “nor”, the compound two negative independent
sentence will be: clauses. Mind that after
Obese people don’t eat healthy food, nor do they exercise “nor”, a question word
order is used, and as “nor”
regularly. means “and not”, the verb is
used in the positive form.
4. My friend eats too much, yet/but she doesn’t gain any weight.
15
Exercise 7. Combine the following sentences using an appropriate coordinator.
1. Environmental pollution is a severe problem in a large number of countries. It is getting

worse.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2. Doing sports helps remove toxins from the body. It is important to do sports regularly.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3. Students and teachers need a spring break to relax themselves. They will have difficulty in
performing well until the end of the school term.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
4. People won’t stop using fossil fuels until they run out. They won’t stop polluting the air,
either.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
5. All institutions and companies should give importance to lifelong learning. It is the key
factor in increasing the productivity, capacity, and creativity of workers.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
6. Only a few generations ago, it was unimaginable to have wireless communication. Now
cell phones and the Internet offer us a variety of instant communication tools.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
b) Compound Sentences Formed with Sentence Connectors

Another way of combining independent clauses is to use sentence connectors. Mind that we
use a semi-colon (;) before sentence connectors and a comma (,) after sentence connectors.
Instead of a semi-colon, we can also use a full stop (.). However, then we get two separate
simple sentences, not a compound sentence.
Sbj + Verb (+ Obj); a sentence connector, Sbj + Verb (+ Obj)
Independent Clause 1 Independent Clause 2

Example:
Fossil fuels provide energy; moreover, they heat homes and power vehicles.
Fossil fuels provide energy. Moreover, they heat homes and power vehicles.
16
In the chart below some coordinators and sentence connectors that have similar meanings
are shown:
Coordinators Sentence Connectors Meaning
furthermore
moreover
and additional idea
besides
in addition
however
but, yet nevertheless opposite idea
nonetheless
or otherwise “or else”
consequently
thus
so result
hence
therefore
accordingly
Exercise 8. Fill in the blanks with a suitable coordinator or sentence connector. In one
sentence, more than one answer is possible. Be careful about punctuation.
Coal is among the most widely used fossil fuels. It has been
used for a long time as a fuel, ____________ 1 it can be found
everywhere all over the world. Coal played a very significant role in
the Industrial Revolution. Without coal, it would have been
impossible to power the steam engines of trains and ships in those
years, ____________2 the world was dependent on this valuable
source of energy. The wide use of coal in the 19th and 20th centuries
caused air pollution and acid rain; ____________ 3, it led to cardiovascular and respiratory
illnesses. Today, coal is still commonly used in heavy industry.
Global warming has become a serious issue in our time, ____________4 the
widespread use of coal is the basic cause of Earth’s heating up. We should decrease the use of
coal; ____________5, it will be impossible to live in our planet.
2. Complex Sentences
Another way of extending sentences is to form complex sentences. They are made up of one
or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. We can form complex
sentences by using subordinators, noun clauses, or relative clauses.
a) Complex Sentences Formed with Subordinators

With subordinators we form Dependent Clauses, which cannot stand alone and must be used
with Independent Clauses. Mind that if you use a subordinator, you only form one part of a
sentence. This means you have to link it with another sentence. One more point is that the
independent clause expresses the more important idea.
17
Dependent Clause Independent Clause Watch Out!
Because most renewable governments should If the dependent clause
energy sources do not pollute invest more in clean starts the sentence, a
the environment, energy technologies. comma (,) is necessary
after the dependent clause.
Independent Clause Dependent Clause Watch Out!

Governments should invest because most renewable
more in clean energy energy sources do not If the independent clause
starts the sentence, no
Technologies pollute the environment. comma is used.
Exercise 9. In the table below, there are subordinators. Put them under the correct headword
that indicates reason, time, contrast, or condition.
as (2) unless whenever although even though as soon as

before until after if as long as (2) because
when though whereas since (2) while (2)
CONTRAST
REASON CONDITION
.....................................
....................................
...................................
....................................
....................................
...................................
....................................
....................................
...................................
....................................
....................................
TIME
.................................... .................................... .................................... ....................................
.................................... ..................................... ....................................
.................................... .................................... ....................................
Below are some examples and notes about the usage of some subordinators that might be
confusing.
x If two events happen almost at the same time, we use “as soon as”:
We will call you as soon as we get the results.
As soon as the thief saw the police car, he started to run.
Which subordinator can replace “as soon as”, but won’t give the meaning of urgency?
We will call you __________ we get the results.
18
x Another subordinator of time is “whenever”. The table below shows its usage and
meaning.
Example: Whenever it rains in Istanbul, the traffic gets heavy.
Meaning: Every time it rains in Istanbul, the same thing happens.
x The following subordinators are used to show contrasting ideas:
Dependent Clause Independent Clause

While many people support the construction environmentalists oppose the idea very
of the third suspension bridge in Istanbul, strongly.
“While” introduces direct contrast. Notice the words “support” & “oppose” in the sentence
above have opposite meanings.
Independent Clause Dependent Clause Watch Out!

Environmentalists strongly whereas many people support it . It is possible to use
oppose the idea of another a comma (,) before
suspension bridge in Istanbul (,) the subordinator
only in contrast
You can use “whereas” instead of “while” to express contrasting ideas.
clauses.
x Another subordinator of contrast is “although”.
Although the world has experienced the many developed countries are still working
adverse effects of using nuclear weapons, on weapons of mass destruction.
A fact/situation An unexpected result
Which subordinators can replace “although”? _________________ and _______________
x “As long as” can be used in two different ways. As a subordinator of time, it states a
length of time; that is, it emphasizes how long something lasts. “As long as” can also be
used to express a condition.
Below are some examples. In which examples does “as long as” introduce a length of time
and in which ones does it introduce a condition? Write your ideas in the spaces provided.
1. ____________ The villagers of Bergama won’t permit the gold miners to use cyanide to
extract gold as long as they live.
2. ____________ You can borrow my car as long as you drive it carefully and bring it back
tomorrow.
3. ____________ You can leave any time you want as long as you finish the report.
4. ____________ As long as I work here, I won’t allow people to abuse their power.
5. ____________ Scientists say that it is possible to reverse the adverse effects of global
warming as long as the world leaders work together to encourage
widespread use of eco-friendly energy, technology, and products.
10
19
x Another subordinator that introduces a condition is “unless”, which means “if not”.
Notice how it is used and what kind of function it has:
Example: Unless necessary measures are taken, global warming will continue to
threaten all living beings.
Meaning: If this is not done, this will be the

A warning is made... undesirable consequence.
Rewrite the sentence above, using “if” and “as long as”. Make any necessary changes.
1. If ……………………………...………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…. .
2. ………………………………………………………… as long as ………………………….………………………………………. .
Exercise 10. Build up your own sentences using the subordinators below:
1. ....................................................................................................unless ...................................................................................................... .
2. Even though .............................................................................................. , ........................................................................................ .
3. While................................................................................................ , ........................................................................................................ .
4. Since ................................................................................................. , ....................................................................................................... .
5. After ................................................................................................. , ....................................................................................................... .

6. .................................................................................................... if ................................................................................................................. .
7. As long as .............................................................................................. , ............................................................................................. .
8. .................................................................................................... until ......................................................................................................... .
9. ...................................................................................................... as ............................................................................................................ .
10. ................................................................................................... whereas ................................................................................................ .
Exercise 11. Below are short texts on various topics. Try to build up new sentences, using the
information in the texts and the subordinators given as a prompt. You don’t have to use all the
information in the text, and you can add words if necessary. There might be more than one
answer.
Example:
Information: Coal is one of the major
sources of energy. It is widely used all Even though coal causes air pollution, it is widely used
over the world. One problem about the
use of coal is that it causes air pollution.
all over the world.
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1. For architecture students, Barcelona is a) Before..................................................................................................................
a perfect location to visit. It is famous
for its unique contemporary architecture ....................................................................................................................................... .
and the outstanding works of Antoni
Gaudi. Architecture students do not b) ...................................................................................................................................
leave Barcelona without seeing the
amazing works of Gaudi. when/whenever.................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... .
2. Istanbul has been hit by earthquakes Although ...............................................................................................................

many times throughout history.
Unfortunately, no effective measures are ........................................................................................................................................
taken by authorities. Scientists warn that
the death toll might be high if their ........................................................................................................................................
warnings are not taken seriously. ...................................................................................................................................... .
3. The popularity of the Internet is a) Since.....................................................................................................................

growing rapidly. The Internet offers a
vast amount of information that you can ....................................................................................................................................... .
reach in an instant. If it is used properly
and for educational purposes, it can b) ................................................................................................................................
boost learning. Spending too much time
on the Internet can lead to addiction, as long as ..............................................................................................................
social isolation, and depression ....................................................................................................................................... .
especially among teens and children.
c) Unless..................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... .
4. Too many traffic accidents happen Unless .......................................................................................................................

every day in Turkey. Many people die or
get injured in those accidents. .........................................................................................................................................
Authorities do not take effective
...................................................................................................................................... .
measures to prevent them.
5. In general, people do not trust a) As long as ........................................................................................................

politicians. Politicians usually do not
keep their promises. They tell lies. Most ....................................................................................................................................... .
are dishonest. The chances are that they
will never earn people’s trust. b) ..................................................................................................................................
as................................................................................................................................ .
6. Living in a dormitory has some a)Whereas............................................................................................................
advantages like cheap accommodation
and eating in the dining hall. Disruptive ..................................................................................................................................... .
noises, selfish roommates, and having no
privacy are some of the disadvantages. b)...................................................................................................................................
Sharing a flat with friends is good in
terms of having some privacy and because ..................................................................................................................
silence, but flatmates have to cook their ..................................................................................................................................... .
own food, and the expenses are usually
high.
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b) Complex Sentences Formed with Noun Clauses with “That”
Another way of extending sentences is to use noun clauses. A noun clause can replace a noun
(phrase) in a sentence, and it can be used as a subject or an object. In this section, we will
only focus on the use of “that” clauses.
Watch Out!
Mind that a noun clause has its own subject and verb, and
sometimes an object. However, it can’t stand alone.
*that Einstein formed the theory of relativity
Sbj Verb Obj
* “That” makes the whole sentence function as a noun.
* “That” can be omitted if the noun clause is used as an
object.
All physicists know about Einstein.
Obj. (Noun)
All physicists know about Einstein’s theory.
Obj. (Noun Phrase)
All physicists know about Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Obj. (Noun Phrase)
All physicists know (that) Einstein formed the theory of relativity.
Obj. (Noun Clause)
Exercise 12. Do the activities about the words given in each of the boxes. Below are some
verbs that are commonly used to introduce a noun clause.
know suppose expect point out
claim assume predict show
believe state estimate discover
think accept warn find
consider acknowledge hope reveal
a) Match the parts of the sentences below.
1. Some people believe that there is a. the cure for cancer in the near future.
2. Scientists warn that climate change b. a happy life extends people’s lifetime.
will be
3. Medical scientists hope that they will c. a large number of people have given up
find smoking since the smoking ban.
4. Officials estimate that d. dialogue between nations can help solve
conflicts.
5. It is widely accepted that promoting e. intelligent life in outer space.
6. It is commonly known that leading f. more devastating than predicted.
Below are some adjectives that are commonly used to introduce a noun clause.
true (un)likely encouraging
clear (im)possible discouraging
obvious (un)fortunate surprising
(un)fair hopeless astonishing
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b) Choose a suitable adjective that best completes each sentence.
1. It is hopeless/obvious/discouraging that we need new forms of energy to lessen
environmental pollution.
2. It is unlikely/likely that there will be any significant decrease in the oil prices because of
the chaos in the Middle East.
3. It was encouraging/unfair/discouraging that some charities equipped the schools in
Eastern Turkey with computer labs.
Below are some nouns that are commonly used to introduce a noun clause.
fact argument mistake

belief assumption news
idea/thought claim possibility/chance
c) Choose a suitable noun from the box above that best completes each sentence. More than
one answer is possible in some sentences.
1. It is a questionable _____________ that Hitler himself was not German. There is no clear
evidence to support this.
2. It was a fatal _____________ that the government did not take the necessary precautions
against the flood. Unfortunately, hundreds of people died.
3. It is a wrong _____________ that only love can solve the problems of married couples.
Actually, there are many other factors that play a key role in having a happy marriage.
4. It is good _____________ that medical scientists have been able to develop artificial
organs to replace diseased or damaged organs. This means that patients who need organ
transplants won’t have to wait a long time for one.
Exercise 13. Complete each sentence by using a suitable introductory verb, noun, or adjective
and the prompts given in the boxes below. Try to do the first question as a class and the rest
alone.
1. Studies on health and well-being …………………………....…. that

foods high in nutritional value
……………………………………………………………………………………………… improve
………………....................................................................................................................... .
2. It was …………………………………. that ………………………....................... none of the favourite football
………………………………………………………………………………………….……
teams / champion
.................................................................................................................................................. .
3. It is an undeniable ………………………. that..................................................

high alcohol consumption
………………………………...............................................................................…………...... health
………………… ……………………………......................................................................... .
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4. There is a weak ………………………… that ………..………………………. peace
……………………………………………………………………………………………….... the Middle East
……………………………………………................................................................................ .
5. University students ……................................... that .......................................... No prompts.
....................................................................................................................................................... .
c) Complex Sentences Formed with Relative Clauses

Another way of extending sentences is to use relative clauses. A relative clause is a dependent
clause and functions as an adjective, describing the noun it is used with.
People live in difficult conditions.
(Which people? What kind of people?)
Unemployed people live in difficult conditions.
Adjective + Noun
People who are unemployed live in difficult conditions.
Noun + Relative Clause
We can extend the relative clause by adding more information to the clause:
People who are unemployed for more than one year live in difficult conditions.
People who are unemployed for more than one year in any country live in difficult
conditions.
Exercise 14. Extend the following sentences by using relative clauses.
1. Companies ..................................................................................................................................... ..........................................................
............................................................................................................................ are preferred by new university graduates.

2. People .......................................................................................................................................................................................................…
…………….................................................................................…… are better at forming strong social relationships.
3. Countries ....................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................. can overcome economic crises far more easily.
4. Children ......................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................. can behave aggressively towards their friends.
5. Teachers .....................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................... are appreciated by students
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
6. Technologies ..........................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................... can pose serious health risks.
7. Foods..............................................................................................................................................................................................................
…………………………………………………….......................................................................… improve the immune system.
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Exercise 15. Extending and Clarifying Sentences
Below is a short piece of writing, given as an example, which is extended by using
prepositional phrases, coordinators, subordinators, sentence connectors, noun clauses, and
relative clauses as well as adjectives and adverbs. Some tips are provided to show how to
improve the piece of writing.
The Importance of Classroom Participation Use a noun clause to

combine these.
School is usually boring for students. This is
In what? universal. Teachers talk all the time. Students listen Is this always true?
and take notes. Participation is important for
How? learning. Students learn best like this. Collaboration Change it with a
can boost achievement. Classroom activities help to synonym & extend the
keep students involved. Students do their best to idea.
improve their work. Their work will be shared with
This looks like a reason What kind?
other students. Teachers can do many things. They
This looks like a can encourage participation. They can ask students Combine the ideas.
condition. to work in groups. They can create opportunities for
students.
In what?
Clarify
The Improved Version:
The Importance of Classroom Participation

It is a universal fact that school is usually boring for students. This is especially true
when teachers talk all the time and students only listen and take notes without actively
participating in the class. However, active participation in classroom activities is essential
for students of all ages to enhance their learning. Experts in education point out that
students learn best by joining classroom activities and working with their peers because
social collaboration can boost learner achievement. Classroom activities that are engaging
and mentally challenging for students help to keep them involved in their academic work. It
is generally known that students do their best to improve the quality of their essays, projects,
and presentations if they are shared with other students. Besides, teachers can do their best
to encourage classroom participation by creating opportunities for their students to work in
groups or interact with each other.
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Work in groups or pairs and try to extend the following piece of writing in the same way as it
was done in the example. Follow the prompts and add any information you want.
For whom and why? Energizing Students When?/ How long?

+ Use a noun cl. Doing what?
Motivating students is a challenge. There are students
Overused; use with different learning styles. They have different Combine them.
synonyms. interests. They have different life experiences. Keeping
What kind? students alert is difficult. Teachers can make learning more
To do what? fun and meaningful. There is one way. They can create an
What kind? atmosphere in the classroom. This is important for teacher-
For what purpose? learner interaction. Using the book and the board all the Use a noun cl.
time can bore students. Teachers should also use other
What kind? things. Teachers should, of course, follow the school Clarify the idea &
Add more info. use a relative cl.
program. They must teach the topics and cover the
What kind? important subjects in the lesson. Students can fail the Combine the last
exams. Having fun all the time can also bore students. This two sentences, using
is indisputable. a noun cl.
Your Version
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..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................ ..........................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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ADDITIONAL TIPS & EXERCISES
WORD GRAMMAR
Words are the keystones of a sentence. There are rules that tell us how we should use words. Without knowing
the rules, we can’t use them grammatically correctly, and our sentences will look bad. We will look at three
types of word forms and see what we should be careful about. We should check word usage from the dictionary
and learn the way words are used.
VERBS ADJECTIVES
While using verbs in a sentence, we should be careful Adjectives give us information about a thing or a
about how to continue after the verb. Verbs are used in person. One way of extending adjectives is using
two ways: prepositions. Different adjectives take different
prepositions.
TRANSITIVE VERBS V[T] INTRANSITIVE VERBS Adj + preposition + Adj + preposition + Ving
have to be followed by an V[I] like “rise, happen, Noun or Noun Phrase
object, or the meaning will be occur, die, etc.” have no
incomplete. object. I am interested in I am interested in doing
nanotechnology. research on
The health experts The rents in Istanbul are
nanotechnology.
warned. (incomplete) rising. V[I]
whom? about what?
He is worried about the He is worried about
children. losing the children.
The health experts warned A nuclear disaster
the public about the happened in Japan in She is excited about her She is excited about
danger of second hand March, 2011. new research on stem doing her new research on
smoke. (complete)
cell production. stem cell production.
*Some verbs have both transitive and intransitive
forms The bus driver was The bus driver was
to run fast/slowly V[I]
responsible for the car responsible for causing
to run a marathon V[T]
accident. the car accident.
NOUNS
We can extend nouns and give more specific information using prepositions. Certain nouns take certain
prepositions.
He has an addiction. He has an addiction to (playing) computer games.
Watch Out!
You must check a comprehensive dictionary
to learn the grammar of a word. From such a
dictionary, you can learn which prepositions
This symbol shows that the are used with words and how words must be
verb is transitive. We can also used.
look at the example to In any comprehensive dictionary, you can
understand how the verb is find similar information about the usage of
used.
the word “inform” and its other forms:
The prepositions that we can inform V [T]: 1. To officially tell someone

use with the verb are given in about something or give them information:
bold. They decided to inform the police. Inform sb
about/of sth Please inform us of any change
of address as soon as possible. inform sb
(that) We regret to inform you that your The preposition can also be
application has been rejected. given in brackets with a
information N [U] [+ about/on] 1. Facts or “+”.
details that… The word is used only in
The book contains information about a wide the uncountable form.
variety of subjects.
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Exercise 1. Use your dictionary and find the prepositions used with the following verbs in the
sentences.
1. Most people object ................... working at night.
2. Rich people usually invest their money.............. the stock market, real estate, and works of art.
3. Some celebrities have been accused ............ child abuse.
4. Animation used in commercials appeals ............. children.
5. The manager of the company was arrested ............ the abuse of financial resources.
Exercise 2. Circle the correct preposition that goes with each adjective. Check your
answers from a dictionary.
a. aware about/of the facts Watch Out!
b. bored with/of the routine of housework
If you want to
c. interested in/at science and technology remember new words,
d. enthusiastic by/about learning new things it’s good to learn them
in sets of words just as
e. doubtful at/about the accuracy of the results
given in this exercise.
f. concerned to/about the lives of tsunami victims You can note down
g. equipped with/by computers examples from Google
or a dictionary.
h. satisfied with/by your income
i. good in/at playing chess
j. bad in/at playing an instrument
k. proud with/of students’ achievements
l. excited in/about joining a trip to Alaska
m. capable of/in designing a computer simulation
n. involved to/in a crime
o. fond of/in eating chocolate
How to Check “Correct Word Usage” from Google
One difficulty in learning a new language is not being sure about which words go together.
One way to check this is to “google” the word combinations. Let’s assume that you have
learned the word promote, which means help to develop, and that you are not sure
whether you must say “promote peace”. By writing the words in quotation marks (“...”), you
can check from Google if these two words can appear together. If a high number of matches
are found (in the thousands or millions), then you can be sure that the words are used
together. If the search result says “no matches” or finds up to a few hundred matches, then we
shouldn’t use the words together.
“ promote peace”
About 4.180.000 results (0,17 seconds) (Yes, it is possible to say so.)
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CHAPTER 2 CAUSE PARAGRAPHS
COMMUNICATION & TECHNOLOGY
This chapter will cover strategies and tasks that will help you organize, develop, and link
your ideas to write a paragraph which discusses the causes of something. Besides, you will be
introduced to some useful words and phrases that introduce causes.
Introduction
Trends in Social Networking
While the elderly are joining young adults on social networking
sites, middle-aged adults prefer blogging. For teens and young adults
(13 to 29 year olds), blogs are becoming less popular. Just three years
ago, 3 out of 10 people from these age groups wrote on a blog weekly,
but now just 15% do this. This may be due to the popularity of
Facebook and other social networking sites. In fact, three-fourths of this group now uses
Facebook at least once a week. Researcher Amanda Lenhart says, “Facebook has certainly
contributed to the decline of blogging among young adults and teens. Its incredible
popularity results from its convenience. On this site it is really easy to post pictures and
update friends.”
Adults aged 30 to 65 are less interested in Facebook and more interested in blogging
than the younger generation. Only 40% of these middle-aged adults use social sites, but the
number of bloggers is rising, from 1 in 10 three years ago to 2 in 10 today. What attracts
them to blogs as teens move away from them? Blogging enables them to connect with like-
minded people with similar career goals or interests.
The elderly, on the other hand, are coming to Facebook in large numbers. Their kids
and grandkids are using this site. As a result, they have to use it to keep in touch with their
relatives. 30% of those over 65 are now on Facebook, and more are joining every day.
Facebook use may soon be more widespread among the elderly than the middle-aged.
However, there is one huge difference between the elderly and the young. While 5 out of 6
young people access the Internet wirelessly with mobile phones or laptops, only 1 out of 6 of
the elderly does this.
Complete the sentences with information found in the article.

1. Blogging is losing popularity with young adults. Today only ___% of this group writes on a
blog.
a) 5 b) 15 c) 20 d) 30
2. Facebook is very popular with today’s youth, with ___% of young adults posting weekly
on this site.
a) 50 b) 60 c) 70 d) 75
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3. More middle-aged adults are blogging these days; now ___% of this group posts regularly
on a blog.
a) 10 b) 20 c) 30 d) 40
4. The elderly have a growing interest in Facebook, and ___% of this group now uses this site.
a) 10 b) 20 c) 30 d) 40
5. Only ___ out of 6 elderly people use(s) a wireless Internet connection, but ___ out of 6
youth connect to the Internet in this way.
a) 1 , 5 b) 2 , 4 c) 1 , 4 d) 3 , 5
Do you know any interesting facts about the use of social networking sites? Share your
knowledge with the class.
Vocabulary
Knowing the following words about trends and causes will be useful to you when you are
writing a cause paragraph.
a) Match the words to their definitions.
1. due to ___ a. be an important factor in
2. contribute to ___ b. for this reason
3. decline ___ c. common
4. result from ___ d. be caused by
5. rise ___ e. decrease
6. enable ___ f. increase
7. as a result ___ g. because of
8. widespread ___ h. make possible
b) Scan the text and find the collocations of the following words or phrases. Add other
collocations for the words in bold.
1. s_ _ _ _ _ net_ _ _ _ _ _ _/s_ _ _ _ _ sites
2. w_ _ _ _ o_ a blog
3. u_ _/be _ _ Facebook
4. p_ _ _ pictures
5. up_ _ _ _/keep _ _ touch _ _ _ _/con_ _ _ _ w_ _ _ friends, people, relatives
6. ac_ _ _ _ the Internet (wirelessly) _ _ _ _ mobile phones or laptops
Language Focus
Showing Cause/Effect Relationships
Below are useful words that introduce ideas that state causes.
a) Prepositions are often used to show cause/effect relationships:
Effect Preposition Cause
The popularity of blogging is due to the popularity of Facebook.
decreasing
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There are other prepositions that connect causes and effects. Can you add the missing words
to complete the chart below?
Effect Prepositions Cause

because ____
____ account ____
The popularity of blogging is the popularity of Facebook.
decreasing ____ a result ____
owing ____
b) There are also some verbs that show cause/effect relationships:
Effect Verb Cause
The incredible popularity of results from its convenience.

Facebook
Can you complete the chart below by adding prepositions to these verbs that show
cause/effect relationships?
Effect Verbs Cause
stems ____
The incredible popularity of its convenience.
arises ____
Facebook
c) Finally, you can show cause/effect relationships by using sentence connectors:
Cause Sentence Connector Effect
Their kids and grandkids are ; as a result, the elderly are using it, too.
using this site
Below are clues for some of the most common sentence connectors that are used to show
cause/effect relationships. Add the missing letters to the chart.
Cause Sentence Connectors Effect

; there _ _ _ _,
Their kids and grandkids are ; th _ _, the elderly are using it, too.
using this site ; conse _ _ _ _ _ _ _,
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Writing Focus
Developing a Cause Paragraph
Below is a sample topic which requires a discussion on the causes of watching television to
improve one’s English. Follow the steps and tips that explain how to develop ideas.
Topic: Why is watching television a good way of improving one’s English?
Step 1 When writing a topic sentence, you should find the main
idea in a question and answer it clearly. Analyse the key
idea in this question. Which idea sounds the strongest?
a) watching television b) improving one’s English

c) improving English through television
Step 2 When starting a paragraph, a clear answer–the main argument/idea–should be

formed in response to the question. The sentence that states the main idea of the
paragraph is called the Topic Sentence. Here is an example:
“Watching television is a good way of improving one’s English.”
Step 3 If you aim to discuss more than two reasons in your paragraph, then it is better to form
a topic sentence like this:
“Watching television is a good way of improving one’s English for several reasons.”
Step 4 Now, it is necessary to do some thinking and to find some good reasons before
starting to write. What might be these several reasons? Any examples? The mind
map below shows some ideas that will support the topic sentence.
Watch Out!
It is timesaving to do
the thinking first and
MIND MAPPING then start writing.
Watching television is a Why?

good way of improving
one‘s English.
Reason 1 reason 2 reason 3
learn new words learn daily expressions improve listening skills
e.g. news/films e.g. series/movies e.g. news/MTV/Number 1
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Below is a sample paragraph in which the ideas above are put into sentences and supported
further:
Improve Your English by Watching Television
1
Watching television is a good way of improving one’s English for several reasons.
2
First of all, one can learn new words by watching broadcasts on television. 3News is a good
source of picking up new words about current events and world issues. 4In this way, foreign
channel viewers can hear authentic English full of useful words. 5Secondly, by following
series such as “House”, “Grey’s Anatomy”, and “CSI”, one can learn expressions which are
commonly used in everyday English. 6Finally, while watching television, it is possible to
improve one’s listening skills. 7Although one may not understand everything on television,
one can get familiar with the sounds of English and the pronunciation of words. 8Besides, the
more one listens to English, the more one understands. 9Therefore, it will be good practice to
listen to songs on MTV or Number 1 TV, where hundreds of songs are played every day. 10In
short, television enables learners of English to better their English in an enjoyable way.
Exercise 1. Paragraph Analysis

Each sentence of the sample paragraph above is numbered. Below are some headings that
signal the sections of a paragraph. Write the number of sentences that belong to each section
and any connecting words in those sentences.
Section Sentence Number(s) Connecting Word(s)

Topic Sentence X
Supporting Idea 1
(Reason 1)
Details/Discussion
Supporting Idea 2
(Reason 2)
Details/Discussion X X
Supporting Idea 3
(Reason 3)
Details/Discussion
Concluding Sentence
Writing a Topic Sentence

Exercise 2. Rewrite the topic sentence of the paragraph above by following the instructions.
1. Think of other possible words that can replace the underlined word in the topic sentence.
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“Watching television is a good way of improving one’s English for several reasons.”
a. _______________ d. _________________ g. _______________
b. _______________ e. _________________ h. _______________
c. _______________ f. _________________ i. _______________
2. Use the prompt below to rewrite the same topic sentence in a different way.
There are several reasons ____________________________________________________.
3. It is also possible to write a topic sentence by selecting any word that expresses your main
idea instead of using words that state cause and effect relationships.
“Watching foreign channels on television is beneficial for improving your second language.”
By using the verb structure given below, rewrite the sentence above.
To enable sb/sth to do (V1) sth
(= make it possible for sb/sth to do sth)
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Exercise 3. Making an Outline

Below is a paragraph that discusses why Istanbul is the most attractive city in Turkey. Read
the paragraph and complete the outline that follows by writing the key words.
The Most Attractive City
ISTANBUL is the most attractive city in Turkey for

various reasons. One reason is that there are more job
opportunities in Istanbul than in other cities. People can find a
variety of jobs in many fields like architecture, engineering,
marketing, finance, and teaching. Besides, big companies such as
Sabanc and Koç have lots of work places where you can find many
different kinds of well-paid jobs. Another reason why people find Istanbul appealing is that it
has beautiful places to visit. Actually, Istanbul is one of the loveliest cities in the world. Lots
of tourists from all over the world visit Istanbul because of its historic places and picturesque
view of the Bosphorus. A final reason is that the social and cultural life in this megacity
attracts people. For example, there are hundreds of cinemas, theatres, restaurants, bars and
cafes where you can spend a good time with friends. Especially, the night life is colourful and
entertaining. In short, if you are looking for a great place where you can work, live and, of
course, have fun, Istanbul is the perfect city for you.
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ISTANBUL
The most attractive city
1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea: 3rd Supporting Idea:

more job opportunities ............................................... …...........................………….
Detail 1: …..........…………. Detail 1: ………………… Detail 1: e.g.……………………

e.g. …………...........…. e.g. historic places, Detail 2: …………...……………
Detail 2: …..........…………. the Bosphorus
e.g. …..........………….
Flashback: Introducing Examples

x When giving examples, we can use the following sentence connectors. Mind that a comma and a
sentence follow them:
For example, For instance, To illustrate,
Istanbul offers various social and cultural facilities for its visitors and residents. For instance,
there are countless cinema and theatre halls, exhibition centres, concert halls, bars, cafes,
and restaurants.
x It is also possible to use the following words to introduce examples. Mind that a general noun
comes just before them and a list of items follows :
noun + like/such as
Istanbul offers its visitors and residents countless social and cultural facilities such as/like
cinema and theatre halls, exhibition centres, concert halls, bars, cafes, and restaurants.
x It is also possible to split the phrase “such as”, as shown in the example below:
Istanbul offers its visitors and residents such varied social and cultural facilities as
cinema and theatre halls, exhibition centres, concert halls, bars, cafes, and restaurants.
Writing a Concluding Sentence

Use a transition signal to show that you are finishing your paragraph. The following phrases
can be used before a concluding sentence:
In short, To sum up, Shortly,

In brief, To summarize, Briefly,
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1. One way of concluding your paragraph is to summarize your main points, as illustrated in
the paragraph about Istanbul above.
To sum up, if you are looking for a great place where you can work, live and, of
course, have fun, Istanbul is the perfect city for you.
2. A second way is to draw a conclusion and make a comment.
In brief, Istanbul can be the best city to live in if you enjoy a fast pace of life.
3. Another way is to paraphrase the topic sentence. This means you have to rewrite your topic
sentence using different words and/or grammatical structures.
Topic sentence: ISTANBUL is the most attractive city in Turkey.

Concluding sentence: In short, in Turkey Istanbul is the best city to live in.
In short, this charming city is the best city to live in.
In short, there is no other city in Turkey which is more appealing than Istanbul.
Exercise 4.
a) Mind Mapping –Below are ideas from a group of students to support a topic sentence, but
the ideas are jumbled and have to be reorganized. Find the ideas related to each other and
complete the mind map below. The broader, more general ideas will be the supporting ideas.
Topic Sentence: Studying in another country is advantageous in many ways.
gain new values &

meet new people & discover new customs and traditions
develop their character
communicate with get used to looking after

learn a new language
other people themselves & living alone
have different life experiences realize differences btw. their learn daily speech
own culture & their new culture
exposed to a new culture become more responsible
Studying in another country is advantageous in many ways.
1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea: 3rd Supporting Idea

exposed to a new culture ................................................. have different life experiences
Detail 1: Detail 1: Detail 1:
.............................................. .............................................. ..............................................
Detail 2: Detail 2: Detail 2:

.............................................. .............................................. ..............................................
Detail 3:
..............................................
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b) In-class Writing Task: Using the ideas in the mind map, write a paragraph as a class.
Develop the ideas by providing further explanation and/or examples. Make sure you add a
title and a concluding sentence.
......................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Writing Coherent Paragraphs

An important part of effective writing is coherence. The topic sentence, the supporting
sentences, the supporting details, and the concluding sentence must all be organized in such a
way that they “cohere” or “stick together”. How can you make the parts of your paragraph
stick together? Choose a clear method of organization (such as “causes”) and then use
connecting words as well as cause/effect verbs and prepositions as signposts to connect the
ideas in your paragraph.
Exercise 5. The following sentences form a cause paragraph about moving to cities. The
sentences are not in order, but they can be put in order easily because the writer has used
many sentence connectors.
1. First, more and more people are working in factories, which are usually located in cities.
2. In short, people are attracted to cities because of higher paying jobs, better schools, and a
greater variety of activities.
3. Thus, many families leave farming communities to make sure their children are educated
well.
4. Finally, as cities grow, people establish places of leisure, entertainment, and culture.
5. Because these jobs usually pay better than jobs on the farm, they attract many people
from rural areas.
6. In addition, the best schools are in cities.
7. Most parents are very concerned about their children’s education.
8. More than 50% of the world population now lives in urban areas, and there are three
important reasons for this.
9. For many people, these facilities make city life more interesting than life on the farm.
10. For example, all cities have facilities like sports stadiums, theatres, and museums.
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Order the paragraph by putting the appropriate number in each blank.
Topic sentence: ___
1st supporting idea: ___

Supporting detail: ___
2nd supporting idea: ___

3rd supporting idea: ___

Concluding sentence: ___
Exercise 6. The following cause paragraph is about moving from cities to the countryside. It
lacks coherence because there are not enough connecting words and the cause/effect
relationships are not clear. Improve the coherence of this paragraph by putting the words in
the box in the appropriate blanks.
first of all for example in brief lastly so
moreover on account of result in as a result
A New Trend
Unlike in the past, when people were moving from the countryside to the city, these
days many people are leaving the city and returning to the countryside for several reasons.
1
______________, the latest technology enables many people to work outside the city.
2
______________ computers and high speed Internet connections, some workers can do their
jobs far from their office, 3______________ they no longer need to live in a big city.
4
______________, it is usually much cheaper to live in a rural area. There is a very big
difference in prices. 5______________, a house in the countryside usually costs less than half
a similar home in the city. 6______________, many people believe that the quality of life in
the countryside is much better. In a rural area, people can grow their own food and breathe
clean air. 7______________, they enjoy better food and feel healthier. 8______________, the
jobs that can be done from home, the low prices, and the healthy life in the countryside
9
______________ a pleasant life, and more and more people are moving to rural areas to take
advantage of these things.
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Things to Avoid in Academic Writing
There are some things which are acceptable in informal writing but not in formal or academic
writing. Look at the chart below to see some of the most common differences:
Informal Writing Academic Writing

may use contractions: avoids contractions:
x They didn’t accept it. x They did not accept it.
x That’s correct. x That is correct
may use informal vocabulary: prefers formal vocabulary:
x The director said he was sorry. x The director apologised.
x Kids watch too much telly. x Children watch too much television.
may use spoken expressions: uses formal, written expressions:
x The study is gonna come out next week. x The study is going to come out next
x It should of been done earlier. week.
x It should have been done earlier.
almost always avoids the passive voice: sometimes makes use of the passive voice:
x Many people believe that ... x It is commonly believed that ...
x A researcher found that ... x In a recent study, it was found that ...
Exercise 7. The paragraph below has six words and phrases written in an informal style.
Make them appropriate for an academic paragraph. One example has been done for you.
Be Careful With Your Television
should not
There are many reasons why children shouldn’t watch much television. The first
reason is that watching TV reduces children’s intelligence. Many studies have shown that kids
who do not watch television perform better on intelligence tests. Another reason for children
not to watch television is that it decreases their creativity. Since television is a one-way
device, children cannot interact with it, so they do almost no creative thinking while watching
it. However, good parents wanna give their children many opportunities to exercise their
minds. Finally, watching television’s expensive. One researcher found that families whose
children watch more television spend more money. Advertising is effective, and children who
see many advertisements convince their dads and moms to buy more things. In short, if you
want to have creative and intelligent children and to waste less money, limit the amount of
television that your children watch.
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In-Class Writing Tasks
Exercise 1. Revising Sample Student Paragraphs
a) Below is a cause paragraph written by a student. The topic for the paragraph is “Why do
some people prefer not to use mobile phones?”. Write a suitable topic sentence that clearly
introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
............................................................................................................................................................................................
One reason is that they can damage your health. Studies have shown that
there are a number of health risks for mobile phone users. The other
drawback is that you may waste a great deal of time and money if you use a
mobile phone. You pay a lot of money to buy a mobile phone. Then you have a
large bill every month, especially if you use your mobile phone to access the
Internet.
b) Some sentences of the paragraph about mobile phones have been improved below, but
there are still some missing sentences. Make the paragraph better by adding a suitable title,
further details and examples, a concluding sentence, and appropriate sentence connectors.
......................................
................................................................................................................................................................................
One reason is that they can damage your health. Studies have shown that
there are a number of health risks for mobile phone users. ...........................................
................................................................................................................................................................................ . The
other reason for not using mobile phones is that you may waste a great deal
of time and money. .................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................ ......................................
........................................................................................... . .............................................. , the cost of mobile

phones is very high. You first pay a lot of money to buy a mobile phone. After
you have purchased your phone, you have a large bill every month, especially
if you use your mobile phone to access the Internet. ……....................................................,
.................................................................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................................... .
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c) Below is a sample student paragraph. In some parts it lacks coherence and clarification.
The paragraph can be organized better by using suitable connecting words. The parts that
need correction are highlighted with an asterisk (*).
Topic: Why is the Internet so important to us? Discuss.
Benefits of the Internet It is better to link the first two sentences
Internet* is a very important part of our life. We are with a connector to have a clearer topic
using it in a lot of places* such as in communication, sentence.
This is an example. We need to add
education, and business. E-mail is one of the most
the first reason and reorganize this part.
important communication tool*. Today, approximately
one billion people are using it. Furthermore, the The expression is unclear. It needs
internet provides easy education.* Many students use rewriting.
various educational websites. Next, the internet* is used We can expand the idea a bit.
in work life. Businessmen can communicate with their
business partners all over the world. They can share We can extend and reorganize the
ideas.
information quickly; thus, the world has become
smaller. Internet* will improve in subsequent years, and The concluding sentence must start
our life will become easier than now. with a connecting word.
Notes on words with an asterisk:
1. We have to use the article “the” with the word “Internet”, and its initial letter has to be a
capital letter: “the Internet”
2. The word “places” is not suitable as communication is not a place, nor are the others.
The suitable word is “areas”.
3. When we use the phrase “one of ....”, we have to use the noun in the plural form, but the
phrase takes a singular verb form.
e.g. one of the most important communication tools
One of the methods is effective.
4. We can improve the idea in the expression “provides easy education” as in the examples
below:
The Internet facilitates learning and education.
The Internet makes learning and education easier.
The Internet provides students and teachers with resources that can make education fun.
¾ The paragraph below has been improved in some ways. Fill in the parts of the paragraph
that still need improvement by adding more information and making necessary changes.
Benefits of the Internet
The Internet is a very important part of our life because ……………………………………………
. First of all,
..................................................................................................................................................................................................
. For example,
........................................................................................................................................................................................
approximately one billion people are using email, messenger, or Skype to interact with other
people. Furthermore, .......................................................................................................................................................................... .
Many students benefit from various online resources and websites to do their assignments.
Finally, the Internet is widely used in business. The world has become smaller for
businessmen as .......................................................................................................................................................................................... .
........................................., the Internet will improve even more in subsequent years, and our life will
become easier than now.
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d) Below is another sample student paragraph. Working in groups, edit the paragraph by
following the feedback and instructions.
Topic: Why do teenagers use violence against their friends? Discuss.
Violence and the Visual Media

1One
of the main reasons for violence is the visual media, which includes
games and TV series. 2This type of entertainment contains violence which
effects* teenagers negative*. 3For instance, in computer games such as
Counter Strike or Warcraft, players kill characters to win the game. 4These
games bring about wild feelings in players. 5Some TV series such as “Kurtlar
Vadisi” influence viewers in the same way. 6For example, some teens bully,
beat, or even kill their friends. 7In brief, violence is showing* as a solution to
solve problems by the visual media, so teenagers treat their friends bad*.
Feedback and Instructions:

1. Rewrite the topic sentence, including more specific information. Notice what the question
specifically focuses on.
2. What type of entertainment does the writer focus on in the example (sentence 3)? Clarify
the 1st supporting idea accordingly. Also, introduce it with a suitable connecting word.
3. What kind of logical relationship is there between sentences 3 and 4? Link them with a
suitable connecting word.
4. Introduce the 2nd supporting idea (sentence 5) with a suitable connecting word.
5. To make a stronger link, add an explanation to sentence 6. Referring to the previous
sentence, find the underlying reason for the violent actions of teens. Use correct punctuation.
6. Correct the words with asterisks. Make all your corrections in the spaces provided below.
Violence and the Visual Media

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................. contain violence, which ....................... teenagers ......................... . For

instance, in games such as Counter Strike or Warcraft players kill characters to win the
game; ........................................., these games reveal wild feelings in players. .................................., some
television series such as “Kurtlar Vadisi” influence viewers in the same way. For example,
some teens bully, beat, or even kill their friends ..............................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
In brief, violence is .................................. as a solution to solve problems by the visual media, so

teenagers treat their friends ........................ .
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Exercise 2. Writing Your Own Paragraph
Working in groups, you will write a cause paragraph on the following topic. Before you start
writing, there are a few tasks you will need to complete.
Topic: Discuss the reasons why youngsters show a great interest in social networking sites.
a) Text Analysis and Pooling Ideas
Below is a short text. Scan the text and list the reasons for using social networking sites.
Social Networking Sites’ Rise to Popularity

Social networking sites bring together people all around the globe with one click of the mouse,
allowing them to get to know and interact with each other in a variety of fun ways and share their
common interests. Websites like Blogger and Facebook provide an appealing and attractive online
venue for their users to form groups of friends easily. They offer a variety of tools to find old friends
and add new ones to friends list. Every person who uses social networking has different aims. Social
networking provides a quick and convenient way of keeping in touch with all your friends in a single
place. It also offers a quick way of communicating with friends nearby or far away, without worrying
about time zones or cost. Social networking websites are a great way of making new friends and
meeting new people all over the world that share your interests. It is a worthwhile experience to join
forum groups and exchange ideas and opinions. Another advantage is to restore contact with old
friends and classmates. Through social networking, people can find old friends who have moved or
with whom they have lost contact over the years. Regaining contact with long-lost friends is just one
of the rewarding experiences that social sites provide.
Note down below the reasons you spotted in the text:

1. ......................................................................... 4. ..........................................................................
2. ......................................................................... 5. .........................................................................
3. .......................................................................... 6. .........................................................................
Can you think of two more reasons why young people might use social networks?
1. .......................................................................... 2. ..........................................................................
b) Vocabulary
Quickly go over the text again and underline some useful words that go together (e.g. people
all around the globe, to share common interests) that you might wish to use in your own
writing. Also, make use of the vocabulary you studied in the introduction to this chapter. Note
down the words you want to use in your paragraph below:
........................................................................ ........................................................................
........................................................................ ........................................................................
....................................................................... .........................................................................
........................................................................ ........................................................................
........................................................................ ........................................................................
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c) Drawing Your Mind Map
Choose only three of the causes from the list you prepared as your main supporting ideas.
Add further points and examples to the mind map below so that you have the skeleton of
your paragraph. Use just single words or phrases. Prepare a poster with your group and
present it to the class.
Why Young People Use Social Networking Sites
1. .................................................... 2. .......................................... 3. ..................................................
- ................................................... - ................................................... - ...................................................
- ................................................... - ................................................... - ...................................................
- ................................................... - ................................................... - ...................................................
Write the final version of your paragraph here:
............................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................ ..................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... ..............................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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d) Self-Editing and Peer Editing
Go over your paragraph after you finish writing using the Editing
Checklist below. Then swap paragraphs with another group, go over the
paragraph you received, and suggest any changes if necessary. After re-
editing your own paragraph, display it to the whole class.
Put a tick
EDITING CHECKLIST (√) if it is
OK.
Topic Sentence Does it... have a clear main idea?
at least two causes that support the topic sentence?
Supporting Ideas Are there... appropriate connecting words (e.g. therefore, thus,
because, on account of)?
supporting details that explain and/or give examples?
start with an appropriate connecting word (e.g. in

Concluding brief, to summarize)?
Sentence Does it... summarise the main points of the paragraph, OR
paraphrase the topic sentence, OR
provide an appropriate final comment?
subject-verb agreement
missing/incorrect prepositions
Grammar Check
for... missing/incorrect articles
appropriate use of verb forms
appropriate use of connecting words (e.g. since, so, as
a result)
connecting verbs and phrases related to cause
paragraphs (e.g. stems from, due to)
Vocabulary Check appropriate word choice/word form
for...
overused words (Can you suggest synonyms?)
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Additional Tips and Exercises
CLAUSES AND PHRASES OF CONTRAST

In Chapter 1, you learned that “while”, “whereas”, “though”, “even though” and “although” can
be used to introduce contrast. There are also some prepositions which can be used to introduce
contrast. Some examples are given below.
CLAUSES OF CONTRAST PHRASES OF CONTRAST

These clauses use the following pattern: These phrases use the following pattern:
subordinator + subject + verb preposition + noun (phrase)/gerund
Look at the examples below. Look at the examples below.
Although the traffic was terrible, In spite of the terrible traffic,

I arrived on time. I arrived on time.
Even though the earthquake victim did not Despite not having water for three days, the
have water for three days, he managed to earthquake victim managed to survive.
survive.
Exercise 1. Make changes in the sentences using the cues provided.

1. Many tourists enjoy shopping in the Grand Bazaar even though the prices are high.
Many tourists enjoy shopping in the Grand Bazaar despite ................................................................................... .
2. Though there were many special tourist events in Istanbul in 2010, fewer tourists came to
the city.
In spite of ........................................................................................................................, fewer tourists came to the city.
3. Although the number of tourists who visited Istanbul dropped, those who came stayed for
a longer period of time.
Despite ...................................................................................................................................., those who came stayed for a
longer period of time.
4. Tourism in 2011 has improved although economic problems in Europe are continuing.
Tourism in 2011 has improved in spite of .......................................................................................................................... .
5. Though they have many good Turkish restaurants to choose from, many tourists choose to
eat at fast food restaurants.
Despite ...................................................................................................................................... , many tourists choose to eat
at fast food restaurants.
Exercise 2. Rewrite the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence.
Use the word in bold and other words to complete each sentence.
1. Most people are for the proposal, so I think the parliamentarians will support it. FAVOUR
Most people ........................................................................................ the proposal, so I think the parliamentarians
will support it.
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2. He is fortunate that he is alive after such a serious accident. TO
He is fortunate ................................................................................................... after such a serious accident.
3. I cannot apply for that job. I do not have enough experience, and my English is not good
enough. NOR
I cannot apply for that job. I do not have enough experience, ................................................................................
good enough.
4. An obvious way to reduce pollution is to reduce the number of cars. IT
..................................................................................................................... there must be fewer cars to reduce pollution.
5. It is a police officer’s duty to protect people from criminals. RESPONSIBLE
A police officer ................................................................................................................................... people from criminals.
6. The company is not able to handle such a large order. CAPABLE
The company is ............................................................................................................................ such a large order.
7. The judge decided that the plane crash was due to pilot error. AROSE
The judge decided that the plane crash .................................................................. pilot error.
8. Jeremy has been absent for the last two weeks because of a serious illness. RESULT
Jeremy has been absent for the last two weeks ................................................................ a serious illness.
Suggested Online Dictionaries
1. Are you looking for an online dictionary that is easy to use for people who are learning
English? Try the following ones:
a. www.funeasyenglish.com/american-english-dictionary.htm
This dictionary has many words but simple definitions that most
ESL learners can understand.
b. www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary
This dictionary also provides simple definitions and good example sentences for English-
language learners. Make sure that after you write a word (e.g. alert) in the search box, you
find the following link among the definitions given and click on it to see simpler
definitions and examples:
e.g. See alert defined for English-language learners »
c. www.ldoceonline.com
2. If you want to look up a synonym of a word,

you should visit the following website:
www.thesaurus.com
3. You should also explore the online graphical

dictionary:
www.visuwords.com
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Writing Assignments
Write a cause paragraph on one or more of the topics below.
1. Why are more girls going to school today than they were a generation ago?
x girls’ higher social status
x parents’ fear of penalty
x more jobs for girls
x better transportation to school
x more schools
x more female teachers
2. Why is it better to study in your home country than study abroad?

x cheaper cost
x education in mother tongue
x closeness to family
x closer friendships
x more career opportunities
x fewer cultural differences
3. Why is the Internet a useful source to improve one’s English?

x films
x newspapers / magazines
x chat sites
x websites for English learners
x dictionaries
x games in English
4. Why is football fanaticism a threat to society?

x violence
x destruction of property
x lack of respect
x excessive drinking
x mob culture
x alienation of youth
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CHAPTER 3 EFFECT PARAGRAPHS
OVERUSE & ADDICTION
your ideas to write a paragraph which discusses the effects of something. Besides, you will be
introduced to some useful words and phrases that introduce effects.
Introduction
Computer Overuse
It's 5 a.m. and you've spent the night staring at your computer screen, trying to get a
paper done. You make it through the night and even hand in your paper on time, but then it
strikes—muscle pains, neck cramps, and a splitting headache. The reason could be your
computer.
Computers are a part of everyday life, and students rely on their machines for
research, assignments, and social networking. Because they spend several hours in front of the
screen each day, students may overlook the consequences. Students are especially
susceptible to computer overuse and its related injuries, such as carpal tunnel syndrome,
lower back pains, and tennis elbow. Working at a computer can result in injuries if your body
is not in the right position. If the top of the monitor is not at eye level, the desk is too high or
low for your height, the lighting is bad, or the chair you sit in is uncomfortable, then there is a
good chance you will strain your muscles and feel the effects later. Focusing your eyes on the
same point for long periods of time also leads to eye fatigue. The human eye prefers to look
at objects about six metres away, so work performed close up may overwork the eye muscles.
The brightness of the computer screen also gives rise to eye fatigue. Many students have a
screen that is so bright or so dim that it tires their eyes. While there is no evidence that eye
fatigue brings about permanent vision loss, computer users experience symptoms such as
blurred vision, temporary inability to focus, and headaches.
But there are things you can do that prevent these discomforts. Setting up your desk
correctly, or ergonomically, is the first step towards preventing unwanted pains. The monitor
should be situated straight ahead, and your legs should be resting at a 90-degree angle to the
floor. To prevent carpal tunnel syndrome, your keyboard height should allow your wrists to
extend slightly upwards. Finally, make your body more comfortable and give your eyes a rest
by taking frequent short breaks. Go for a short walk or do stretching exercises at your desk.
Doing these things will enable you to enjoy your computer much more.
Exercise 1. Below are ten statements about the effects of computer use. Tick the five
statements that are supported by the text.
1. ___ Using a computer late at night is the main reason for computer related discomforts.
2. ___ Students are not negatively affected by their computers when using a computer for fun
tasks such as social networking.
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3. ___ The ideal height for the top of the monitor is eye level.
4. ___ Students are often affected by using computers too much.
5. ___ Lighting is not an important factor as long as your computer screen is very bright.
6. ___ Looking at the monitor strains your eyes because they can focus on objects further
away more easily.
7. ___ Be careful of sitting too close to the computer screen as this may cause blindness.
8. ___ The position of your keyboard should cause your wrists to bend slightly upwards.
9. ___ An ergonomic computer set-up reduces the discomforts of computer use.
10. ___ To reduce computer strain, one long walk is more effective than three short ones.
Vocabulary
Exercise 2. Complete the sentences below with a word or phrase in bold from the text
“Computer Overuse”. A definition of the word is included beneath the blank.
1. If you do not stretch before playing sports, you are more likely to ____________ a muscle.
injure by using too much or wrongly
2. It is easy to ____________ the importance of regular car maintenance.
not realize
3. More comfortable seats and slightly more space between seats have greatly reduced the
____________ of air travel.
things that cause pain
4. ____________ is a major factor in road accidents, so truck drivers are not allowed to drive
Tiredness
for more than ten hours per day.
5. You do not have time to think what to do when an earthquake ____________, so you
happens suddenly
should have your escape plan in place before one happens.
6. A good pilot must learn not to fly by sight; instead, he must learn to ____________ his
be dependent on
instruments.
7. The photograph is ____________; the photographer must have moved his hand just before
unclear
taking the picture.
8. The teacher said that if students did not ____________ their assignments by Friday, she
give, submit
could no longer accept them.
9. The elderly are more ____________ to a number of illnesses and diseases.

likely to suffer from
10. It is extremely rude not to shake someone’s hand when he or she ____________ it to you.
move, stretch out
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Exercise 3. You will write better effect paragraphs if you know a variety of synonyms for
“effect”.
a) Look at the clues below. Can you add the missing letters to the words that mean “effect”?
in _ _ _ _ _ ce im _ _ _ t con _ _ _ _ _ _ ce re _ _ _ t
b) Some words in English mean “positive effects” but other words mean “negative effects”.
Can you sort the five words below into these two groups?
drawbacks downsides advantages benefits disadvantages

positive effects: ____________ ____________
negative effects: ____________ ____________ ____________
Language Focus
Verbs That State Effects
In Chapter 2, you learned about verbs that state causes; in this chapter we will look at verbs
that state effects.
Cause Verb Effect

Working at a computer may cause injuries.
There are some two and three-word verbs that show cause/effect relationships. Find the
underlined verbs in the reading and complete the chart below:
Cause Verbs Effect

_______ to
may _______ in
Working at a computer _______ about injuries.
_______ rise to
All these verbs that state effects can be used with nouns as in the example above. Also, look
at two more examples from the reading:
The brightness of the computer screen gives rise to eye fatigue.
effect verb + noun phrase
Eye fatigue does not bring about permanent vision loss.
effect verb + noun phrase
Although these verbs have similar meanings, they take different patterns when they are used
with another verb. Look at the examples below:
Focusing on the same point for a long time causes your eyes to feel fatigued.
cause +someone/something + to + V1
Setting up a work area ergonomically will result in (a student) having fewer discomforts.
result in/lead to/bring about/give rise to (+someone/something) + gerund
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Exercise 1. Use these verb patterns to complete the sentences below.
1. The changes in the university exam caused students ............................................................................................. .
2. The recent heavy rain led to .......................................................................................................................................................
3. The government hopes that the improved public transportation system will give rise to
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4. Stricter rules about fishing on the Bosphorus may cause .....................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
5. High speed trains between Turkey’s major cities would bring about .........................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
Using “so” and “such”

We also use the following phrases when we talk about effects. The part of the sentence that
follows “that” introduces an effect.
“so + adjective/adverb + that ...”

“such (+ a/an) + adjective + noun + that ...”
We use “so” and “such” to make the meaning of an adjective or adverb stronger.
Look at the following sentence from the reading in the introduction:
Using “so” to make an adjective stronger

Many students use a computer screen that is so bright that it tires their eyes.
The sentence above emphasizes that the computer screen is very bright.
Look at a similar example using “such”:
Using “such” to make an adjective stronger

Many students use such a bright computer screen that it tires their eyes.
Exercise 2. Make one sentence from two. Use so or such.

1. Cell phones are widespread. It results in many deaths every year.
2. Palm pilots are small devices. They understand more than 10,000 words by age six.
3. Cell phones have useful functions. Over four billion people now own them.
4. Children learn language quickly. Some teachers make use of them in the classroom.
5. Driving after drinking alcohol is dangerous. They can fit in your hand
1. Cell phones are so widespread that over four billion people now own them.
2. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4. ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
5. ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
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Exercise 3. Complete the sentences below using your own ideas.
1. Some Internet cafes have such a quick Internet connection that ....................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
2. The latest cell phones are so expensive that ..................................................................................................................
3. I studied so hard for the last exam that ............................................................................................................................. .
4. Facebook is such a popular social website that ............................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
Writing Focus
Developing an Effect Paragraph
An effect paragraph is written in the same way as a cause paragraph. The only difference is
that in an effect paragraph, the effects of something are discussed instead of its causes. As the
steps for writing a paragraph are shown in Chapter 2, this section will focus on how to
develop and link ideas, which leads to unity in a piece of writing.
Exercise 1. Below is a model effect paragraph. Each sentence of the paragraph is numbered.
Put the number of each sentence into the correct section of the chart below. Also, write any
connecting words that signal the transitions.
Workaholism
1
Workaholism is a serious type of addiction that leads to numerous problems. 2To
begin with, work addiction is now accepted as a disorder which can have negative effects on
health. 3People who have overloaded work schedules work
under excessive stress. 4Thus, they suffer from stress- Watch Out!
related diseases such as migraines, chronic fatigue, anxiety The phrase “as well as” can be used in
attacks, high blood pressure as well as heart disease. two different ways:
5
Secondly, people who overwork are so fully occupied To make To mean “and” or
with their work that they neglect their families. 6As they comparisons: “in addition to”:
cannot control the amount of work they do or set healthy She sings as Doctors as well as
well as me. nurses work long
limits, they only spare a little time for the people in their hours.
family. 7 As a result of this, family bonds can weaken,
leading to conflicts. 8Furthermore, overwork and weak social relations can eventually cause
work addicts to suffer from depression. 9Depression will undoubtedly lessen the overall work
performance of addicts, and this may cause serious failures in their work life over time. 10In
summary, work addiction influences people’s health, family life and future career negatively.
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Section Sentence Number(s) Connecting Word
Topic Sentence X
Supporting Idea 1
Details/Discussion
Supporting Idea 2
Details/Discussion
Supporting Idea 3
Details/Discussion
Concluding Sentence
Working on the Topic Sentence
In Chapter 2, you learned that an effective topic sentence clearly expresses the main idea of a
paragraph. In the exercises below, you will work on writing effective topic sentences for
effect paragraphs.
The following structure can also be used to introduce effects and write a topic sentence:
negative
adverse effect
have a/an positive influence on sth/sb
significant impact
dramatic
Exercise 2. Below is the topic sentence from the model paragraph. Using other words or
patterns that state effects (see “Introduction” and “Language Focus”), rewrite the topic
sentence in other possible ways. You can change, add, or omit words.
“Workaholism is a serious type of addiction that leads to numerous problems.”
Examples: Work addiction has negative impacts on people’s lives.

Working overtime affects various aspects of people’s lives negatively.
1. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Exercise 3. Choosing the Best Topic Sentence
For each topic, three supporting ideas are listed. Work with a partner and choose the best
topic sentence (a, b, or c) for each paragraph. Why is this choice better than the other choices?
Topic I: How has the Internet made life better for students?
Possible topic sentences:
a) The Internet is certainly the most important development for everyone.
b) The Internet enables students to stay in contact with their family and friends.
c) Because of the Internet, life has improved for students in many ways.
Supporting ideas:
x It enables them to keep in touch with their families more closely.
x It helps them do research more quickly.
x It allows them to take care of practical jobs like banking and paying bills more easily.
Topic II: What are the effects of spending too much time on the Internet?
a) Some people spend five or six hours on the Internet nearly every day.
b) People need face-to-face social interaction to remain emotionally healthy.
c) People face some serious problems if they do not limit their time on the Internet.
Supporting ideas:
x They do not have enough time to build strong relationships.
x They fail to get sufficient exercise.
x They do not develop a wide range of interests.
Topic III: What are the effects of eating too much junk food?
a) The food we eat affects us in many different ways.
b) An unhealthy diet has many drawbacks.
c) Unhealthy food makes you overweight, and it is very hard to become thin again.
Supporting ideas:
x You gain too much weight.
x You do not have enough energy.
x You are more likely to become ill.
Exercise 4. Creating the Best Topic Sentence
Each topic has three supporting ideas listed. Create a topic sentence that effectively
summarizes these ideas.
Topic I: What are the benefits of communicating face-to-face?
Your topic sentence:
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
Supporting ideas:
x You can more easily recognize if there is a misunderstanding.
x You realize if a friend is experiencing problems and help him/her better.
x You can solve a problem more quickly.
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Topic II: How does cramming for exams affect students?
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
Supporting ideas:
x There are negative physical effects because of fatigue.
x They only remember what they study for a short period of time.
x They experience much more stress.
Topic III: How does moving to a new city affect a person?

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
Supporting ideas:
x You miss your family and old friends.
x You have a chance to start over and create a new life.
x You have a chance to experience different things.
Writing Unified Paragraphs

In Chapter 2, we looked at coherence in paragraphs and learned that good paragraphs “stick
together” because they have a clear method of organization as well as signpost words like
sentence connectors. Another important aspect of good paragraph writing is unity. To achieve
unity, every detail in your paragraph must be connected to your main idea. If one of your
supporting ideas or supporting details does not clearly support your main idea, it is better to
leave it out.
Exercise 5. a) Look at the two paragraphs below. Each paragraph has two sentences that do
not support the main idea. Identify these two sentences for each paragraph.
Paragraph I
Signs of Sleep Deprivation
1
There are two common signs of sleep deprivation, that is, not getting enough sleep,
which everyone should be aware of. 2 About one half of people fall asleep in less than ten
minutes when they go to bed at night, but some people need 20 to 30 minutes. 3The first sign
is feeling tired most of the time. 4It is normal for people to feel worn out at the end of a busy
day, so do not confuse this with sleep deprivation. 5However, if you feel tired throughout the
day, this is a clear sign you are not getting enough sleep. 6 Another common sign that you are
not getting adequate sleep is an inability to concentrate. 7For example, if you are having a
hard time completing your jobs at work because you cannot focus properly, you are probably
behind on sleep. 8Experts agree that doctors need the highest degree of concentration to
complete their work successfully. 9Also, you need more sleep if you lose your concentration
when speaking to a friend or family member. 10In brief, if you feel fatigued or lose your
concentration on a regular basis, it should be a warning to you that you need more sleep.
Sentences which do not support the main idea ___ ___
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Paragraph II
Effects of Sleep Deprivation
1
There are two common effects of sleep deprivation that could have a significant
impact on your life. 2The first one is a slower reaction time and less coordination. 3You might
think that these abilities are only necessary for professional football players. 4Many people
believe that Pele was very successful because of his incredible quickness. 5However, you
should be aware that many daily tasks like driving a car require quick decisions and fast
reactions. 6On the highway, for example, a slow reaction could result in a serious accident.
7
The second drawback of a lack of sleep is negative long-term health effects. 8You will get
more colds and infections because your immune system becomes weaker due to a lack of
sleep. 9In addition, the weaker your immune system becomes, the longer it takes you to
recover from illnesses. 10 As a result, you will be ill more often and for longer periods of time
if you get too little sleep. 11Overall, people live three to five years longer than they did twenty
years ago. 12In brief, if you want to enjoy a safer, healthier life, make sure your body gets the
rest it needs.
Sentences which do not support the main idea ___ ___
b) Take a careful look at the topic sentences below. Put a tick (√) next to the supporting idea
which supports the main idea and an “x” next to the one that does not. Then add one more
supporting idea of your own which maintains the unity of the paragraph.
1. There are a number of reasons why university students do not get enough sleep.
___ For one thing, dormitories are often very noisy.
___ University students often fall asleep in class if the lecture is boring.
Your supporting idea: ..........................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
2. Using antibiotics when they are not necessary has many adverse effects.
___ Doctors need to be more careful when prescribing antibiotics.
___ Antibiotics can weaken the immune system.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3. A high amount of stress in your life will lead to many problems.

___ People are not able to get enough sleep if they are always under pressure.
___ Stress from relationships is one of the most common problems we face.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
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Exercise 1. Linking and Extending Ideas: Work in groups and do the following tasks on the
topic below. Compare your work with the class.
Writing Topic: What are the effects of over-exercising?
a) Over-exercising can have negative effects. Here is a pool of ideas. Find which ideas are
linked to one another and put them under an appropriate heading given below.
increased skin cramp wear out/

attacks tear muscles
aging
damage to muscle deeper/more

skin tissue loss noticeable wrinkles
Damage muscle Damage physical appearance

....................................... .......................................
....................................... .......................................
....................................... .......................................
b) Now that the ideas have been categorized, they can be put into sentences. During the
writing process, further thinking is needed to extend and link ideas. The best way is to ask
guiding questions. The first supporting idea is extended for you as an example.
Topic Sentence : Over-exercising can cause significant damage to the body.

1st Supporting Idea : damage muscle
Details : cramp attacks, wear out/tear muscles, muscle loss
Guiding questions and sample answers:

1. Which effect looks like an immediate effect of over-exercising and can trigger the others?
Wear out/tear muscles
2. What could be the reason for having cramp attacks?
Because of very frequent exercise, muscles cannot relax and the body has no chance to
repair them.
3. What is the final result? Any possible effect on the body?
Muscle loss. This can increase the risk of injuries, causing bones to break easily.
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Below is an example showing how to use the guiding questions and sample answers to write
the 1st supporting idea:
The first effect of exercising too much is damaging muscles. If sports addicts work out almost
every day, they may wear out their muscles. Wearing out muscles and not giving them a
chance to repair themselves can lead to painful cramp attacks. Eventually, worn out muscles
also bring about muscle loss, which increases the risk of injuries like breaking bones.
By using the prompts and following the guiding questions, put the following ideas into
sentences.
2ndSupporting Idea : damage physical appearance
Details : increased skin aging
damage to skin tissue
deeper/more noticeable wrinkles
Guiding Questions:
1. Which detail looks like the main reason for damaging the physical appearance of workout
addicts? Which two ideas above look more like the possible consequences?
2. So if skin tissues get damaged and cannot be repaired by the body due to over-exercising,
what can this lead to? Try to link this to appearance and aging.
3. Could you provide any examples? What kind of exercises can lead to a bad physical
appearance? Which professional sportsmen look older than their real age?
Write the 2nd supporting idea on a piece of paper or poster to present to other groups. After
getting feedback from your classmates and instructor, write a copy of the final version here:
Another important effect of exercising too much............................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Exercise 2. a) Mind Mapping Task
Below is a topic and a mind map in which some ideas are given. Working as a class, write
guiding questions to find more supporting details and examples to extend the paragraph
outline.
Topic: What are the possible consequences of being addicted to television series?
Addiction to TV Series
comparison of lifestyles changes in moral values health problems
Q: Whose lifestyles are Q: .................................................... Q: ....................................................

compared? .................................................... ? .................................................... ?
A: Viewers’ own lifestyles A: .................................................... A: ....................................................
and actors’ lifestyles .................................................... ....................................................
Q: What does this Q: .................................................... Q: ....................................................

comparison lead to? .................................................... ? .................................................... ?
A: Thinking you have a A: .................................................... A: ....................................................
boring/meaningless life .................................................... ....................................................
b) Writing Task
Get into three groups and work on one supporting idea to put the ideas into sentences. After
finishing your part, bring all the pieces of writing together by writing them on the board. As a
class, add a topic sentence and a concluding sentence. Edit the paragraph by using the editing
checklist on page 54. Write down the final version below:
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Exercise 3. Writing Your Own Paragraph
Working in groups or individually, you will write an effect paragraph on the topic below.
Before you start writing, there are a few tasks you will need to complete.
Topic: Discuss the psychological effects of computer overuse on university students.
a) Text Analysis and Pooling Ideas
Below is a short text. Scan the text and list the psychological effects of computer overuse.
Computer Overuse Hits University Students Hard

Unfortunately, problems related to computer overuse are not limited to inconvenient
physical discomforts. Many people also suffer from loneliness, isolation, and depression when
they spend too much time at their PCs. Imagine a university student who is really
introverted. He can stay on the computer all day long rather than doing other things like
socializing or getting involved in activities on campus. Students who overuse their computers
run the risk of becoming detached since their activities on the Internet may be replacing their
real-life relationships. People who spend lots of time at the computer often develop a craving
for even more time in front of the screen. They lie to family members, employers, or friends if
that enables them to get more time on the computer. The worst part is that the university age
population is more susceptible to overusing or becoming hooked on the Internet because they
must do a great number of tasks on a computer and many teen social activities are Internet-
based. Research shows that between 5 and 10% of Internet users are not able to restrict the
time they spend on the Internet, and university students report having this problem at a higher
rate than any other group.
Using the text above and/or your own ideas, come up with five psychological effects that
computer overuse may have on university students.
CAUSE → PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

1.
2.
computer overuse 3.
4.
5.
b) Build up your vocabulary for your paragraph by completing the two tasks below:
i) Match the words in bold in the text to their definitions below.

a) isolated - __________________
b) limit - __________________
c) strong desire - __________________
d) shy - __________________
e) addicted to - __________________
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ii) Now find some useful words that go together (e.g. people suffer from, spend too much
time) that you might wish to use in your effect paragraph on computer overuse.
........................................................................ ........................................................................
........................................................................ ........................................................................
........................................................................ ........................................................................
c) Drawing Your Mind Map

Choose three effects from the list you prepared as your main supporting ideas. Then add
supporting details to the mind map below so that you have the outline of your paragraph. Use
just single words or short phrases.
The Psychological Effects of Computer Overuse on University Students
1. .................................................... 2. .................................................... 3. .....................................................
- .................................................... - .................................................... - ....................................................
- .................................................... - .................................................... - ....................................................
- .................................................... - .................................................... - ....................................................
d) Write the final version of your paragraph here:

............................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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e) Self-Editing & Peer Editing
As you did in Chapter 2, go over your paragraph after you finish writing, using
the Editing Checklist. Then swap paragraphs with another group, go over the
paragraph you received, and suggest any changes if necessary. Finally, re-edit
your paragraph and show it to another group.
EDITING CHECKLIST Put a tick

if it’s OK.
Topic Sentence Does it... have a clear main idea?
at least two effects that support the topic sentence?
Supporting Ideas Are there... appropriate connecting words?

(e.g. to begin with, furthermore, thus)
supporting details that explain and/or give examples?
start with an appropriate connecting word?

Concluding (e.g. in brief, to summarise)
Sentence Does it... summarize the main points of the paragraph, OR
paraphrase the topic sentence, OR
Grammar Check
appropriate use of “so” and “such” to make an adjective
stronger
connecting words related to effect paragraphs
(e.g. the first effect is, another effect is)
Vocabulary Check verbs that state effects
for... (e.g. lead to, result in)
appropriate word choice/word form
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Easily Confused or Misused Words and Phrases
Below are three pairs of words or phrases that are often confused by learners of English:
according to/compared to
According to means in someone’s view or opinion: “According to some people, global
warming is a myth.”
Compared to is used to show the similarities and/or differences between two things:
“The prices of Levi’s Jeans are very expensive compared to the prices of less famous brands.”
affect/effect
Effect is usually a noun that means a result: “The sound of the falling rain had a calming
effect, nearly putting me to sleep.”
Affect is usually a verb that means to have an influence on: “His loud talking was affecting my
ability to concentrate.”
on the other hand/in addition
On the other hand is used to introduce a different or opposite way of thinking about a
situation: “We could save the money. On the other hand, we could use it for a holiday.”
In addition is used to introduce an additional or extra idea or opinion: “Young children
develop new physical skills every day. In addition, they are amazing language learners.
Exercise 1. Complete the following sentences using one of these easily confused words or
phrases.
1. ........................................ other notebook computers, Apple notebooks are rather expensive, but
some people think they are worth the extra money.
2. The Bollywood actor Amitabh Bachchan has hundreds of millions of fans in India;
........................................, he is almost unheard of in the rest of the world.
3. The increasing price of petrol has a large economic ........................................ on many people.
4. The price of fruits and vegetables is quite cheap ........................................ the cost of meat.
5. ........................................ my teacher, I should study English for at least one hour every evening.
6. The cold weather ........................................ crops so much that people did not have enough to eat.
7. Computers are very useful for work and study. ........................................, they are great for
entertainment.
8. Netbook computers are quite inexpensive. ........................................, they are not easy to use
because of their small size.
9. An earthquake in the Pacific Ocean may produce a large tsunami that could .....................................
tens of thousands of people.
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Exercise 2. Analyse the sentences below and underline the part which expresses a cause.
Also mark whether a clause (Cl) or a noun/noun phrase (N) follows each connecting word or
phrase.
1. Because of the intense training program that lasted almost a half day, all athletes felt
exhausted at the end of the day.
2. The most common cause of forest fires is human error.
3. Many flood victims were rescued because AKUT rescue teams and soldiers immediately
reached the area hit by the flood.
4. Since Fatih Terim is successful in motivating footballers and helping them use their full
potential, many football clubs all over the world are eager to hire him.
5. Online libraries and databases are widely used as research tools by university students, for
such resources offer unlimited access to information on various subjects.
6. Environmental pollution is mainly caused by industrial waste.
7. As the burning of calories is the key to losing weight, there is a growing interest in doing
sports.
8. The reason why I want to become an AKUT member is that saving lives is a rewarding
experience.
Exercise 3. Analyse the sentences below and underline the part which expresses an effect.
Also mark whether a clause (Cl) or a noun/noun phrase (N) follows each connecting word or
phrase.
1. Friendships can sometimes end due to a lack of respect for personal thoughts or beliefs.
2. Actually, many illnesses result from an unhealthy diet and excessive stress.
3. Owing to effective campaigns against the use of cyanide, a poisonous substance, in finding
gold reserves, the villagers of Bergama managed to stop the mining in their area.
4. Too much stress can cause different types of illnesses such as insomnia.
5. Unfortunately, water resources have become polluted almost all over the world on account
of chemical and toxic wastes from factories.
6. Illegal hunting and environmental destruction lead to the extinction of animal species.
7. As a result of extensive research in genetics and cancer studies, many types of cancers can
now be prevented.
8. Economic instability stems from ineffective politics, lack of investments, and poor use of
natural and human resources.
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1. One typical effect of alcoholism is neglecting your duties at work and home. LEADS
Alcoholism typically.......................................................................................................................... at work and at home.
2. Over time, drinking too much negatively affects your health. EFFECT
Over time, drinking too much ........................................................................................................................... your health.
3. Some people are addicted to alcohol; as a result, they use alcohol even when it is
dangerous, such as when they are driving. OF
As a result ........................................................................................................................ , some people use alcohol even
when it is dangerous, such as when they are driving.
4. You will not be able to help someone stop drinking if that person has not made a definite
decision to quit. LONG
............................................................................................................................................. has not made a definite decision to
quit, you will not be able to help that person stop drinking.
5. Don’t try to solve a serious alcohol problem by yourself. You certainly need help to do that.
THAT
It is .............................................................................................................. to solve a serious alcohol problem; don’t
try to do it by yourself.
6. If you do not understand the patterns of behaviour that go together with alcoholism, you
probably will not be able to help someone with this problem. AWARE
If you .................................................................................................. the patterns of behaviour that go together with
alcoholism, you probably will not be able to help someone with this problem.
Suggested Websites
The following websites provide a wide variety of topics to read about. By reading about
different topics, you will be able to learn the key vocabulary about specific topics and
increase your knowledge. As it is necessary to come up with strong ideas while writing a
paragraph or an essay, reading about different topics in English will help you to find
supporting details. You can read articles about the following topics:
Science and Technology Environmental Problems Health Education
Recent World Issues Leisure Time Activities Entertainment
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Below are some suggested websites where you can find articles about these topics.
1. www.sciencemag.org
2. www.the-scientist.com
3. www.nationalgeographic.com
4. www.savetheworld.com
5. www.bbc.co.uk
6. www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish
7. www.observer.guardian.co.uk
Writing Assignments
Write an effect paragraph on one or more of the topics below:
1. What are some of the negative results of using a cell phone too much?
x car accidents
x sleep loss
x cancer risk
x physical discomforts
x high expenses
x inability to focus
2. In what ways does an addiction to gambling harm a person’s life?

x less time for family and work
x lying
x loss of money
x borrowing money
x constant stress
x health problems
3. What are the possible consequences of overusing credit cards?

x no savings
x bankruptcy
x depression
x broken families
x bad credit record
4. What are the effects of having a shopping addiction?

x buying unnecessary things
x debts
x taking on an extra job
x relationship problems
x unhappiness
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CHAPTER 4
COMPARISON/CONTRAST PARAGRAPHS
PEOPLE & PLACES
This chapter will cover strategies and tasks that focus on helping you write an effective
compare or contrast paragraph. You will be introduced to some vocabulary and structures
that you need to write these paragraphs.
Introduction
Smarter and Smarter
The results of intelligence tests in different countries show that over
the past century the average IQ has been increasing at a rate of about three
points per decade. That may not sound like a lot until you think about it like
this: Someone who scored among the top 10% on an IQ test a hundred years
ago would certainly differ greatly from a bright person today, only scoring in
the bottom 5%. This means that someone who was considered brilliant a
century ago would now be regarded as stupid! On the other hand, a score of 120 today would
be the same as a score of 130 just one generation ago.
None of the scientists who have studied this intellectual progress can offer a simple
explanation. It seems likely that it is caused by a combination of factors. One possible factor
is spending more time in school, but numerous studies have found that IQ rises even when
students do not spend more time in school. Another common theory is that the media, and
especially television, provide more stimulation for the brain. However, this does not account
for the steady increase in IQ before television became widespread in the 1950s.
One factor that seems quite significant is better nutrition. According to

many studies, young children who eat lots of fatty, sugary, and processed foods
end up with a lower IQ, similar to children who do not get enough to eat. In
contrast, a diet rich in vitamins boosts IQ, especially during the first three years
of life, when the brain is developing rapidly.
A more general factor is that society as a whole functions at a higher intellectual level.
An inquisitive child today has more intellectual challenges and more complex problems to
solve. The more complex life becomes, the more active the mind needs to be. Most teens are
at ease with complex modern appliances, such as digital cameras and mobile phones, unlike
the older generation, who finds them difficult to deal with. Likewise, by age six most children
use computers for both education and games, which increases intellectual agility, abstract
reasoning, and general knowledge.
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Exercise 1. Complete the sentences below with numbers from the reading, and see how much
more intelligent you are than your parents were and why you are so smart.
1. Scores on IQ tests are going up about _____ points every ten years.
2. If someone scored in the top 10% on an IQ test given 100 years ago, she/he would probably
score in the bottom _____% of an IQ test given today.
3. If you can get a score of 120 on an IQ test today, you could have got a score of _____ on an
IQ test one generation ago.
4. Children who have a healthy diet for the first _____ years of their life, the period when
their brains develop rapidly, score higher on IQ tests.
5. By age _____, most children are comfortable using a computer for playing games and
learning.
Vocabulary
Exercise 2. Match the following words in bold from the reading with their synonyms.
1. ...who was considered brilliant. 6. ...end up with a lower IQ...

a) young a) get (some time later)
b) intelligent b) forget (after a period of time)
c) strange c) solve (eventually)
2. ...would now be regarded as stupid. 7. ...a diet rich in vitamins boosts IQ...
a) talked about a) harms
b) heard of b) increases
c) thought of c) costs
3. ...numerous studies have found that... 8. An inquisitive child today has...
a) many a) educated
b) recent b) curious
c) large c) nervous
4. ...more stimulation for the brain. 9. Most teens are at ease with...
a) encouragement a) comfortable
b) pain b) unhappy
c) research c) lazy
5. ...this does not account for... 10. ...which increases intellectual agility...
a) make use of a) discussion
b) deny b) error
c) explain c) quickness
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Language Focus
Comparison and Contrast Vocabulary
Exercise 1. The words in the highlighted area below are used in the article Smarter and
Smarter. Put them into the appropriate boxes.
differ however in contrast likewise

on the other hand similar to unlike
Sentence Connectors Prepositions

Showing Showing Showing Showing
contrast similarity contrast similarity
on the contrary similarly contrary to like
..................................... ............................. in contrast to ...............................
..................................... ...............................
.....................................
Verbs
Showing Showing
contrast similarity
vary resemble
.............................
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps in the paragraph using the comparison and contrast vocabulary in
the box below.
differed however likewise resembled similar to unlike
A Brilliant Student?
You have certainly heard of Stephen Hawking, the author of A Brief History of Time.
Despite his serious health problems, he has made many contributions to the field of science.
What was this brilliant man like as a student? Surprisingly, before university he 1………….………
his classmates, receiving only average or slightly above average grades. In academic ability,
he seemed 2………….…………the rest of the class, and none of his high school teachers predicted
that he would become a great scientist. 3………….…………, he did not attract much attention
during most of his university career. During this time, too, his grades were average, and he
seemed like a typical university student to his professors. 4………….…………, Hawking’s physics
tutor noticed that he was not an average student. He said, “His intellectual ability
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………….………… greatly from the ability of his classmates. It was only necessary for Hawking
to know that something could be done, and he could do it. He did not have to know how other
people did it.” At the end of his undergraduate studies, Hawking was on the borderline
between first and second class honours, so he needed to take an oral exam. That was the point
when his genius came through. After the exam, one of his professors said, “6………….…………
any other oral exam I have ever been part of, this exam made me feel that I was the student
and he was the professor. Hawking is far more clever than me or any of the other examiners.”
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Comparison and Contrast Structures
You will write better comparison or contrast paragraphs if you are able to use a variety of
comparison structures. Below are some examples of some common comparison forms:
Flashback: Comparative Forms

Do you remember these comparative forms?
Comparisons with one-syllable adjectives Comparisons with `(not) as...as` and `(not) the
or two-syllable adjectives ending in `y`: same as`:
New York is larger than Los Angeles. Traffic in Los Angeles is as bad as in New York.
Los Angeles is windier than New York. Los Angeles is not as flat as New York.
Comparisons with longer adjectives: Winters in Los Angeles are not the same as
Los Angeles is more polluted than New winters in New York; they are much warmer.
York.
Comparisons with nouns: Comparisons with the `the...the`:

New York has more tourists/tourism than The longer I live in Los Angeles, the more I
Los Angeles. prefer it to New York.
Fewer movie stars live in New York than in The longer I lived in New York, the less I liked
Los Angeles. it.
New York has less crime than Los Angeles.
Making comparisons stronger: Comparisons with `...and...`:

New York has much/a lot/far less crime than More and more people are moving from New
Los Angeles. York to Los Angeles.
Making comparisons weaker: The job opportunities are getting better and better
Los Angeles is a bit/a little/slightly more in Los Angeles, but worse and worse in New
polluted than New York. York.
Exercise 3. Look at the information below in italics and then complete the sentences below.
Use the different comparison forms given in the chart.
Watch Out!
Remember to use “fewer” with countable nouns and “less” with uncountable nouns.
Using “fewer” correctly: Using “less” correctly:

Our school has fewer computers than This cup holds less water than that one.
your school.
1. Car thefts in New York per 100,000 people: 195

Car thefts in Los Angeles per 100,000 people: 650
New York has far …………..............................................................…….........…
Los Angeles.
2. People per square kilometre in New York: 10,130

People per square kilometre in Los Angeles: 3,010
New York …………………………….................................................................… crowded ……….........…….. Los Angeles.
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3. Tourists to New York: in 2000–36 million, in 2005–42 million,
in 2010–48 million, in 2015–52 million (estimate)
More and ……………….............………………............... have been visiting New
York.
4. Number of tourists to Los Angeles: in 2000–25 million, in 2005

–24 million, in 2010–25 million
The number of tourists who visited Los Angeles in 2000 was the ………………………………….........
......................................................... of tourists who visited there in 2010.
5. New York’s restaurants: expensive, often dirty

New York’s 4,000 street vendors: large variety of food, great prices
The longer I stay in New York, the .......................................................................................................................................... .
6. Los Angeles’ population: 2005–3,845,000; 2010–3,840,000

The population of Los Angeles ................................................................................................................................. in 2010.
7. Crime in New York City: a decrease every year since 2000

Since 2000, there has been ................................ and ....................................................................... in New York City.
8. Skyscraper: a building over 100 meters in height

Number of skyscrapers: Hong Kong–985, New York–650
Hong Kong is the only city in the world with
.................................................................................................................. .
9. Number of skyscrapers: Los Angeles–55 New York
Los Angeles does not have ............................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................................... .
10. 1990: New Yorkers born outside US–30%, English spoken in

60% of New York homes
Today: New Yorkers born outside US–36%, English spoken in
50% of New York homes
Los Angeles
The more foreigners settle in New York, .................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
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Writing Focus
Comparison Paragraphs: Writing about Similarities
When we compare things, places, or people, we write about the similar points or
characteristics they have. We have to find a few points that show similarity and then discuss
these similarities.
Exercise 1. a) Below is a model comparison paragraph in which two comedians are

compared. Analyse the paragraph and find the main points of the similarities between these
two people. Notice that after each point of similarity, a discussion follows about each person.
Two Famous Comedians
1
Cem Ylmaz and Şahan Gökbakar have several characteristics in common. 2One
similarity between these comedians is that they are both educated. 3Cem Ylmaz went to
Boğaziçi University, and Şahan Gökbakar graduated from Bilkent University. 4 Another
similar point is that they each have a career in show business. 5Cem Ylmaz started his career
drawing comics for the Turkish humour magazine Leman and went on by doing stand-up
shows. 6He also wrote and starred in the big-budget science-fiction movies Gora and Arog,
and the western parody Yahşi Bat. 7Similarly, Şahan Gökbakar did stand-up shows and a few
comedy shows on television. 8Like Cem Ylmaz, he also wrote comedy movies: the Recep
Ivedik series in which he starred. 9Finally, both Cem Ylmaz and Şahan Gökbakar have
appeared several times in commercials, acting out funny characters. 10Cem Ylmaz mostly
played the roles of swindlers in the Doritos and Telsim commercials. 11Likewise, Şahan
Gökbakar acted out rude and vulgar personalities in Turkcell commercials. 12Briefly, these
two comedians resemble each other in many aspects, though their style of humour varies to
some extent.
1st Similarity: 2nd Similarity: 3rd Similarity:

______________ ______________ ______________
b) Now write the number of each sentence under the related section of the paragraph and note
down the connecting words that signal transitions between sentences:
Section Sentence Number(s) Connecting Word(s)/Phrase(s)
Topic Sentence X
Supporting Idea 1
(Similarity 1)
Details/Discussion
Supporting Idea 2
(Similarity 2)
Details/Discussion
Supporting Idea 3
(Similarity 3)
Details/Discussion
Concluding Sentence
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Writing the Topic and Concluding Sentences for Comparison Paragraphs
While writing the topic sentence or restating it in the concluding sentence, it is necessary to
form a sentence which states clearly that the things compared share similarities. You can do
this by using specific structures, nouns, or verbs.
Below is a commonly used structure that can be used in a topic or concluding sentence. The
topic sentence of the model paragraph is formed with this structure:
“Cem Ylmaz and Şahan Gökbakar have several characteristics in common.”
a few things
some features
have many characteristics in common
several qualities
numerous
It is also possible to form a topic sentence or a concluding sentence using the verb “resemble”
as shown below. The concluding sentence of the model paragraph is formed in this way:
“Briefly, these two comedians resemble each other in many aspects, though their style of
humour varies to some extent.”
a few
some ways
resemble each other in many aspects
several respects
numerous
Exercise 2. There are also other ways to write the topic or the concluding sentence. Using the
prompts below and your general knowledge of English, write suitable topic sentences for the
model paragraph. Make sure you add the necessary words.
1. (striking/similarities)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. (share)
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. (similar/ways)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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Contrast Paragraphs: Writing about Differences
A contrast paragraph is formed in the same way as a comparison paragraph is formed. The
only difference is that we write about the differences between two things, places, or people
instead of similarities.
Exercise 3. Below is a model contrast paragraph in which developed and undeveloped

countries are contrasted. Analyse the paragraph and note down the main points of the
differences between them.
Developed versus Undeveloped Countries

There are profound differences between developed countries and undeveloped ones.
One of the striking differences is standards of living. While developed countries offer a high
standard of living to their citizens, undeveloped countries fail to do so. As the standard of
living is high due to strong economies, employment rates and incomes of people are
considerably higher in advanced countries. Thus, people in such countries as Norway,
Sweden, and the Netherlands lead a far better life than people in Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia,
or Chile, where unemployment rates are very high. Another difference is education systems.
While prosperous countries offer high quality education which also incorporates the latest
technology, poor nations lack even very basic requirements such as a sufficient number of
school buildings, teachers, or educational materials. A final point is personal freedoms. It is
an undeniable fact that the more advanced a country becomes, the more freedoms its citizens
gain. For instance, human rights, freedom of speech, and other democratic values are given
more importance in rich countries than in poor ones. In short, developed and undeveloped
countries differ from each other in many key aspects.
Developed versus Undeveloped Countries
1st Difference: 2nd Difference: 3rd Difference:
______________ ______________ ______________
Writing the Topic and Concluding Sentences for Contrast Paragraphs

The topic sentence or the concluding sentence in a contrast paragraph should state clearly that
there are differences. Below is a commonly used structure that can be used in a topic or
concluding sentence. The topic sentence of the model paragraph is formed with this structure.
Write the missing letters of the words that can be used to describe the word differences.
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some
a variety of
nu_ _ _ _ _ s
profound
There gr_ _ _ differences between developed and undeveloped
are s_ _ _ _ f_ _ _ _ _ countries countries.
m_ j_ _
c_n_ _ d_ _able
m_rk_d
str_ _ _ng
The adverbial forms of some of the descriptive words above can be used to strengthen the
meaning of the verbs differ and vary. Complete the missing letters.
g_____y
differ c_n_ _ d_ _ab_ _
vary str_ _ _ng_ _
s_ _ _ _ f_ _ _ _ _ _ _
Exercise 4. There are also other ways to write the topic or the concluding sentence. Using the
prompts below and your general knowledge of English, write a suitable topic sentence for the
model paragraph. Make sure you add the necessary words.
1. (vary/ways)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. (dissimilar/aspects)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. (differ/in terms of)*
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
* Make sure you add the supporting ideas in the model paragraph after “in terms of”.
Parallel Structures
In academic writing, good writers make use of parallel structures. Using a parallel structure
means using the same pattern of words for two or more ideas.
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A parallel structure can be formed with words, phrases, Watch Out!
and clauses. Look at the examples below.
It is very easy to make mistakes using
Words – The factory workers were ready, willing, and parallel structures:
able to do a good job.
Incorrect Usage Correct Usage
Phrases – The acting teacher taught his students how Mary likes to hike, Mary likes to hike,
to swim, and ride a to swim, and to ride
to speak, how to stand, and how to cry. bicycle. a bicycle.
Clauses – The exam system at our school was changed

because the tests were too long and the test scores were very low.
Exercise 5. Each of the sentences below contains a mistake in a parallel structure. Rewrite the
underlined part of the sentence and correct the mistakes in parallel structures.
1. A good dictionary helps you find a word’s spelling, its meanings, and how it is pronounced.
A good dictionary helps you find a word’s spelling, its meanings, and ....................................................... .
2. A successful athlete needs to get enough sleep, a healthy diet, and to exercise every day.
A successful athlete needs to get enough sleep, ..............................................., and to exercise every day.
3. Having fun is as important for students as their lessons.

Having fun is as important for students as .......................................................................................................................... .
4. Stephen Hawking was similar to many of his classmates in that he got average grades and
not studying much.
Stephen Hawking was similar to many of his classmates in that he got average grades and
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
Exercise 6. Complete the sentences below by using your ideas. Make sure you are careful
with your use of parallel structures.
1. Cem Ylmaz has drawn comics for humour magazines, done stand-up comedy shows, and
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
2. Şahan Gökbahar is famous because of the television shows, movies, and .............................................
that he has acted in.
3. Istanbul is the most popular tourist destination in Turkey because of its many historical
places, its beautiful Bosphorus views, and ...................................................................................................................... .
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4. Developed countries have stronger economies, higher employment rates, and .................................
......................................................................................................................................................... than less developed countries.
5. Regarding education, many less developed countries have a shortage of school buildings,
an insufficient number of qualified teachers, and ......................................................................................................... .
6. Children who .................................................................................................................................................................... and read

lots of book are likely to become intelligent adults.
7. Being honest is more important for a politician than .......................................................................................... .
8. Successful students listen carefully in class, review their notes regularly, and ..................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
Exercise 7. The paragraph below has six mistakes in parallel structures. Change the words in
italics so that they are parallel in structure to the words around them. One example has been
done for you.
The Beach or the City?
a holiday
There are a great number of differences between a holiday on the beach and taking a
holiday in the city. One important difference is what you do. Most people just enjoy the sea
and the sand while they are on the beach, but some people like other outdoor activities such as
fishing, sailing, and to surf. In contrast, the activities in the city, such as visiting museums,
going to theatres, or if you participate in a tour, are usually indoors. The other important
difference is the pace of life. On the beach, you can just let things happen and relax, but you
cannot be as relaxed in the city as the beach. If you do not keep moving, you may miss some
important sites, which may make you feel frustrated and disappointment. In brief, go to the
beach to catch your breath but to the city so that you can see many new things.
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Exercise 1. Writing a Comparison Paragraph
a) Below is a table that provides some information about two famous tourist attractions of
Turkey. Find a suitable expression for each point of similarity between Bodrum and Fethiye.
One example is provided for you.
Points of similarity Bodrum Fethiye

x the Bodrum Castle x the remains of Lycian rock
1. ...................... x the Bodrum Museum of tombs
Underwater Archaeology x the Fethiye Museum
x the Antique Theatre x the Hellenistic Theatre
x swimming & sunbathing x swimming & sunbathing
2. Lovely coasts x the Blue Voyage x boat trips
x the Türkbükü,Gümbet, x Blue Lagoon (Ölü Deniz)
Karaincir Beaches x the Patara Beach
x sailing x sailing
x scuba diving x scuba diving
3. ...................... x windsurfing (Bitez & Akyarlar x river rafting
Beaches) (the Dalaman River)
x the Halicarnassus Night Club x night clubs
4. ...................... x bars & discotheques x bars & discotheques
b) Below are some useful phrases that you might like to use in your writing. Put the words in
the first box into suitable spaces in the second box to complete the phrases. An example is
provided for you.
explore appeal wander lazing lovers surrounded

diving winds engage shallow/deep fan organize
Useful Phrases
diving points ____________ in the sun ideal ____________ for sailing

____________ by turquoise blue waters ____________ around back streets _____________ water
____________ isolated beaches for ___________ of scuba diving _____________ in water sports
____________ daily tours the disco ____________ _____________ to young people
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c) Using some of the information and suggested vocabulary in the tables
above, write a comparison paragraph in groups of four or five. Make sure
you edit your paragraph using the Editing Checklist on the next page.
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d) Peer Editing
Now swap paragraphs with another group, go over the paragraph you
have received using the checklist below, and suggest any changes if
necessary.

if it’s OK.
Topic Sentence Does it... show the similarities or differences?
at least two similarities or differences?

appropriate connecting words?
Supporting Are
(e.g. one similarity is..., another difference is...)
Ideas there...
supporting details for each person/place/thing
being compared or contrasted?
Concluding (e.g. in brief, to summarise)
Sentence Does it... paraphrase the topic sentence OR
Grammar Check
appropriate use of comparative forms
(e.g. more polluted than..., not the same as...)
compare/contrast vocabulary
(e.g. similar to, resemble, in contrast)
Vocabulary Check appropriate word choice/word form
for...
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Exercise 2. Writing a Contrast Paragraph
a) Below is a text about some differences between men and women. Which of the differences
mentioned in the text do you agree or disagree with? Share your ideas with the class.
The Undeniable Differences Between Men and Women

In his well-known book “Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus”, the noted
author and marriage counsellor John Gray claims that men and women are as different as
creatures from other planets. Accordingly, men and women usually fail to notice the
differing nature of their opposite sex. Therefore, men mistakenly expect women to think and
react the way men do. Likewise, women expect similar ways of thinking and reactions from
men. These unrealistic expectations, of course, lead to frustration and conflicts. Another
striking difference between the sexes is in how they handle problems. Women generally
complain about problems because they want men to acknowledge and understand their
problems. On the other hand, men complain about problems because they are simply asking
for solutions. Furthermore, men prefer to work on their own and carry out tasks single-
handedly, whereas women like to cooperate and value assistance. Thus, men are more
competitive and have a stronger urge to prove themselves. This argument explains why most
men dislike asking directions when they get lost while driving. In contrast, women generally
tend to be inter-dependent and appreciate both offering and receiving help in order not to
complicate things further. The points of difference may abound, but the key thing is that
both men and women have to accept and respect the gender differences in order to maintain
healthy relationships.
b) Vocabulary Exercise: Match the bold words in the text with their synonyms.
1. accept : _________ 7. living beings : _________

2. not manage to : _________ 8. fights : _________
3. help (n) : _________ 9. alone : _________
4. perform : _________ 10. desire (n) : _________
5. be high in number: _________ 11. deal with : _________
6. wrongly : _________ 12. confuse : _________
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c) In-class Writing Task
Below are some headings. How do men and women differ from one another in the following
points? Get into groups and prepare a poster to share your ideas with the other groups. Use
phrases, not sentences, and extend your ideas by adding further details and examples.
Basic Differences between Men & Women
View of life Strengths Free-time activities
Men Women Men Women Men Women
d) After presenting your poster, put your ideas into sentences. Write your paragraph on
another large piece of paper or transparency. Present your paragraph to the whole class. The
other groups will give you feedback using the Editing Checklist. Write your edited draft
below.
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Easily Confused or Misused Words
Below are some words that are often confused by learners of English:
than/then
Than is used in comparisons: “Bob is more intelligent than Bill.”
Then usually means next or after that: “I went to the store and then to the bank.”
accept/except/expect
Accept is a verb; its two most common meanings are to take something that someone offers
you and to regard something as true, as in these examples: “I am sorry, but I cannot accept
this gift.” “Most scientists now accept that theory.”
Except is a preposition that means excluding or other than: “I know everyone’s name except
yours.”
Expect is a verb which means to think something will happen: “They expect construction of
the bridge to finish next month.”
choose/chose/choice
Choose is a verb which means to make a selection: “Please choose the one you would like.”
Chose is the past form of the verb choose: “He chose the best one.”
Choice is the noun form of choose and means a selection or alternative: “You do not have to
take the exam; it is your choice.”
quit/quiet/quite
Quit is a verb which means to stop or not finish doing something: “Many people try to quit
smoking.” “He quit university to work in his father’s company.”
Quiet is often used as an adjective and means making no noise: “During the exam, the
classroom was quiet.” Quiet can also be a noun and mean silence: “I love the peace and quiet
of the countryside.”
Quite is an adverb which means very but not extremely: “The film was quite good, but the
book was better.”
Exercise 1. Complete the following sentences with one of the words above.
1. It was so refreshing to enjoy the ........................................ of the forest.

2. Scientists did not ........................................ many of Einstein’s theories until after his death.
3. Do you like the colour of the paint that we ........................................ for our living room?
4. Who do you think the university should ........................................ as the new president?
5. The class travelled to Ankara and ........................................ to Cappadocia.
6. He decided to ........................................ the invitation to speak at the conference.
7. ........................................ one short exercise, I have finished all my homework for today.
8. The lecturer asked the students to be ........................................ before he started to speak.
9. He had to ........................................ school and get a job when his dad got ill.
10. The food in the student cafeteria is usually ........................................ good.
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11. The employees worked harder ........................................ they had ever worked before and achieved
their goal.
12. Voters have a ........................................ between three main political parties.
13. He ........................................ his job after an argument with a colleague.
14. We ........................................ that he will arrive at about 10 p.m. if his plane is not delayed.
1. Los Angeles is such a polluted city that many people are moving away from it. SO
Los Angeles ………………………………………………………… that many people are moving away from it.
2. Young children who receive more mental stimulation are more successful in school. THE
The more mental stimulation young children receive, ……………………….………………………………………
…………………………………………….......................................................................................................................................……………. .
3. Do men handle stress differently than women do? DIFFER

Do men ………………………………..................................………………………… in the way they handle stress?
4. Adana used to have a larger population than Bursa, but now Bursa has more people. AS
Adana used to have a larger population than Bursa, but now Adana does not …………………………
………………………………..…………………....................................................................................................................................……… .
5. Bursa has grown quickly due to the growth of its auto industry. CAUSED
The growth of its auto industry has ………………………………………………………………………………………… .
6. The development of large nature parks in many African countries has led to a higher
number of visits by tourists to Africa. TOURISTS
The development of large nature parks in many African countries has led to more …………………
………………………………………….................................................................................................................................................……..… .
7. There are important differences between the major cities in Turkey. GREATLY
The major cities in Turkey …………………………………………………….......................………………………………...… .
8. Many tourists prefer going to Africa because tours there have reasonable prices.
ACCOUNT
Many tourists prefer going to Africa ……………………………………………………………………………………...… .
9. In Bodrum, the number of tourists has risen greatly, and the number of hotels has increased
considerably. RISE/INCREASE
In Bodrum, there has been …………………………………............... ………….......................………………………………… .
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10. Medical researchers have to work extremely long hours. Similarly, computer
programmers have to work for extremely long hours. SIMILAR
............................................................................................................ , computer programmers have to work for
extremely long hours.
Writing Assignments
Write a compare or contrast paragraph on one or more of the topics below.
1. Compare or contrast your childhood with your mother or father’s childhood.

x entertainment
x family life
x holidays
x school
x freedom
x money
2. Compare or contrast life in a city to life in a rural area.

x job opportunities
x relationships
x food
x cost of living
x pollution
x technology
3. Compare or contrast the role of a mother and the role of a father in a traditional family.
x caring for children
x earning money
x shopping
x making decisions
x helping children with school
x disciplining children
4. Compare or contrast a university student having a part-time job to one who does not work.
x financial situation
x stress
x responsibility
x readiness for the future
x academic success
x relationships
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CHAPTER 5 CAUSE/EFFECT ESSAYS
CONFLICTS
your ideas to write essays which discuss the causes or effects of something. You will also be
introduced to some new useful words and phrases that are commonly used when writing
about causes and effects.
Introduction
Conflict with Classmates
Kyle, Maria, Ray, and Jasmine have become close friends
since they started university three years ago. As they are studying
communications, they are all taking a Research Methods class
this semester. They must complete a group project instead of
taking a final exam for this course. They decide to collaborate
on the project, which is to design and carry out a survey and
then write a report on their findings.
However, busy schedules quickly produce conflicts. The first problem to arise is
because of Maria. This semester she is also taking a TV production class, which is very time-
consuming. She has to finish a large assignment for this class; hence, she misses the meeting
where group members create the survey and distribute the responsibilities for giving it. When
she learns what the group has assigned her, she tells them right away that it is impossible for
her to complete so many surveys by the deadline because of all the work she has for her TV
production class. Instead, she offers to do more of the writing for the final report.
The others in the group are not happy with this arrangement, but they feel like they
have to complete some of her surveys so that they can stay on schedule. Maria keeps her
promise to do extra writing for the final report, but she is pressed for time when she writes it.
Owing to the little time that she spends on the report, it is poorly written and the rest of the
team is very unhappy with the quality of her work.
In groups of four, discuss what the other three group members should do:
x Should they hand the report in as Maria wrote it and accept a low grade?
x Should they rewrite the report to receive a higher grade?
x If they rewrite it, should they tell the professor that Maria did not do her share of the
work?
Each group should decide on the best thing for these three students to do.
Now have someone from each group report back to the class. Which group came up with the
best solution to the problem?
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Vocabulary
Match the word or phrase in bold with its synonym or definition on the right.
1. …collaborate on the project… a. taking a long time
2. …design and carry out a survey… b. plan
3. …which is very time-consuming… c. divide and share (among a group)
4. The first problem to arise… d. work together
5. …distribute the responsibilities... e. short of
6. …by the deadline… f. perform or conduct
7. …not happy with this arrangement… g. time by which something must be finished
8. …is pressed for time… h. occur
Language Focus
Exercise 1. Extending Cause/Effect Vocabulary
Look at the underlined words in the sentences from the reading. Use the context to help you
understand the meaning of each word or phrase and then match it with cause/effect
vocabulary that you have already studied in previous chapters.
1. As they are studying communications, they are all taking a Research Methods class this
semester.
a) Thus b) Since c) Because of
2. However, busy schedules quickly produce conflicts.

a) lead to b) result from c) arise from
3. She has to finish a large assignment for this class; hence, she misses the meeting.
a) therefore b) consequence c) resulting in
4. Owing to the little time that she spends on the report, it is poorly written.
a) Because b) Bringing about c) As a result of
5. They have to do some of her surveys so that they can stay on schedule.
a) on account of b) in order that c) due to the fact that
Watch Out!
It is very easy to confuse the meanings of “so” and “so that”:
“So” is a sentence connector which is “So that” is used to show purpose or give
used to show effects: an explanation:
It snowed last night, so the roads were The earthquake victim shouted so that
slippery this morning. rescuers would hear him.
The “that” can be omitted in a “so that” clause. When you see the word “so”, make
sure you understand how it is being used:
He studied hard so he would get an “A”. (so means so that; it gives an explanation)
He studied hard, so he received an “A”. (“so” shows the effect)
Writing Tip: Keep “that” when you use the phrase “so that”. Doing this will help
your reader understand what you want to say.
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Exercise 2. Reviewing Cause/Effect Language
You have studied a number of cause/effect words and phrases in previous chapters. Check to
see if you still remember this cause/effect vocabulary by choosing the correct answer for each
sentence below.
1. Listening to loud music for a long period of time ……. reduced hearing.
a) causes b) is caused by
2. Soil erosion ……. heavy rain and strong wind.

a) results in b) results from
3. Cigarette smoke is an important cause of lung cancer; ……. ,

many governments have forbidden smoking in public places.
a) thus b) for
4. The earthquake produced ……. a large tsunami that many people died.
a) so b) such
5. Increased consumption of alcohol may ……. violence at football matches to increase.

a) give rise to b) cause
6. Increased exercise leads to many health ……. such as a stronger heart

and lower blood pressure.
a) downsides b) benefits
7. Increased use of social websites has ……. many old friends renewing contact with each
other.
a) brought about b) been the effect of
8. Tickets for the championship match are very expensive ……. the high demand.
a) because of b) as a result
Watch Out!
The phrase “thanks to” is similar in meaning to “because of”; it
indicates that something happens as a result of something or someone
else. However, it is only used in sentences when the thing or person
causes something positive to happen.
Correct usage of “thanks to” Incorrect usage of “thanks to”
We were able to get tickets to the The tickets for the concert were
concert thanks to John. He very expensive thanks to the
waited in line for hours. high demand. (Use “because of”
or “due to” in this sentence.)
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Writing Focus
Introduction to Essay Writing
Writing a complete essay may seem like a difficult task, but an essay is really only an
expanded paragraph. To see how to expand a paragraph into an essay, work through the
exercises below.
Exercise 1. Reviewing Paragraph Structure
Read the cause paragraph and then label the sentences using the following terms. One
sentence is labelled for you.
Topic sentence Supporting idea Supporting detail Concluding sentence
Less and Less Violence
1
There are two main reasons why violence at football matches has been decreasing.
2
One important factor is better surveillance*. 3In the 1960s to the 1980s, when football
violence was at its worst, there was no way to identify which fans caused problems.
4
However, football stadiums throughout Europe were equipped with CCTV in the 1990s, and
these cameras enabled authorities to identify troublemakers. 5The second important reason is
stronger punishments for those who cause problems. 6Before the 1990s, punishments were
limited to one or two stadiums. 7In contrast, since the 1990s those who commit serious
offenses have been banned from attending all matches in their country and from travelling to
international matches. 8In brief, better surveillance and stronger punishments have made
football matches much less violent events.
*surveillance means observation, especially by the police or people in authority
Sentence 1 - …………………………………………. Sentence 5 - ………………………………………….
Sentence 2 - …………………………………………. Sentence 6 - …………………………………………
Sentence 3 - …………………………………………. Sentence 7 - ......… supporting detail ............
This paragraph can be expanded into an essay. First, look at the table below, which explains
the parts of an essay, and then see how the paragraph above was developed into an essay.
Format of an Essay
Introduction Body Paragraphs Conclusion
x A topic sentence states
x General statements the main idea of a body x The concluding sentence
attract your readers’ paragraph. restates the main idea in
interest and give some x Supporting ideas explain the thesis statement.
background information. the topic sentence.
x Supporting details
x The thesis statement provide examples/ x The final comment adds
gives the main idea of explanation for the a final prediction,
the entire essay in one supporting ideas. suggestion, or warning.
sentence. x Body paragraphs may or
may not end with a
concluding sentence,
which summarises the
paragraph.
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Exercise 2. Analyzing an Essay
Use the terms below to label the sentences in the essay. The sentences in normal font are from
the paragraph on the previous page and the sentences and phrases in italics are added. Two of
the answers in the chart have been filled in for you.
General statement Thesis statement Topic sentence Supporting idea
Supporting detail Concluding sentence Final comment
Less and Less Violence
1
In 1985, 39 Juventus supporters were killed during a fight with Liverpool fans, and
96 Liverpool fans died in a fight at a 1989 match against Nottingham Forest. 2Fortunately,
there have not been any major tragedies like these at football matches in the last decade, and
there have been fewer violent events in general. 3There are two main reasons why violence at
football matches has been decreasing: better surveillance and stronger punishments.
1
One important factor in reducing violence at matches is better surveillance. 2One
effective way to watch fans is CCTV. 3In the 1960s to the 1980s, when football violence was
at its worst, there was no way to identify which fans caused problems. 4However, football
stadiums throughout Europe were equipped with CCTV in the 1990s, and these cameras
enable authorities to identify troublemakers. 5Furthermore, most clubs now hire “spotters”
and “stewards”. 6Spotters report people with weapons to the police, and stewards keep an
eye on fans during the match and solve problems before they become difficult to deal with. 7In
short, cameras and extra staff help identify troublemakers, which leads to reduced violence.
1
The second important reason why violence has decreased is stronger punishments for
those who cause problems. 2Before the 1990s, punishments were limited to one or two
stadiums. 3If a fan caused a problem at a match between Liverpool and Aston Villa, he would
only be banned from attending matches that these two clubs played. 4In contrast, since the
1990s those who commit serious offenses have been banned from attending all matches in
their country and from travelling to international matches. 5For example, more than 1,000
British fans received bans in the 2009-10 season, which prevented troublemakers from
causing problems at other matches. 6These bans have been extremely successful; over 90% of
fans who receive a ban are not involved in violent events after their bans expire.
1
In brief, better surveillance and stronger punishments have made football matches
much less violent events. 2Hopefully, the amount of violence will continue to decrease,
allowing fans to enjoy matches without a fear of getting hurt.
Introduction Sentence 7 - ………………………………………….
Sentence 1 - …………………………………………. 2nd Body Paragraph
st
1 Body Paragraph Sentence 3 - ………………………………………….
Sentence 1 - …………………………………………. Sentence 4 - ….....…supporting idea……..….
Sentence 4 - …………………………………………. Conclusion
Sentence 6 - …....... supporting detail …...…. Sentence 2 - ………………………………………….
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Cause Essays
The Introduction
The introductory paragraph consists of two parts:
General Statements Two or three sentences that introduce the
general topic or issue
Thesis Statement A direct reply to the essay question, providing
specific reasons
Writing General Statements

It is essential that ideas follow a logical development when moving from the first sentence to
the thesis statement. In other words, ideas should be linked to one another and must clearly
move towards the thesis statement. There are some good strategies to follow in order to write
the introduction effectively.
Strategy 1: Working on the Key Words in the Topic Question

Analyze the question to identify the key words. It is a good strategy to work on the key words
and think of some related information. In this way it is possible to make a smooth shift to the
thesis statement. Below is a sample essay topic:
Why is there stress in the parent–child relationship?
In the introduction, it is possible to develop ideas for each key word or phrase. You can ask
some guiding questions to come up with good ideas.
Parent-child relationships Can you give a brief description of this relationship?
Stress What types of stress are involved in this relationship?
We could follow the following steps to reach the thesis statement:
Parent-child Æ Stress Æ Thesis Statement

relationships
love arguments specific reasons

care hurt feelings
guidance
parents’ misuse peer pressure on teens
of authority
(Subtopic 1) (Subtopic 2)
= Reason 1 = Reason 2
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Sample Introduction:
Unhappy Parents, Unhappy Children

Being a parent means providing the love, care, and guidance that a child needs to
grow into a healthy adult. Unfortunately, the special relationship between a parent and a
child often involves arguments, hurt feelings, and other stresses. There are a number of
reasons why there is stress in the parent-child relationship, but two stand out: parents’
misuse of authority and peer pressure on teens.
Exercise 3. Below is a sample topic question for you to work on as a class. Following the
example above, develop ideas for the key words in the question.
According to a recent study, humans are doing great harm to nature, so 20% of animal
species will be extinct within 25 years. What are the possible causes of this problem?
Harm to Nature Animal Species-Extinction Thesis Statement

(Why 20% of animal
species/become extinct)
illegal environmental
hunting pollution
Strategy 2: Starting with an Opposite Idea

In a cause essay, after a very general statement about the topic, we can start writing about
some possible effects of the topic in question. Similarly, in an effect essay, we can first
mention a few causes and then move on to the effects. Alternatively, if a topic focuses on the
positive aspects of something, we can start with the negative aspects. Moreover, if a situation
or issue given in an essay topic is valid for particular people or countries, we might start
writing about other people or countries for which the same situation or issue is not valid.
Below is a sample introduction in which the positive aspects of credit cards are discussed
first. Then a transition is made to the negative aspects before writing the thesis statement.
Why Do Traditional People Argue against Using Credit Cards?

Credit cards are now used all over the world as there are many advantages of using
them in modern life. Thanks to credits cards, people do not have to carry cash around, nor do
they have to worry about unexpected emergency expenses. If used responsibly, a credit card
can be of great help. However, there are some traditional people who believe you should not
use credit cards. These people refrain from using credit cards because of two main reasons:
dislike of technology and irresponsible spending.
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Exercise 4. Below are some essay topics and related ideas for the thesis statements. Working
in groups, develop ideas for possible general statements for the following topics by using the
second strategy. Also, write an appropriate transition sentence. One example is provided.
Essay Topic General Statements A transition Thesis Statement

sentence
General idea Opposite idea Connecting Argument/idea +
introducing the word + sentence subtopics
topic
1. Why is boss = person in effects of good
there often charge of a relationship: However, there is causes of tension:
conflict company or part good work often tension between
between a of a company atmosphere boss and employee. strict bosses + lazy
boss and an employees = + profitable workers
employee? people who work company
under the boss
causes of having
problems in
2. Why do adolescence:
people have
problems in search for an
their teenage identity + negative
years? feelings about self-
image
causes of resistance
3. Why do to change:
some people
resist narrow-mindedness
change? + deeply rooted
habits
Strategy 3: From Past to Present

Another strategy is to mention the progression of an issue from the past to the present. Below
is a sample introduction formed in this way.
Rising Divorce Rate

In the past a great majority of people got married at a fairly young age and never got
divorced in their entire life. However, the number of people who are getting divorced has
increased dramatically in the last few decades. There are many factors linked to the rising
divorce rate, but laws making divorce easier and changing cultural values are claimed to be
the main reasons.
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Exercise 5. As a class, write an appropriate introductory paragraph for the following topic by
using the third strategy. Possible ideas for the thesis statement are provided below.
Unlike your parents and grandparents, you and your friends are likely to have fewer
children. What do you think are the reasons for this?
Possible Causes : priority given to career
high expense of raising children
.....................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Writing the Thesis Statement in a Cause Essay

The thesis statement is the direct response to the essay question and the last sentence of the
introduction. The purpose of writing the thesis statement is to inform the reader about the
ideas (specific reasons) that will be discussed in the essay. These ideas are often called
subtopics.
There are certain structures and words we can use to write a thesis statement. In the sample
introductory paragraphs above, the following thesis statements were formed in response to the
following topic questions:
1. Why is there stress in the parent–child relationship?
Thesis Statement: There are a number of reasons why there is stress in the parent-child
relationship, but two stand out: parents’ misuse of authority and peer pressure on teens.
It is possible to make use of some words or phrases that state the main idea in the essay
question, as highlighted in bold above, and use certain structures to add the subtopics.
a number of parents' misuse

There numerous reasons why there is stress , but two of authority
are several/some in the parent-child stand and
various relationship out: peer pressure on
a variety of (why + sentence) teens.
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a) It is possible to change the order of the statements and rewrite the sentence in another way.
Try to complete the sentence below in the best possible way. You may change or add words.
Parents’ misuse of authority and peer pressure on teens ______________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
b) “Although” can replace “but” in the sample sentence. Rewrite the sentence above.
Although ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c) It is also possible to make changes in the use of some words or replace them with
alternative words. Add the missing words to the chart.
parents'
a number of two misuse of
There numerous reasons _____ stressful parent- , but stand authority
are several/some child relationships out: and peer
various causes _____ pressure on
a variety of (Noun/N phr.) teens.
d) Using the same key words above, complete the chart below in a meaningful way. Also,
complete the missing letters.
basic parents' misuse of

m_ _ _ reasons _____ _____ authority and
The stressful parent-
c_ _ _ _ peer pressure on
causes _____ child relationships
m _ j_ _ teens.
2. Why do some people avoid using credit cards?
Thesis Statement: Traditional people refrain from using credit cards because of two main
reasons: dislike of technology and irresponsible spending.
As in the sample thesis statement above, it is also possible to use prepositions introducing
causes. Plus, instead of directly copying words from the topic question, we can use
synonymous words just like “refrain from” instead of “avoid”.
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It is possible to write the same sentence in the following way. Find other synonyms that can
replace “avoid” and “because of”. Complete the missing letters.
because of dislike of
refrain from on _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of technology
Traditional s_ _ _ a_ _ _ f_ _ _ using credit cards _ _ _ to and
people k_ _ _ a_ _ _ f_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to irresponsible
spending.
3. What are the possible causes of the rising divorce rate?
Thesis statement: There are many factors linked to the rising divorce rate, but laws making
divorce easier and changing cultural values are claimed to be the main reasons.
a) Replace the words/phrases in bold with other suitable words. For some answers, some
letters are provided as a clue.
the
laws are main
the rising divorce rate
linked to , but making claimed reasons.

There factors divorce
many
are as_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ with , y_ _ easier .............. .............

(alternative (pronoun)
c_ _ s _ s
and verb)
r_ _ _ _ _ _ to , s_ _ _ _
changing .............. .............
cultural (alternative (synonym)
values verb)
to be
It is also possible to shorten this structure a bit as follows:
There are many causes of the rising divorce rate, but laws making divorce easier and
changing cultural values are the main ones.
b) Another way of building up the thesis statement is to use verbs that introduce causes. Do
you remember these verbs? Complete the missing letters.
The rising is basically _ _ _ _ _ _ by laws making divorce easier

divorce rate and
chiefly _____ from changing cultural values.
mainly _ _ _ _ _ _ from
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ from
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Exercise 6. Work in groups and write an introductory paragraph for one of the topics in
Exercise 4. Present your introduction to the class, and after receiving feedback, write your
final draft below:
..................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Moving from the Thesis Statement to the Body Paragraphs

Writing the body paragraphs of an essay is not very different from writing an independent
paragraph. Start a body paragraph with a topic sentence and come up with at least two
supporting ideas and relevant details and/or examples. In an essay, be careful to relate the
topic sentences of the body paragraphs to the ideas in the thesis statement.
Let us take the thesis statement of the following Watch Out!

introduction as an example and see how we move on to Each subtopic must be discussed in a
the topic sentences of the body paragraphs. separate body paragraph. For example,
if there are two subtopics in a thesis
statement, there should be two separate
body paragraphs.
Unhappy Parents, Unhappy Children

To be a parent means to provide the love, care, and guidance that a child needs to
grow into a healthy adult. Unfortunately, the special relationship between a parent and a
child often involves arguments, hurt feelings, and other stresses. There are a number of
reasons why there is stress in the parent-child relationship, but two stand out: parents’
misuse of authority and peer pressure on teens.
Watch Out!
The first subtopic should be
You should combine the argument/idea in the thesis statement with
discussed in the first body
each of the subtopics to form the topic sentences of the body paragraph, and the second
paragraphs. Here is a formula for you. one should be discussed in
the second body paragraph.
Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence = stress in the parent-child relationship + 1st reason
idea in the (parents’ misuse of authority)

thesis statement 1st subtopic
Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence = stress in the parent-child relationship + 2nd reason
idea in the (peer pressure on teens)

thesis statement 2nd subtopic
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There are a variety of ways to form a topic sentence that combines these two ideas. Many of
the structures and words to form the thesis statement can be used to form the topic sentences.
Below are some examples:
Body Paragraph 1
One reason why there is stress in the parent-child relationship is parents’ misuse of authority.
Because of parents’ misuse of authority, there is often stress in the parent-child relationship.
Body Paragraph 2
A second/Another reason why stress in parent-child relationships is high is peer pressure on
teens.
The examples above are formed in a mechanical way, using specific connecting words or
structures. However, it is also possible to form a topic sentence with a freer style, reflecting
personal language or comment. Here is an example:
In addition, teens being strongly influenced in negative ways by their peers will inevitably
lead to stress in the parent-child relationship.
Exercise 7. Using the given prompts, write topic sentences for the following sample thesis
statements. You might change or add words, and change word forms if necessary. Also, be
careful about punctuation.
1. Thesis statement: The reasons why animal species are becoming extinct are illegal
hunting and environmental pollution.
Body Prg. 1/Topic Sentence
a) As a result of ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......
b) The extinction of animal species mainly ………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

a) Environmental pollution is another reason ……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b) ………………………………………………………………… is also due to ……………………………………………………….

2. Thesis Statement: Environmentalists all over the world participate in protests because
they want to raise public awareness on environmental issues and force governments to take
action.
…………………..………………………………………………………………... ………………………………………………………………
in order to …..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Another reason why ……………………………………………………….. is that ..........................................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......
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3. Thesis Statement: Although stress between co-workers is associated with various factors,
the two main causes of this stress are competition and unrealistic demands.
…………………………………....... basically arises from ……………………………………...……………………………………

Owing to the fact that …...................………………………………………………………………………………………….……....
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Creating the Essay Format and Developing Body Paragraphs

Before starting to write your essay, it is helpful and time-saving to develop ideas by drawing a
mind map. Below a sample mind map is provided for the following topic:
“Why do you think teenagers use violence against one another?”
YOUTH VIOLENCE
INTRODUCTION
General statements +
Thesis statement
Subtopics: witnessing violence easy access to drugs and alcohol
Body Prg. 1 Body Prg. 2

The reason to be stated in the The reason to be stated in the
topic sentence of the 1st body prg. topic sentence of the 2nd body prg.
(witnessing violence) (easy access to drugs &alcohol)
movies/TV series news programs drug dealers no tough restriction

(1st Sup. Id.) (3rd Sup. Id.) around schools on alcohol sales
discussion/example discussion/example (1st Sup. Id.) (2nd Sup. Id.)
discussion/example discussion/example
computer games
(2nd Sup. Id.)
discussion/example
CONCLUSION
Concluding sentence:
Youth violence = Witnessing violence + easy access to drugs & alcohol
+
Final comment: (e.g. a warning, a suggestion for taking action, or a message to the public)
As the mind map indicates, the body paragraphs extend the subtopics in the thesis statement.
Each body paragraph needs to be supported with at least two supporting ideas, which in turn
are extended by further discussion and/or example(s).
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Exercise 8. Write the body paragraphs by making use of the guiding questions and
suggestions below and by using the ideas in the mind map on the previous page. The
introduction and conclusion are already written for you. Before you start writing, go over the
vocabulary on the next page and try to use some of it in your paragraph.
Write your paragraph on a large piece of paper or on a transparency, show it to the class, and
receive feedback. Choose the two best paragraphs of the class and write them in the space
provided below.
Introduction:
Youth Violence
In the past, violence among youngsters did not create much concern. Teenagers were
generally involved in fights involving hands and fists. However, these days teens use knives,
guns, and other weapons, and they even commit murder on school grounds. Therefore,
parents are extremely worried about their children’s well-being. There are many reasons why
teenagers use violence, but two factors stand out: witnessing violence and easy access to
drugs and alcohol.
Guiding Questions and Instructions Body Paragraph 1

1. Introduce the 1st subtopic
(witnessing violence) in the topic ……………………………………………………………………………..................
sentence. Make sure you link it to the
……………………………………………………………………………………………
argument (use of violence).
2. Introduce the 1st supporting idea …………………………………………………………………………………………….
(violent scenes in movies/TV series)
with a suitable connecting word. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Give examples of some movies/TV …………………………………………………………………………………………….
series which involve violence.
4. Explain the influence of such violent ……………………………………………………………………………………………
scenes or movie characters on
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
teenagers.
5. Introduce the 2nd supporting idea ……………………………………………………………………………………………
(computer games) with a suitable
connecting word. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Which computer games involve ……………………………………………………………………………………………
violence? Give a few examples.
7. Introduce the 3rd supporting idea …………………………………………………………………………………………….
(news programs) with a suitable
……………………………………………………………………………………………
connecting word.
8. Explain why news covers incidences …………………………………………………………………………………………….
of violence and how such news affects
teens. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
* If you want, you can add a concluding ……………………………………………………………………………………………

sentence, drawing a conclusion from all
the points you mentioned. However, adding …………………………………………………………………………………………….
a concluding sentence to body paragraphs
……………………………………………………………………………………………
is not necessary as there is a separate
concluding paragraph. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Guiding Questions and Instructions Body Paragraph 2
1. Introduce the 2nd subtopic (easy ……………………………………………………………………………..................
access to drugs & alcohol) in the topic
……………………………………………………………………………………………
sentence. Make sure you link it to the
argument (use of violence). …………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Introduce the 1st supporting idea
(drug dealers around schools) with a ……………………………………………………………………………………………
suitable connecting word.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Explain how drug dealers approach
teenagers and how they sell drugs to ……………………………………………………………………………………………
them.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Then write about how taking drugs
affects teenagers and what this leads ……………………………………………………………………………………………
to. (Make a link to teens’ use of
violence) …………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Introduce the 2nd supporting idea
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(no tough restriction on alcohol sales)
with a suitable connecting word. …………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Shortly explain why having no
restriction on alcohol is bad. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Explain how the attitudes of drunken …………………………………………………………………………………………….
teenagers change and how they treat
others while drunk. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Give an example (showing how
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
violent such teens can be).
……………………………………………………………………………………………
* If you want, you can add a concluding …………………………………………………………………………………………….

sentence.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion:
In conclusion, witnessing violence through movies, TV series, and computer games as well as
easy access to drugs and alcohol are the main reasons why violence among teenagers has
increased. It is necessary to raise teenagers’ awareness that violence does not resolve any
conflict but only complicates things further.
Some useful words and expressions:

Referring to People Acts of Violence Others
criminal offender murder die/dead

victim gang homicide crime scene
school massacre use/turn to violence
shoot/kill sb commit an act of violence
Describing Personality open fire with guns/weapons take revenge on sb for sth
severely injure sb lose control
aggressive a severely wounded/injured person be involved in/commit crime
antisocial stab with a knife imitate sb
feeling rejected/isolated die violently on school grounds take sb as a role model
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Writing the Concluding Paragraph
The concluding paragraph signals the end of an essay and consists of a restatement of the
thesis statement and a final remark. There are some steps to follow to write an effective
conclusion paragraph.
Step 1: Start your conclusion paragraph with a sentence connector.

Below are some connectors you can use to highlight that you are summing up your thoughts.
To sum up, In summary,

Watch Out!
To conclude, In conclusion, Do not forget to put a
All in all, All things considered, comma (,) after the
On the whole, Taking everything into consideration, sentence connector.
On balance,
Step 2: Rewrite your thesis statement. Watch Out!

You do not need to
Sum up the main arguments or points of your essay. In other words, rephrase your
you need to restate your thesis statement, using different wording and/ subtopics, but you
or structures. Assuming that the following thesis statement is written in should restate the
thesis statement
the introductory paragraph, the restatement of the thesis statement might
using a different
look like this: sentence structure.
The Thesis Statement (in the Introductory Paragraph):
Although there are natural causes, global warming mainly stems from the excessive amount
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and ineffective waste-disposal systems.
Restatement of the Thesis Statement (in the Concluding Paragraph):
All in all, the excessive amount of greenhouse gases and ineffective systems to get rid of
wastes are the two basic reasons why our planet is warming up.
Step 3: Add a final comment.
The final comment is the last remark you want to write about the topic. There are a few ways
to write an effective final comment. For the thesis statement above, below are some examples
that show in what different ways you can write a final comment.
x a thought-provoking message to humanity

The future lies in our hands, and thus it is the responsibility of every citizen and country to
support efforts in environmental protection and leave a safe world to future generations.
x a suggestion for taking action

Unless effective environmental protection programs are launched by governments as soon as
possible, it will be too late for the world to reverse the effects of global warming.
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x a warning
If effective means to reduce greenhouse gas emissions cannot be found, the world will witness
catastrophic disasters.
x expressing a concern
Many more animal and plant species could become extinct just because we care only about
our short-term profits, not the environment.
The whole conclusion paragraph will look like this:
All in all, the excessive amount of greenhouse gases and ineffective systems to get rid
of wastes are the two basic reasons why our planet is warming up. If effective means cannot
be found to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the world will witness catastrophic disasters.
Exercise 9. Working as a class, write concluding paragraphs for the following introductory
paragraphs.
Introduction 1:
The Globalization Dream

Even though the world has become more civilised and advanced owing to the steps
taken in the fields of science and technology, many nations have failed to respect human
rights. Unfortunately, the twenty-first century is heading towards disorder and unprecedented
chaos. There are two chief reasons why globalization has failed: one is disrespect for cultural
differences and the other is conflicting interests.
Conclusion:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Introduction 2:
Saving Our Forests

Even though forests play a vital role in our life, deforestation has become a severe
problem in our age. Unfortunately, most of the rainforests have been destroyed by humans.
Although there are countless reasons why forests must not be destroyed, two of them stand
out: keeping nature’s balance and supplying fresh air.
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Conclusion:
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a) What kind of TV competitions do you like most? Rank the following TV programs from
the one you like most to the one you like least (from 1 to 6)? Share your opinion with the
class.
Types of TV Competitions Your

Ranking
Beauty Contests
Dancing Competitions
Talent Contests
Business Plan Competitions
General Knowledge Competitions
Reality TV Game Shows
b) Can you match the following TV programs with the types of competitions given above?
*Dancing with the Stars *Miss Globe *Survivor
*The Weakest Link *Dragons’ Den *Pop Idol
c) Pooling Ideas
Pop Idol singing contests have aroused heated debates throughout the world. Below are some
views that reveal public concern about such contests. Working in groups, choose two of the
ideas as possible reasons (subtopics) for the essay topic in Part d.
- “Young people develop unrealistic expectations to become famous, rich, and successful.”
- “Competitors go through upsetting and traumatic experiences.”
- “A great deal of pressure is placed upon competitors.”
- “Nearly every day a new pop singer pops up, diminishing the quality of pop songs.”
- “Too much emphasis is put on being young and attractive rather than talent and a proper education.”
- “Youngsters are deceived; becoming a star is a deception; they pop up quickly but are doomed to fail.
Those who fail become an easy prey to sexual harassment.”
- “Contestants have to sacrifice their principles and personal values to become famous. They are insulted
by the harsh criticism of the jury in front of the public.”
- “The only concern of the entertainment business is to win the ratings war. The media takes advantage
of youngsters and is primarily concerned with gaining a profit.”
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d) After choosing two reasons from the list above, generate further ideas to complete your
mind map. Use the model below. Share your mind map with the class.
Essay topic: Why are some people against televised pop song competitions?
Pop Song Competitions Harm Youth
................................................................ ................................................................
The reason to be stated in the The reason to be stated in the
topic sentence of the 1st body prg. topic sentence of the 2nd body prg.
Body Prg. 1 Body Prg. 2

(Supporting Ideas) (Supporting Ideas)
(1st Sup. Id.) (2nd Sup. Id.) (1st Sup. Id.) (2nd Sup. Id.)
...................................... ...................................... ...................................... ......................................
+
Details/
examples
e) After receiving feedback from the class, put your ideas into sentences. When you finish
your essay, edit it using the editing checklist on the next page. Then write a copy of the final
draft below.
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if it’s OK.
have appropriate general statements?
Introduction Does it... have a clear thesis statement which includes your subtopics?
clear topic sentences?
Body Paragraphs Are there... at least two supporting ideas?

supporting details and/or examples for each supporting idea?
(e.g. in conclusion, to sum up)
Does it... include a concluding sentence restating your main points?
Conclusion
have a final comment with a message OR suggestion OR
warning OR concern?
Grammar Check for... missing/incorrect articles

correct use of cause structures
(e.g. stem from, is caused by)
connecting words related to causes
(e.g. the primary cause of X is..., the main reason for X is...)
Check for... appropriate word choice/word form
Vocabulary
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Effect Essays
Writing an effect essay does not differ much from writing a cause essay. The way you
construct the introduction, body paragraphs, and the conclusion is basically the same. The
only difference is that you discuss the effects of something instead of its causes.
Exercise 10. Analysing an Effect Essay
Below is a sample effect essay. Each sentence of the essay is numbered. Use the terms below
to label the sentences in the essay:
General statement Thesis statement Topic sentence Supporting idea
Supporting detail Concluding sentence Final comment
Essay topic: What does overpopulation in Istanbul lead to?
The Bad Sides of Istanbul
1
Istanbul is the most important city in Turkey because of not only its geographical
location and its beauty but also the job opportunities it provides. 2Because of these factors,
millions of people have been migrating to Istanbul. 3Today, the population of Istanbul has
already exceeded 15 million. 4Such crowds naturally lead to problems like traffic jams and
environmental pollution.
1
One negative effect of overcrowding is severe traffic jams in Istanbul, which makes it
very hard to live in this metropolitan city. 2Firstly, people spend a long time on the road. 3For
example, anyone who lives in Maltepe and works in Levent has to set off at six o’clock in the
morning to go to work. 4Secondly, people can be aggressive in traffic jams. 5For instance, taxi
drivers suffer from psychological distress as they are always stuck in traffic, making them
behave aggressively. 6Some drivers can yell and even start fights. 7In brief, living in Istanbul
is very difficult because people become aggressive and violent due to wasting a lot of time in
traffic.
1
Another effect of overpopulation in Istanbul is environmental pollution. 2Air
pollution comes first among the types of pollution in Istanbul. 3The reason why air pollution
is at dangerous levels is that there are thousands of factories and millions of cars without
exhaust filters. 4Factories emit a high amount of carbon dioxide and other hazardous
pollutants, which contaminate the air of Istanbul. 5Moreover, chemical wastes from chemical
plants and industries cause water pollution. 6Therefore, it is impossible to have
uncontaminated water in homes. 7Finally, another environmental problem in Istanbul is noise
pollution. 8According to statistics, extremely high-frequency sounds, which may lead to
hearing loss in time, were measured in some busy streets of Istanbul.
1
All in all, overpopulation in Istanbul results in unavoidable traffic jams and
environmental contamination at threatening levels. 2If we cannot take measures against the
rapid rise of Istanbul’s population, Istanbul will eventually become a city impossible to live
in.
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Introduction 2nd Body Paragraph
Sentence 1- …………………………………………. Sentence 1- ………………………………………….
Sentence 5- ………………………………………….
1st Body Paragraph Sentence 6- ………………………………………….
Sentence 3- ………………………………………….
Sentence 4- …………………………………………. Conclusion
Sentence 7- ………………………………………….
Writing Thesis Statements in an Effect Essay
As mentioned earlier, we write the introduction of an effect essay in basically the same way
as we write one for a cause essay, using the same strategies for writing the general statements.
Only the thesis statement will be formed differently, using effect words and structures. For the
following essay topic, here are some possible structures to build up the thesis statement.
Essay question: What are the effects of human’s exploiting nature?
Effects of Exploiting Nature
extinction of animal species loss of forests

(subtopic/effect 1) (subtopic/effect 2)
Exploiting mainly the extinction of animal species

leads to
chiefly
nature causes and the loss of forests.
basically
negative effects the extinction of

Among the adverse impacts of exploiting are animal species
dramatic influences nature and
consequences the loss of forests.
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several the extinction of
effects animal species
numerous two
Although impacts exploiting
a number of of stand and
there are influences nature,
a couple of out: the loss of forests.
consequences
various
many the extinction are said to be the

Even numerous effects of animal most common
though a number of impacts exploiting species two.
influences of
there a couple of nature, and
consequences seem to be the
are a variety of the loss of
most common
forests
ones.
Writing Topic Sentences for the Body Paragraphs
The strategies used to develop body paragraphs in cause essays are also applicable for effect
essays, but we need to use effect words and structures to introduce the topic sentences. Below
are some useful structures. Complete the missing words in each box.
Extinction of Loss of forests

animal species
BODY PARAGRAPH 1: Topic Sentence
main
basic is the extinction of
___ pr _m_ _ y effects animal species.
of consequences of exploiting
the bad influences nature
__
a_ _ _ _ _ _ impacts ____ animal species
negative become extinct.
Exploiting ___ a/ negative effect

nature an adverse influence __ animal species.
dramatic impact
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The _ _ believed to _ _
effect the extinction
main
consequence of exploiting _ _ said to _ _ of animal
basic
influence nature species.
ch _ _ _
impact _ _ cl _ _ _ _ _ to _ _
causes the extinction of animal

mainly leads to species.
Exploiting basically results _ _
nature p_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ brings _ _ _ _ _ t_ _ f_ _ _ _ _ _ _
gives r_ _ _ to animal species disappear.
negative_ _/adverse _ _ .
a______
_ _ an adverse/a negative _ _ _ .
Exploiting influences animal
nature species c _ ns_d_ _ a_l_.
impacts
d_am_ _ _c _l _y.
Exploiting c_____
nature l_ _ _ _ animal species to become extinct.
Extinction of animal species Loss of forests
BODY PARAGRAPH 2: Topic Sentence
effect
primary consequence the loss of
A_____r main influence of exploiting is
nature forests.
basic impact
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effect is
The s_ c_ _ d consequence of exploiting is said to be the loss of
influence nature is assumed to be forests.
impact
affects negatively.
Exploiting a_ _ _ influences forests adversely.
nature impacts dramatically.
considerably.

Exercise 1. Completing an Effect Essay
Below is an effect essay about how bullying in school affects students. Some parts of the
essay have not been completed. Complete the essay using the information given in the
information boxes as well as the effect essay language you have studied.
Effects of Bullying
Introduction
Some people claim that bullying is not a widespread problem in schools. .................................
Survey result: percentage of ..................................................................................................................................................................

children who experience
bullying–55%; percentage of ............................................................................................................................................................... .
children who bully–20%
..................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................. on both students who are bullied and the bullies themselves.
Body Paragraph 1
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
One of the negative effects bullying has on students who are bullied is that it causes some of
Recent study: them to commit suicide. .....................................................................................................................
students who are
bullied → three
times more likely to ................................................................................................................................................................................. .
attempt suicide
Another ...............................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
This violent behaviour may even lead to shooting at school. In fact, twelve out of fifteen
students who were involved in school shootings in 2008 had been victims of bullying.
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Body Paragraph 2
........................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................. . ............................................................................................................................. ....
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
For example, a recent study shows that children who bully weaker children at school are
much more likely to use violence against their romantic partners and their own children later
Primary school in life. Another unfortunate effect of bullying on bullies is that it leads to
bullies → higher
rate of drug/
alcohol and drug abuse. ..........................................................................................................................
alcohol abuse as
.................................................................................................................................................................................. .
teenagers
In brief, being a bully affects the future of bullies in many negative ways.
Conclusion
All things considered, ..........................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................................................................... .
Exercise 2. a) Text Analysis and Pooling Ideas: Below is a text on the effects of wars. Use
the information in the text to fill in the chart that follows.
Impacts of Wars period of five years. The consequences of this
Wars have been part of human act were infertile lands and crop failure.
experience since the beginning of recorded Bombardment of civilian settlements is
time. As many studies reveal, war is so terrible another war tactic to destroy cities where a
that it includes almost all crimes man can ever large number of people live. Since World War
think of and leads to great human suffering. II, bombing cities has become increasingly
One common tactic of war is to widespread, and hundreds of thousands of
damage the environment. During World War people have died as a result. Besides1 a high
II, the destruction of dams caused flooding and death rate, the bombardment of cities causes
destroyed many farms and fields. Because of forced relocation of survivors. By the end of
vast food shortages in 1945, hunger and World War II, there were almost 50 million
malnutrition adversely affected the majority of refugees and displaced people. To find housing
the population, causing thousands to die from for the survivors was the most urgent problem,
starvation. Another strategic practice in war is but in Germany, Poland, Greece, Yugoslavia
the use of toxic chemicals to destroy the and the European part of the Soviet Union
environment. For example, the USA sprayed almost a quarter of all houses were
thousands of square kilometres of South uninhabitable, while about nine million people
Vietnam’s cropland with herbicides over a in Japan were left homeless.
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As a result of several wars in Europe, Unfortunately, children also become
Africa, Asia, and Latin America, it is estimated victims of wars. Hundreds of thousands of
that about 70 million to 100 million land mines youth die in wars each year. Besides2, children
are still active and in place worldwide, and suffer a wide range of war injuries. Millions of
another 100 million exist in stockpiles. children become disabled. Malnutrition and
Unfortunately, the majority of the victims of infectious illnesses also account for child
land mine explosions are farmers. According deaths. Youth in war zones also suffer from
to statistics, land mines injure or kill about 500 psychological problems. As children are
people each week. When land mines explode, exposed to experiences of horror during war,
they also destroy plant life and damage the many go through posttraumatic stress disorder,
ecosystem. leaving enduring impacts in future years.
Below the main effects of war are numbered and their immediate consequences or reasons are
listed under each item. Complete the list by adding more information from the text.
1. environmental damage Watch Out!

a. destruction of ........................ “Besides” can be a preposition and mean in
addition to (as in “1” in the text), or it can be a
consequences: sentence connector meaning in addition or
furthermore (as in “2” in the text). One more
flooding example for each meaning is given below.
destroy ................ and ..................... “Besides” as a preposition “Besides” as a
sentence connector
death from ..................../..................../................ Besides soldiers, local My new job pays
gangs committed many war well. Besides, it has
food ........................ crimes. reasonable hours.
b. use of .................... ............................
consequences:
........................ lands
crop ........................
2. bombardment of ........................ ........................
consequences:
civilian ........................
a high number of ........................ and ........................ people
........................ houses
3. land mines
consequences:
........................ or kill people
........................ plant life
........................ the ecosystem
4. victimized children
consequences:
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suffer a wide range of ........................ ........................
become ......................../........................
children’s deaths due to ........................ and ........................ illnesses
........................ problems
b) Drawing a Mind Map

Working in groups, complete the mind map below by adding supporting ideas and details
from the text and using your own ideas.
Effects of War
Environment Humans
Body Prg. 1: Effects on the Environment
Body Prg. 2: Effects on Humans
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c) Writing Your Essay
Working in groups, put the ideas in your mind map into sentences and write a complete essay.
Also, make use of the vocabulary you learned from the text. After you edit your essay by
using the editing checklist on the next page, show it to the class. After receiving feedback,
write the final draft of your group’s essay below.
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d) Self-Editing & Peer Editing
As you did in previous chapters, go over your essay after you finish writing
using the Editing Checklist below.

if it’s OK.
Introduction Does it... have a clear thesis statement which includes your subtopics?
Body Are at least two supporting ideas?
Paragraphs there... supporting details and/or examples for each supporting idea?
start with an appropriate connecting word? (e.g. in conclusion, to sum up)
include a concluding sentence restating your main points?
Conclusion Does it... have a final comment with a message OR suggestion OR warning OR
concern?
Grammar Check missing/incorrect articles
for...
correct use of effect structures
(e.g. affects vs. has an effect on)
connecting words related to effects
(e.g. one consequence related to X is...,
the primary effect of X is...)
Vocabulary Check
appropriate word choice/word form
for...

Easily Confused Verbs
There are a number of verbs in English which are similar in meaning and easy to confuse.
Some of these verbs are discussed below.
Allow means to let something happen or to give permission for something to happen as in
these examples: “The manager allowed his job to take over his life.” “The police allowed the
protesters to march to the city centre.”
Contribute means to be a factor in making something happen. It is used with the preposition
“to” as in this example: “Alcohol contributes to 100,000 deaths in the US every year.”
Enable means to make it possible for someone to do something or to make it possible for
something to happen as in these examples: “A loan from a bank enables young couples to buy
their own home.” “The new primary school enables children in that village to have a chance
to be educated.
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Make can mean to cause something to happen as in the example, “Everyone likes Cem
Ylmaz because he makes people laugh”. Similarly, make can mean to cause a certain state or
condition: “High-speed Internet makes it possible for many people to work from home.”
Provide means to give something to someone or to make something available to them, as in
these examples: “The hotel provides free Internet access for all its guests.” “Most
governments provide free education for all children.” Note that you provide someone with
something: “My family provided me with everything I needed.” However, you provide
something for someone: “The teacher did not provide pencils for her students.”
Exercise 1. Choose the best answer for each of the following sentences.
1. Because his enemies were close behind him, the soldier …………………………… his horse jump
over the barrier.
a) allowed b) made c) provided
2. The heavy rain …………………………… to the terrible traffic jam.
a) contributed b) enabled c) provided
3. That company provides its employees …………………………… excellent health insurance.
a) for b) to c) with
4. It is not healthy to …………………………… a relationship with a boyfriend/girlfriend to replace all
your other friendships.
a) allow b) contribute c) provide
5. That university …………………………… its students with both a good education and entertaining
free time activities.
a) enables b) makes c) provides
6. I hope this course …………………………… you to understand basic economic theory.
a) contributes b) enables c) provides
7. Because the man could not provide food …………………………… his family, he considered
committing suicide.
a) for b) to c) with
8. The school policy does not …………………………… students to have more than five absences per
semester.
a) allow b) contribute c) provide
9. Psychologists say that it is impossible to …………………………… another person happy as
happiness is a personal choice.
a) contribute b) enable c) make
Exercise 2. Complete these sentences with your own ideas.
1. I hope that a good education will enable me …………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .
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2. A successful teacher allows …………………………………………………………………………………………………...
but doesn’t allow students …………………………………………………………………………………………………….….. .
3. Teamwork contributes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. .
4. The government should provide ………………………………………………………………………………………..... .
5. Cell phones make ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. .
1. You must hand in your projects by 10 a.m. tomorrow morning. DEADLINE

The …………………………………………………………………………...……………………. 10 a.m. tomorrow morning.
2. Extreme sports involve many health risks. ASSOCIATED

There are ……………………………………………………………………...……………………………………. extreme sports.
3. Some people refuse to gamble because of their religious beliefs. STAY

Some people ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. because
of their religious beliefs.
4. Among the many adverse effects of war, two negative consequences stand out: harm to
children and damage to the environment. ALTHOUGH
…………………………………………………………..…………………………………………., two negative consequences
stand out: harm to children and damage to the environment.
5. Bullying has a negative impact on children. ADVERSELY

Bullying …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….. .
6. Many economic difficulties arose from the earthquake and tsunami which struck Japan in
2011. BROUGHT
The earthquake and tsunami which struck Japan in 2011 …………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .
7. Nuclear radiation seriously affects people’s health. IMPACT

Nuclear radiation ………………………………………………………………………………………… on people’s health.
8. Because of his poor study habits, he got low grades. ENDED

Because of his poor study habits, he ……………………………………………………………………………………… .
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Writing Assignments
Write a cause or effect essay on one or more of the topics below.
1. Why do so many marriages end in divorce?
x affairs
x violence
x drug or alcohol abuse
x financial problems
x lack of communication
x cultural differences
2. Why do many college students prefer sharing a flat to staying in college dormitories?
x freedom
x personal space
x cost
x location
x friends
3. How would it affect you if you stopped watching television for six months?
x boredom
x hobbies
x friendships
x grades
x general knowledge
x finances
4. Discuss the effects of moving house many times during your childhood.
x school performance
x friendships
x family relationships
x social skills
x stress level
x personality
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CHAPTER 6
COMPARISON AND/OR CONTRAST ESSAYS
FREE TIME & ENTERTAINMENT
This chapter includes strategies and tasks that help you organize, develop, and link your ideas
for essays discussing similarities and/or differences. You will also be introduced to some new
useful words and phrases that are used when writing about similarities or differences.
Introduction
A Brief History of Turkish Cinema
In 1995 only 1% of Turkish cinemagoers went to movies produced in Turkey; in
contrast, in 2008, 60% of movie watchers were going to films produced in the country. What
accounts for this huge change in movie viewing habits?
Turkey had a thriving film industry in the 1960s. It was producing 150
to 200 films a year, and a very popular film in that decade, Susuz Yaz (Dry
Summer) even won the Golden Bear Award. Film producing was limited to a
few countries then, so few countries were producing as many films as Turkey.
Unfortunately, things changed considerably in the 1970s. It was an
economically difficult time in Turkey because of the OPEC oil crisis. The
more expensive oil became, the fewer luxuries people could enjoy. There was also a lot of
political strife during this time, which made the streets unsafe. Thus, neither families nor
youth went to the cinema very often. Turkish cinema’s decline provided an opportunity for
Turkey’s new TV industry as more and more homes were getting televisions during this time.
Then in the 1980s, it became easier for foreign companies to distribute their films in Turkey,
which brought about even more competition for the weak film industry. Finally, Turkish
music videos increased in popularity during the 1980s, and many companies moved out of the
film industry into the profitable video market. By the early 1990s, Turkey was only
producing about ten films a year, and none of them were nearly as popular as Susuz Yaz.
However, there was another major shift in the mid 1990s, when Turkish cinema began
to benefit from the expanding television sector. After the Turkish government consented to
private television channels in 1994, these channels quickly gained
popularity. The expanding television companies tried producing films,
too. In 1996, they had their first big success with the film Eşkiya, the
first Turkish film to exceed sales of one million tickets. Turkish film
producers built on this accomplishment and slowly gained a larger
percentage of the Turkish film market. For the last ten years, they
have produced over 200 films a year, and they have been attracting
more and more people. As recently as 2002, only 8.5% of Turkish filmgoers were going to
Turkish films, compared with 60% just six years later in 2008.
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Exercise 1. Use information from the reading and tick the appropriate box in the chart below.
1960s 1970s and mid 1990s

1980s till today
1. The Turkish film industry produced more films in this
period than in the other periods.
2. The Turkish film industry produced fewer films in this
period than in the other periods.
3. A Turkish film won the Golden Bear Award for the first
time.
4. Television became more popular than cinema in Turkey.
5. A film more popular than Susuz Yaz came out.
6. Many people began watching music videos.
7. Turkey produced more films than most other countries.
8. Economic and political difficulties kept people away

from the cinema.
9. More than half of Turkish moviegoers went to films
made in Turkey during at least one year in this period.
Vocabulary
Exercise 2. Complete the sentences below with a word or phrase in bold from the text “A
Brief History of Turkish Cinema”. A definition of the word is included beneath the blank.
1. Scoring the winning goal was the biggest ______________ of his career.
achievement
2. The country’s economy has improved ____________ since the crisis a few years ago.
significantly
3. Many people have been able to find work in the ____________ tourist industry.
successful
4. I think the ____________ in his marriage accounts for his poor performance at work.
conflict
5. The 1960s is a ____________ in which there were many protests against war.
ten-year period
6. Her father did not want to ____________ the marriage, but he did not want to hurt his
daughter, either. permit
7. A remarkable ____________ is taking place in Internet use. In the past, most Internet
change
access was via computer, but soon it will be more common to access the Internet by cell
phone.
8. Due to the great increase in cell phone use, telecommunications has been a ____________
industry over the last 20 years. money-making
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9. You may receive a large fine if you ____________ the speed limit.
go over/above
10. Many people were left unemployed because of the _____________ of the steel industry.
weakening/failure
Language Focus
Review of Comparison and Contrast Vocabulary and Structures
Exercise 1. The following sentences are based on the reading about Turkish cinema. They all
contain comparison or contrast vocabulary or structures. Choose the words which are closest
in meaning to the underlined words.
1. The film Eşkiya sold more than 1,000,000 tickets.

a) over b) nearly c) close to d) as much as
2. Few countries were producing as many films as Turkey at this time.

a) films which were the same as c) similar films to
b) the same number of films as d) films similar to
3. The more expensive oil became, the fewer luxuries people could enjoy.
a) Oil became even more expensive than many luxuries.
b) Oil was so expensive that people had little money for luxuries.
c) Oil became expensive because it was considered a luxury.
d) Not many luxuries were as expensive as oil was.
4. Neither families nor youth went to the cinema very often.
a) Either families or youth went to the cinema very often.
b) Not only families but also youth usually went to the cinema.
c) Both families and youth rarely went to the cinema.
d) Both families and youth usually went to the cinema.
5. More and more homes were getting TVs during this time.
a) Larger homes
b) Homes which were wealthy
c) The more homes
d) An increasing number of homes
6. Turkish music videos increased in popularity during the 1980s.
a) became more popular
b) became so popular that
c) gained such popularity that
d) remained popular
7. None of these films were nearly as popular as Susuz Yaz.
a) Compared to Susuz Yaz, these films were very popular.
b) Unlike Susuz Yaz, these films were very popular.
c) The very popular film Susuz Yaz was quite different from these films.
d) Susuz Yaz was far more popular than any of these films.
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Writing Focus
Similar to a cause essay and an effect essay, a comparison and/or contrast essay also starts
with an introduction, has body paragraphs, and ends with a concluding paragraph.
Comparison and/or contrast essays can be organised in three possible ways. First, it is
possible to discuss a topic by writing just about the similarities. Second, if you wish, you may
write only about the differences. A third option is to write about both the similarities and
differences on a given topic. Depending on your choice, you need to be careful about how you
structure your thesis statement. The following chart demonstrates what you need to do.
Discussing only • State the subtopics in the thesis

similarities statement (points of similarity)
Discussing only • State the subtopics in the thesis

differences statement (points of difference)
Discussing both • Subtopics are not mentioned in the

thesis statement. Mentioning that
similarities and there are similarities and differences
differences is enough.
Regarding the organization of ideas, there are also two different possibilities: block
organization and point-by-point organization. In order to clarify the differences, a chart for
each of the five different types of comparison and/or contrast essays is provided using the
topic below. After studying the charts on the following pages, do the exercises that follow.
Sample Topic: Compare and/or contrast a holiday with friends and a holiday with family.
,
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Discussing Only Similarities
When writing about only similarities, add the subtopics (the points of similarity) to the thesis
statement. In the following chart, possible subtopics are provided.
Point-by-Point Organization: In this type of organization, each body paragraph focuses on

one subtopic and discusses this subtopic by mentioning the two activities, persons, things, etc.
that are compared.
General statements about holiday

Introduction
Thesis Statement: A holiday with friends and a
(Thesis vacation with family members are similar in having a
statement with memorable time and enjoying the company you are
subtopics) with.
Topic Sentence: It is possible to have a memorable

time not only with mates but also with family members
1st Body Prg. during a holiday.
1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea:
Discussing the
1st similarity: How is it possible to How is it possible to have a
having a experience an memorable holiday with
memorable unforgettable holiday family members?
time with friends?
x Explanation x Explanation
x Example(s) x Example(s)
Topic Sentence: No matter whether you are with your

2nd Body Prg. friends or with your family, you can enjoy your time
on holiday.
Discussing the 1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea:
2nd similarity:
enjoying Why is it enjoyable to be Why is it enjoyable to be
companionship with friends on holiday? with family members on
holiday?
Concluding Sentence: In conclusion, the memorable
time you have or the enjoyment you get from the
Conclusion company of friends or family members does not differ
much.
Final Comment: A holiday is a holiday no matter who
you are with.
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Block Organization: In this type of organization, each body paragraph focuses on one of the
two activities, persons, things, etc. that are compared. It discusses in detail the two subtopics
mentioned in the thesis statement. Mind that the subtopics are discussed in the same order in
each body paragraph.

Introduction
(Thesis vacation with family members are similar in having a
statement with memorable time and enjoying the company you are
subtopics) with.
Topic Sentence: A holiday with friends can be a

wonderful experience in two aspects.
1st Body Prg. 1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea:

(having a memorable (the companionship of
Discussing time) friends)
a holiday with
friends How is it possible to Why is it enjoyable to be
experience an with friends on holiday?
unforgettable holiday
with friends? x Explanation
x Explanation x Example(s)
x Example(s)
Topic Sentence: A holiday with family members can

be equally satisfying in similar aspects.
2nd Body Prg. 1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea:
(having a memorable (the companionship of
Discussing time) family)
a holiday with
family How is it possible to Why is it enjoyable to be
experience an with family members
unforgettable holiday on holiday?
with family members?
Concluding Sentence: In conclusion, the memorable
time you have or the enjoyment you get from the
Conclusion company of friends or family members does not differ
much.
Final Comment: A holiday is a holiday no matter who
you are with.
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Discussing Only Differences
When writing about only differences, add the subtopics (the points of difference) to the thesis
statement.
Point-by-Point Organization: In this type of organization, each body paragraph focuses on

one subtopic and discusses this subtopic by mentioning the two activities, persons, things, etc.
that are contrasted.

Introduction
(Thesis Thesis Statement: A holiday with friends and a vacation
statement with with family members are different in terms of
subtopics) entertainment and freedom.
Topic Sentence: Entertainment is one striking contrast

between a holiday with friends and one with family
members.
1st Body Prg. 1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea:
Discussing the Why is it more Why is it less entertaining to
1st difference: entertaining to have a have a holiday with family
entertainment holiday with friends? members?
(Types of entertainment (Types of entertainment that

that you can have with can be boring/less enjoyable)
friends)
Topic Sentence: Another point of difference between a

holiday with friends and a vacation with family members
2nd Body Prg. is freedom.
1st Supporting Idea: 2nd Supporting Idea:
Discussing the
2nd difference: What kind of freedoms In what aspects are young
freedom can young people people’s freedoms restricted
have/enjoy on a holiday when they are on holiday
with their friends? with their family? What are
the things they cannot do?
Concluding Sentence: In conclusion, entertainment and
freedom are the main points that distinguish a holiday
Conclusion with friends from one with family members.
Final Comment: If you are a fun seeker, you should
definitely have a holiday with your friends.
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Block Organization: In this type of organization, each body paragraph focuses on one of the
two activities, persons, things, etc. that are contrasted. Each paragraph discusses in detail the
two subtopics mentioned in the thesis statement. Mind that the subtopics are discussed in the
Blockorder
same Organization: In paragraph.
in each body this type of organization, each body paragraph focuses on one of the
two activities, persons, things, etc. that are contrasted. Each paragraph discusses in detail the
two subtopics mentioned in theGeneral
thesis statements
statement.about
Mindholiday
that the subtopics are discussed in the
Introduction
same order in each body paragraph.
(Thesis General
vacation statements
with familyabout holiday
members are different in terms of
statement with
Introduction entertainment, freedom, and safety.
subtopics)
(Thesis vacation with family members are different in terms of
statement with entertainment, freedom, and safety.
subtopics) Topic Sentence: A holiday with friends has striking
contrasts to a holiday with family members in the
following aspects.
1st Body Prg. x 1st Sentence:
Topic Supporting A Idea (Entertainment)
holiday with friends has striking
What kind
contrasts to a ofholiday
fun canwith you have
familywithmembers
your friends?
in the
Discussing a Example(s)
following aspects.
holiday
1st Bodywith
Prg. xx 2 nd
SupportingIdea Idea(Entertainment)
(Freedom)
friends 1st Supporting
What kind of decisions
What kind of fun can you canhave
youwith
take your
on your own?
friends?
Discussing a Example(s)
Example(s)
rd
holiday with xx 3 2nd Supporting
Supporting Idea Idea (Safety)
(Freedom)
friends What kind of things
What kind of decisions cancanbe dangerous
you take ontoyour
do with
own?
friends?
Example(s) Why can safety be a concern while you are
x with friends? Idea (Safety)
3rd Supporting
What kind of things can be dangerous to do with
Topic Sentence:
friends? Why can A safety
holiday be awith family
concern whilemembers
you are
differs greatly
with friends? from a holiday with friends in these three
2nd Body Prg. aspects.
x 1st Supporting
Topic Sentence: Idea A holiday(Entertainment)
with family members
Discussing a Why
differs is it less
greatly from entertaining
a holiday with to have a holiday
friends with
in these three
holiday
2nd Bodywith
Prg. family members? What limited activities can you
aspects.
family
x do with them? Idea (Entertainment)
1stndSupporting
Discussing a 2 Supporting
x Why Idea (Freedom)
is it less entertaining to have a holiday with
holiday with In what
family way
members?is yourWhatfreedom restricted?
limited activitiesWhy?
can you
family x do3rd with
Supporting
them? Idea: (Safety)
x Why could you be
2nd Supporting Idea safer while you are with your
(Freedom)
family?
In what way is your freedom restricted? Why?
Concluding
x 3rd Supporting Sentence:Idea:In(Safety)
conclusion, entertainment,
freedom, and safety are
Why could you be safer while three of the
youstriking differences
are with your
Conclusion between
family?these two types of holidays.
Final Comment:
Concluding It is a In
Sentence: personal preference
conclusion, to decide
entertainment,
what kind of holiday is best for you.
freedom, and safety are three of the striking differences
Conclusion between these two types of holidays.
Final Comment: It is a personal preference to decide
what kind of holiday is best for you.
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Discussing both Similarities and Differences
There is only one type of organization for a comparison and contrast essay. You need to write
about the similarities in one body paragraph and the differences in the other body paragraph.
Mind that you do not state the subtopics in the thesis statement.
Introduction General statements about the topic
(Thesis
Thesis Statement: Although there are a number of similarities between
statement
going on holiday with friends and having a vacation with parents, there
without
are some striking differences as well.
subtopics)
Topic Sentence: A holiday with friends resembles a holiday with
family in some aspects.
1st Supporting Supporting Details: Supporting Details:
Idea: In what way is it In what way is it
enjoyable to be with enjoyable to be with
1st Body Prg.
1st Similarity mates on holiday? family on holiday?
(Discussing only (enjoying
Explanation Explanation
the similarities) companionship)
Example(s) Example(s)
2nd Supporting Supporting Details: Supporting Details:
Idea: What kind of things What kind of things can
can be fun to do with be fun to do with family
2nd Similarity friends? members?
(having fun)
Topic Sentence: Apart from similarities, there are also some striking
differences between a holiday with friends and one with family.
1st Supporting Supporting Details: Supporting Details:
nd
2 Body Prg. Idea: What kind of Why is it safer to have a
decisions made with holiday with family
1st Difference friends can put your members?
(Discussing only (safety) safety at risk?
the differences) Explanation Explanation
2nd Supporting Supporting Details: Supporting Details:
Idea: Why can money and Why is money not of great
spending be a concern while you are with
2nd Difference concern for the family members?
(money) people holidaying
with friends?
Concluding Sentence: In conclusion, there are both similar and
differing aspects between a holiday with friends and one with family.
Conclusion Final Comment: It is a matter of preference to go on holiday with
friends or family, but each holiday type has its advantages and
disadvantages.
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Exercise Below are three sample essays on the same topic above. Analyse them by doing
the questions that follow each one.
Sample Essay 1
Holidaying with Friends or Family?
Holiday is a way of relaxing and getting rid of stress. It is a matter of preference where
and with whom to spend a holiday. 1While (......................................) some people would rather have a
vacation with their close friends, others prefer to go on holiday with their family. Basically,
there are two major differences between a holiday with friends and one with family: the type
of fun and the amount of risk.
One vital difference between holidaying with friends and holidaying with family is the
type of fun. 2Regarding (......................................) a vacation with close companions, it is possible to
have greater fun. While being with mates, youngsters have limitless freedom. 3That is why
(......................................), it is possible for young people to do extreme sports like bungee jumping,
sky diving, and rafting together. 4In addition to (......................................) sports, they can organize
parties and have fun until the morning. 5On the other hand (......................................), spending a
holiday with family members is not as enjoyable and might even be rather dull. 6Compared to
(......................................) the freedom they enjoy with their friends, they will only be permitted to
swim in the sea, have a picnic, or take a boat trip with their friends. 7Due to (......................................)
the generation gap, young people’s interests and sense of fun differ from the older
generation’s, so they are unlikely to have a great time with their parents.
A second point of difference between these two types of holidays is the amount of
risk. Young people might put their safety at risk during a holiday with friends. 8As
(......................................) youngsters are restless and enjoy taking risks, they might get into trouble
easily. 9For example (......................................), ignoring their real physical capabilities, a group of
teenagers might decide to do something dangerous such as jumping off a high rock into the
sea. If they have not tried to do that before and are not good at jumping, they may seriously
injure themselves. 10However (......................................), being with family on holiday is much safer
as parents decide what to do. Another point is that family members are the only people you
can trust completely. 11In contrast (......................................), friends sometimes can act irresponsibly
on holiday, dragging you into trouble.
12
All in all (......................................), a holiday with friends and one with family members
vary greatly from each other in terms of fun and safety. In order to both have fun and feel
safer, going on holiday with cousins can be the best option.
1. The essay above discusses ----.

a) only the similarities b) only the differences c) both the differences and similarities
2. The ideas are organized in the following way: ----.
a) block organization b) point-by-point organization
c) similarities in one body paragraph and differences in the other one
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3. List the similarities and/or differences in the essay. You may leave some blanks empty.
Points of Similarity : ________________ ________________ ________________
Points of Difference : ________________ _________________ ________________
4. Go over the essay again to replace the words in italics with the words Watch Out!
in the box below. For three words/phrases in the text, more than one However has a wider
usage and can replace in
answer is correct. comparison and on the
contrary in all contexts,
as opposed to as a result of on the contrary considering whereas hence but in comparison and
on the whole to illustrate in comparison however besides since on the contrary cannot
replace however in all
contexts as they only
connect ideas that
Sample Essay 2 express direct contrast.

Holiday is the best time of the year which people of all ages look forward to with great
excitement. One important thing that people need to give deeper thought to is who to go on
holiday with. While some people prefer to have a vacation with their family, others opt for
one with friends. 1Although (......................................) there are a number of similarities between
going on holiday with friends and having one with parents, there are some striking differences
as well.
A holiday with friends resembles a holiday with family in some aspects. To begin
with, it is possible to get great enjoyment from the companionship of both friends and family
members. 2Considering (......................................) mates, their presence is invaluable as being with
peers means enjoying activities like night-long chats. 3Similarly (......................................), the
presence of family members on holiday can give a person great enjoyment, too. As people
have strong relationships with their family members, sharing a relaxing time during vacation
can be equally satisfying. Secondly, people tend to spend time on holiday doing similar
things. 4To illustrate (......................................), Turks, no matter with friends or family, usually spend
summer nights playing okey. Another holiday must for Turks is to go on an all-day picnic
near a pond, stream, or forest to enjoy a barbeque.
5
Apart from (......................................) similarities, there are also some striking differences
between a holiday with friends and one with family. First, the greatest variation is the type of
fun.6While (......................................) a group of friends can go camping, do water sports like rafting
or scuba diving, or go surfing together, it is very rare for family members to do such
activities. 7In contrast (......................................), families have excursions that usually consist of
visiting historic sites or taking a boat trip. Secondly, financial issues are a significant
difference. The greatest challenge for a group of youngsters is to use their pocket money
sensibly. 8As (......................................) youngsters do not want to be left out, they may waste their
money quickly and become penniless overnight. On the other hand, being with family takes
away the worry of running out of money since one does not have to pay for accommodation,
food, or travel expenses.
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9
In conclusion (......................................), there are both similar and differing aspects between
a holiday with friends and one with family. It is a matter of preference to go on holiday with
friends or family, 10but (......................................) each type of holiday has its advantages and
disadvantages.

Points of Difference : ________________ ________________ ________________
4. Go over the essay again to replace the words in italics with the words in the box below. For
two words/phrases in the text, more than one answer is correct.
due to the fact that yet to exemplify whereas all things considered
despite the fact that on the contrary aside from likewise with regard to
Sample Essay 3
For many years, families have enjoyed a holiday together with their children, and
these holidays have resulted in special family memories. Recently, though, young people have
gained more freedom, and more young people have started going on holiday together with
their friends. 1_____________ these two types of holidays have some differences, a holiday
with friends and a vacation with family members are similar in being filled with fun activities
and resulting in deeper relationships.
A successful holiday with friends has two important 2_____________. Firstly, it is

filled with fun things to do. Friends often prefer to spend their days on the beach, enjoying the
warm sun and refreshing sea. On the beach they can play football or Frisbee or just work on
their tan. In the water, they can enjoy swimming, diving, or windsurfing. Night provides
many other opportunities such as playing billiards, dancing, or going on moonlit walks. A
3
_____________ important aspect of holidays with friends is making better friendships.
Sometimes young people have light, fun conversations; other times they discuss the issues
which are really important to them. By the end of the holiday, they have the joy of stronger
and closer friendships.
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4
_____________, a holiday with families also has these same qualities.
5
_____________ friends, families find fun activities to do together. During the day, they find
things that are enjoyable for a wider variety of ages, such as seeing tourist sites or swimming.
At night, they may play games or cards or enjoy a long meal in a restaurant. Although a
family’s activities are different from the ones a group of friends choose, the family enjoys the
activities they choose. 6_____________, a family holiday 7_____________ one with friends
in that it provides an opportunity to enjoy relationships. A person’s closest relationships are
usually with his or her family members, and long afternoons on the beach or relaxed evenings
at a summer house can make family relationships even closer.
8
_____________, while they are different in some ways, holidays with families and
holidays with friends are 9_____________ because they provide so much fun and help deepen
relationships. Perhaps you will be fortunate enough to experience both of these enjoyable
holidays.
Points of Difference : ________________ ________________ ________________
4. Go over the essay again and fill in the blanks with an appropriate word or phrase from the
box below:
furthermore similar aspects resembles second
in summary although like similarly
Writing Thesis Statements
The structures and key vocabulary to introduce topic sentences for differences or similarities
mentioned in Chapter 4 can also be used to write thesis statements or topic sentences in
comparison and/or contrast essays. Below are sample structures provided for all the essay
formats in this chapter.
Sample Thesis Statements Introducing Similarities
Some useful structures will be introduced below by using the same topic, “Holidaying with
Friends or Family Members”. Based on your general knowledge or from what you learned in
Chapter 4, complete the missing letters in the tables below.
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The following structures can be used to emphasize that two activities, persons, things, etc.
have similar features:
Going on holiday sh _ _ e two
with friends entertainment
h_ _ _ some
and similarities:
going on one with s_ _ w two basic/main and
family members freedom.
bear two striking/marked
(Noun/Gerund) (Noun/Gerund)
(Verb)
in that you can have a memorable time and

enjoy the company you are with. (Clause)
Having a
holiday with in having a memorable time and enjoying the
friends are s_ _ _ _ _ _ company you are with.
and in accommodation and transportation.(Noun/Gerund)
having one with (Adj) in two as_ _ _ _ _: accommodation and
family transportation. (Noun/Gerund)
(Noun/Gerund) in t_ _ _s of accommodation and transportation.
(Noun/Gerund)
things having a
A vacation with memorable
two f _ _ t _ r _ _
friends time
and have basic char _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ in common: and
a holiday with enjoying the
some t r _ _ t _
family company you
(Noun/Gerund) (Noun) are with.
(Noun/Gerund)
A holiday
with friends
r_ s _ m _ _ _ each other in two as_ _ _ _ _ :
and
a vacation (Verb) entertainment
with family
and
A holiday a vacation in t_ _ _ s of freedom.

is s _ _ _ _ _ _ to
with friends with family (Noun/Gerund)
is l_ _ _ (preposition)
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a having a
holiday memorable
a number of with the time
there are
many friends most and
Al _ _ _ _ _ _ several similarities between and striking enjoying
a lot of a ones the
various holiday are company
a variety of with you are
family, with.
Sample Thesis Statements Introducing Differences
The following structures can be used to emphasize that two activities, persons, things, etc.
have different features. Complete the missing letters in some of the boxes.
having a (One is)

major vocation with the type of
There are two striking differences between friends fun
significant and and
cr_ _ _ _ l co _ t _ _ _ t _ having a (the other is)
holiday with the amount
family: of risk.
The type of striking a holiday with

fun significant parents
and are the major differences between and
the amount two cons _ d _ r _ _ _ _ a holiday with
of risk pr _ f _ _ _ d friends.
Going the type

d_ _ _ _ _ s greatly having of fun
on in two as _ _ _ _ _ :
(Verb) considerably from a and
holiday holiday
with strikingly the
greatly with amount
friends v_ _ _ es in t_ _ _ _ of
(Verb) family of risk.
the type of
A different from in these as _ _ _ _ _ : fun
holiday is a holiday with
and
with family the amount
friends u_____ in t_ _ _ _ of of risk.
(Preposition)
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Sample Thesis Statements Introducing both Similarities and Differences
Regarding the essay format in which both the similarities and differences of two things are
discussed, the following structures can be used:
b_ _ _ a_ _ differences a a
There are
holiday holiday
between
similarities
and
c__t_____ with with
not o_ _ _ but a_ _ _ friends family.
a holiday a_
Even though
a with friends w_ _ _.
there are
there are
between
number similarities and some striking differences

of a holiday , t _ _.
with family,
a holiday
b_ _ _ a_ _ dif_ _ _ _ _ _ with friends
There are
similar c _ _ t _ _ _ _ing aspects of and

different one with
not o_ _ _ but a_ _ _ (Adj) family.
A these in some
holiday d_ _ _ _ _ _ one two also aspects/
with greatly from with , but types resemble p_ i _ t _
friends v_____ parents of each /w_ _ s.
holiday other

Exercise 1. For the following topics, form a mind map, including supporting ideas for the
body paragraphs. Then write suitable thesis statements and topic sentences. Each question
will guide you in what kind of discussion is required (discussing only differences, similarities,
or both). An example is provided below.
a) Topic: Discuss the differences between a person who enjoys reading a lot and a person
who does not.
Subtopics:
level of intelligence building self-esteem
memory enhancement general cultural knowledge
expansion of one’s horizon improving critical thinking skills
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Sample Mind Map:
Book Lover vs. Poor Reader
depth of knowledge self-esteem
(Book Lover) (Poor Reader) (Book Lover) (Poor Reader)

*deeper knowledge *superficial knowledge *high self-esteem *low self-esteem
- knows various subjects - knows limited subjects - receives respect from - is not taken very
many people seriously by people
- talks effectively and - talks poorly and unclearly
persuasively - makes friends with - has little chance of
intelligent and entering intellectual
- generates lots of - has few ideas intellectual people circles
ideas easily
Example: (Point-by-Point Organization)

Thesis Statement: A person who enjoys reading a lot differs greatly from a person who does
not in that a bookworm has a greater depth of knowledge and higher self-esteem.
Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence: Depth of knowledge is one striking difference between a bookworm and a
poor reader.
Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence: Another significant difference is that an enthusiastic reader has higher self-
esteem than an unenthusiastic reader.
x Working in groups or pairs, use different subtopics from the table above and create your
own mind map. Then write a suitable thesis statement and topic sentences using different
wording and structures. Draw your mind map below.
Book Lover vs. Poor Reader
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Thesis Statement: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence: _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence: _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b) Topic: Discuss how entertainment will remain similar and how it will differ for young
people of our time and young people of the future.
Subtopics
visiting family and friends use of computers
watching TV simulated reality
surfing the Internet organizing trips
eating out
Below is a short text that includes ideas about future entertainment which you might like to
make use of and extend:
Future Entertainment
Experts believe that future entertainment systems will fulfil many more of our recreational
needs. Futurologists predict that by 2015 TV sets and computers will have a wall-size, interactive, 3D
screen and provide entertainment and information suited to people’s wishes. When turned off, they
will display a beach, a forest, or other scenes so real that people will feel they are there. By 2020,
“active contact lenses” using nano-size electronics will have been produced. It will be possible for
people to receive electronic signals directly onto their retinas, and they will see images from TV, video
games, and the Internet with eyes open or closed. By 2030, experts hope to develop micro-size
nanobots which will enable the brain to create simulated realities indistinguishable from the real
world. According to some experts, human and machine intelligence will combine, implying that “The
Matrix” movie might come true.
Draw your mind map below:
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Thesis Statement: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence: _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence: _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2. The charts below list some similarities and differences between cinema in the
1990s and in the 2000s. Use the information in the charts to help you complete the
comparison and contrast essay.
Similarities
Cinema in both the 1990s and the 2000s

1. Online film distribution
x Began in 1994, gained popularity
x remained popular in the 2000s
2. Children’s movies popular for all ages
x 1990s: The Lion King, Toy Story
x 2000s: Spider Man, Toy Story 3
Differences
Cinema in the 1990s Cinema in the 2000s
1. Films for home use on VHS tapes 1. Films for home use on DVDs
x Low picture quality x High picture quality
x Easy to break the tape vs. x Stronger, longer-lasting
2. Only films from Hollywood popular 2. Films from many countries popular
worldwide; e.g. Titanic, Jurassic Park worldwide; e.g. Slumdog Millionaire
(India), Crouching Tiger (Japan)
Essay question: Compare and/or contrast cinema in the 1990s and cinema in the 2000s.
Changing Hobby?
Watching films has been a very popular activity in many countries since the 1920s,
and its great popularity continued in the 1990s and 2000s. In these two decades, people all
over the world enjoyed a great variety of movies in their homes and at the cinema. ...........................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
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Cinemas in the 1990s resembled films in the 2000s in many ways. One similarity is
the way that films were distributed. The 1990s was the beginning of the Internet age, and
movie lovers quickly learned to enjoy their favourite films at home by downloading them
from the Internet. Downloading films in this way became more and more popular as this
decade went on. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
Secondly, .........................................................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................... . In the 1990s, popular children films which were watched by
people of all ages included The Lion King and Toy Story; in the 2000s, Spider Man and Toy
Story 3 were films that were made for children but well-liked by adults as well.
Despite ......................................................., ...................................................................................................................................

. One significant difference was in watching
............................................................................................................
films at home. In the 1990s most people watched films at home on VHS tapes, but watching
films using a VHS tape was not always an enjoyable experience. The picture quality of these
tapes was not very high, and the tapes were not very reliable, so the tape could break or get
mixed up while you were watching your film. ...................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... . Another ..........................................................................................
the place where popular films from these decades were made. .............................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... .
In conclusion, although there were significant similarities between cinema in the

1990s and 2000s, there were also important differences. ...........................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ .
Exercise 3. Working in groups or individually, write a comparison and/or contrast essay on

the topic below. Before you start writing, read about fun and fashion in the 1960s and
complete the tasks that follow.
Essay question: Compare and/or contrast fun and fashion for the youth of the 1960s and fun
and fashion for the youth of today.
Fun and Fashion in the 1960s

Clothes and entertainment have always played an important role in youth culture, but
what youth considers great fun or high fashion changes very often. Like today, youth in the
1960s loved music, and the 1960s was the first decade of worldwide stars. With the spread of
radio and TV, a group’s music could be heard throughout the world. The only type of music
that appealed to youth throughout the world was rock and roll. The Rolling Stones and Elvis
Presley were well-liked, and the Beatles, a British rock and roll band, became extremely
popular because of their innovative style of rock music. Their songs were played on radio
stations all over the world.
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Unfortunately, the music culture was also deeply influenced by the drug culture. The
musical event of the decade was Woodstock, a three day festival in New York that attracted
400,000 people, mostly youth, from many countries. It featured peace, love, and happiness as
well as LSD and other drugs.
When young people were not listening to the Beatles, they were often
watching movies or TV. Batman was an instant hit with college students. Many
students used to gather in dormitory lounges to watch this TV show. At the cinema,
six James Bond movies, including From Russia With Love and Goldfinger,
combined sex and violence and were enormously popular. Previous taboos on sex,
violence, and bad language were ignored.
In fashion, before the 1960s, clothes were generally dull in colour. But in the
early 1960s, cheap and colourful clothing came into style, especially for youth. Other fashion
changes in this decade include mini skirts, leather boots, and fake eyelashes for women. In
general, young men preferred to dress casually, but when they had to dress up,
they wore ties that were up to 15 centimetres wide and often had both
patterns and stripes. Both men and women wore bellbottom jeans,
which get much wider towards the foot. Men began to wear their hair
long, and beards and moustaches were also in style. Women, in
contrast, often wore their hair very short.
For the active crowd, free time activities included skateboarding, which provided
young people with a way to have fun as well as stay fit. There was no such thing as
skateboard parks in those days. Everyone knew when young people were using their
skateboards because the wheels made so much noise that they were heard through the whole
neighbourhood. Because protective gear like helmets or knee pads was nearly unheard of,
broken bones and other injuries were widespread.
a) Build up your vocabulary about fun and fashion by matching words or phrases in bold
from the text to their synonyms or definitions below.
1. boring – ....................................... 6. get together – .......................................

2. extremely – ....................................... 7. safety equipment – .......................................
3. included – ....................................... 8. wear formal clothes – .......................................
4. original – ....................................... 9. very unusual – .......................................
5. success – ....................................... 10. were liked by – .......................................
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b) Use information from the text and your own ideas to fill in the boxes below. These boxes
will provide you with a mind map to guide you while writing your essay.
Similarities
Youth in the 1960s and in the 2010s

1.
2.
Differences
Youth in the 1960s Youth in the 2010s
1. 1.
x x
x x
vs.
2. 2.
x x
x x
c) Based on your ideas, choose the best format for your essay:
i) block organization ii) point-by-point organization
iii) similarities in 1 body prg. & differences in 2nd body prg.
st
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d) Write the final version of your essay here:
............................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................
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..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. .
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e) Self-Editing & Peer Editing
As you have done in previous chapters, go over your essay after you finish
writing, using the Editing Checklist. Then swap paragraphs with another
group, go over the essay you received, and suggest any changes if necessary.
Finally, re-edit your essay and show it to another group.
if it’s OK.
Introduction Does it...
have a clear thesis statement which includes your
subtopics (if necessary)?
at least two supporting ideas?
Body Paragraphs Are there...
supporting details and/or examples for each supporting
idea?
start with an appropriate connecting word
Conclusion (e.g. all in all, on the whole)?
Does it... include a summary of your main points?
have a final comment with a message OR suggestion
OR warning OR concern?
Grammar Check
correct use of comparison/contrast structures
(e.g. are similar in vs. are similar in that)
connecting words related to comparison/contrast
(e.g. the most important similarities are...
Vocabulary Check A and B differ from each other in (that)...)
for... appropriate word choice/word form

Easily Confused Words
There are a number of words used for comparing and contrasting which are similar in
meaning and easy to confuse. Some of these words are discussed below.
Associate is a verb which means to connect or find a relationship between one thing or
person and another as in the example: “I associate extreme sports with young people.” The
noun form is association. The phrase be associated with, meaning be related to, is also
common and can be used like this: “There are many health problems which are associated
with cancer treatment.”
If two or more facts correlate, it means that they are closely connected to each other or one
causes the other, as in the example, “Regularly revising class notes correlates with high
scores on exams.” The noun form is correlation, and it is often used with “between” as in the
sentence, “There is a strong correlation between smoking and premature birth.”
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If two things correspond, it means that the parts or information in one relate to the parts or
information in the other as in the example, “His signature on the check does not correspond
to the one in his passport.” The noun form is correspondence, which is a close synonym to
correlation.
Differentiate is a verb which means to be the quality which makes a thing or person different
from another: “What differentiates these two periods of history?”
Distinction is a noun and means a clear difference between two similar things: “The
distinction between formal and informal language is no longer very clear.” “Distinction” is
often used with the verb “make” as in this example: “The law makes a distinction between
minors – those under 18 years old – and adults – those who are 18 or older.”
Likeness is a noun which means a similarity in appearance as in the example, “He bears a
remarkable likeness to his father”.
Vary is a verb which means to change in appearance or character: “The level of students
varied greatly from one class to the next.” The noun form is variation and can be used like
this: “There are seasonal variations in the amount of pollen in the air.”
Exercise 1. Choose the best answer for each of the following sentences.
1. There is a great …………………………… in home prices due to location.
a) correlation b) association c) variation
2. Many countries have tried to make their pollution guidelines …………………………… to the
Kyoto protocol.
a) associate b) correspond c) differentiate
3. It is amazing how closely a child can bear a …………………………… to one of his/her parents.
a) correlation b) likeness c) variation
4. Difficult economic times almost always …………………………… with a drop in movie going.
a) associate b) correlate c) vary
5. Is it important to make a …………………………… between entertainment and education, or should
the two fields be combined?
a) distinction b) likeness c) variation
6. Watching a lot of television is one of the factors …………………………… with obesity.
a) associated b) correlation c) varied
7. You can …………………………… an alligator from a crocodile by the shape of their heads.
a) vary b) correspond c) differentiate
Exercise 2. Complete these sentences with your own ideas.
1. Many people say that I bear a likeness …………………………………....…………………………………………… .
2. Researchers have found a correlation …...............…………………………………………………………………..….. .
3. Turkish films vary from Hollywood films in that ......................................................................................................
…..................................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………….. .
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4. The most important qualities which differentiate good movies from bad ones are ........................
…………………….......................................................…………………………………………………………………………………………. .
1. Films of the 1920s differ from films of today in not having sound or colour. NEITHER
Films from the 1920s differ from films of today in ..................................................................................................... .
2. Being on a sports team and working in a group resemble each other in that cooperation is
vital in both. LIKE
Being on a sports team ...................................................................................... in that cooperation is vital in both.
3. Teachers are ready for a break at the end of the school year. So are students. NOT ONLY
............................................................................................. are ready for a holiday at the end of the academic year.
4. Swimming is better than jogging in that it uses a greater variety of muscles. TERMS
Swimming is better than jogging ............................................................................................................................................... .
5. Despite all their violence, horror movies are liked by a wide variety of people. APPEAL
Despite all their violence, horror movies ................................................................... a wide variety of people.
Writing Assignments
Write a comparison and/or contrast essay on one or more of the topics below.
1. Compare and/or contrast watching a match on television and seeing it at the stadium.
x cost x food
x view x convenience
x atmosphere x socializing
2. Compare and/or contrast what “entertainment” means to an old person and what it means to
a young person.
x sports x favourite movies
x hobbies x favourite television shows
x a night out x an evening with friends
3. Compare and/or contrast shopping at a large shopping centre and shopping at
neighbourhood shops.
x selection x convenience
x quality x friendliness
x price x time
4. Compare and/or contrast what “free time” means to a couple with children and a couple
without children.
x weekend activities x religious holidays
x evening with friends x eating out
x parties x summer holidays
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CHAPTER 7
IMPROVING EDITING SKILLS
Introduction
Proficient academic writers should also be proficient editors so that they can edit their own
writing thoroughly before handing it in. A good editor looks at these things:
1. Grammar
2. Vocabulary
3. Spelling, punctuation, and capitalization
4. Links between ideas
5. Organization and content
This chapter will help improve your editing skills in each of these areas.
Editing Grammar
The following exercises point out the areas where writers are most likely to make grammar
errors and provide practice in identifying and correcting these mistakes.
Exercise 1. Errors in Articles Watch Out!
The following sentences include errors in the use of
Mind that articles (a, an, the),
articles. Cross out the ones which are unnecessary, correct possessives (our, their, one’s, etc.)
the wrong ones, and add a suitable article if necessary. Four and demonstratives (this, those, etc.)
sentences have one mistake and six sentences have two. cannot be used together.
e.g. She’s a my friend.

1. My the greatest ambition in life is to produce projects
However, there is a structure which
which conserve the natural resources of my country.
enables us to express the intended
meaning in another way. Complete
2. The life is hard for everyone who is a poor. the following sentence.
She is a friend ........ ............. .

3. During the war, people experience great difficulties (prep.) (possessive pronoun)
because of the hunger and cruelty. It is also possible to express the same
idea in the following way. Can you
complete this sentence?
4. Internet has become an important tool for sharing
She is one ....... ......... friends.
information.
5. The teenagers usually complain about same problems.
6. Students are badly affected by university entrance exams. For example, the students have
no social life.
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7. Air pollution is big problem for the many cities because of the Watch Out!
high number of vehicles and factories. We do not use the with
uncountable or plural nouns
when we talk about things in
8. The world will run out of the water in a future. general.
Example:
9. Good teacher is someone who is knowledgeable and good Leave the books on my
at transferring knowledge to students in effective way. desk. (= particular books)
Books open up a new world

10. It is a fact that universe is expanding. for people to explore.
(= all books in general)
Exercise 2. Errors in Quantifiers (a few, a little, many, etc.)

Watch out!
Quantifiers are words that tell All the quantifiers in the following sentences are in italics.
how much or how many. Mind Correct the mistakes in the space provided next to each
that some of them can be used sentence. If there is no mistake, put a tick (√).
with a singular noun (e.g. each),
some with a plural noun (e.g.
many), and some with an 1. A great amount of people lost their jobs because of the
uncountable noun (e.g. much).
economic crisis that hit the world in 2008. ................................................
2. Most children learn how to use computers very easily. ...................................................
3. Many of people use computers to chat with their friends. ...................................................
4. The large number of environmentalists from all over the Watch out!
world will get together in Istanbul to discuss new When talking about quantity, we
need a determiner like “these” or
environmental technologies. ................................................... “my” after “of”:
Incorrect: two of students
5. Few is known about anticancer drugs. More research needs Correct: my
two of these students
to be done before people can use them. ................................................... the
However, sometimes “of” is part

6. The number of consumers who demand eco-friendly of the quantifier, and then we do
products is increasing. ..................................... not need a determiner:
a lot of
a couple of students
7. Every people should respect different views and learn to a number of
discuss matters without arguing. ...................................................
8. TV channels have a responsibility to their all viewers and thus have to cover more
programs that inform people about recent events. ...................................................
9. My whole life changed after I talked to a philosopher. ...................................................
10. None tourists go to a holiday resort where the sea is heavily polluted. ................................................
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Exercise 3. Errors in Prepositions
Below are examples of common errors in preposition use. Cross out the unnecessary
prepositions, correct the wrong ones and add the missing ones. Three of the sentences are
correct.
1. Traffic jams are a major reason of air pollution. ..............................................................................
2. Einstein was a genius and contributed the field of physics a lot. ...................................................................
3. Children are deeply affected from severe arguments their parents have. ................................................
4. Discussing problems over and over without offering possible solutions can cause damage
relationships. .............................................................................................
5. It is a fact that smoking severely damages health. .....................................................................................................
6. You want to be in your hometown since your relatives and closest friends live in there.
.......................................
7. There was no access the Internet for nearly three hours. ......................................................................................
8. Though I tried several times, I could not access the website. ...........................................................................
9. Computer overuse affects our body and brain; therefore, we should be careful to the
amount of time we spend on the computer. .............................................................................................
10. It is our turn to take care of our parents when they age. ....................................................................................
11. In recently, there has been a growing demand for hybrid cars. ....................................................................
12. A lot of people use computers long hours at work. ................................................
13. A lot of companies make a huge profit with selling genetically altered foods but do not
consider human health. .............................................................................................
14. An explosion in a nuclear power plant can lead severe environmental disasters.
.............................................................................................
15. When we listen our parents talking about the past, it is hard to imagine their teenage years.
.............................................................................................
16. People get used to living in somewhere if they stay there for a long time. .......................................
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17. If you find a job in abroad, you may have difficulty in getting accustomed to the new
culture. .............................................................................................
18. Robots are made by iron, but humans are living creatures with skin and bones. ............................
19. If a teenager cannot cope his problems, he may run away from home. .................................................
20. People of all ages need close friends to speak. ....................................................................................................
Exercise 4. Errors in Using “another, (the) other, and (the) others”

The determiners are in italics in each sentence. If a sentence contains a
mistake, correct it in the space that follows the sentence. Put a tick if the sentence is correct.
Watch out!
1. Some TV programs are entertaining while the others are “Other” can be an adjective or a
pronoun. When it is used as a
educational. .................................................. pronoun, it can be plural, but
when used as an adjective, it
cannot be plural:
2. People should not work in a job that they do not like and
Some people agree; others don’t.
Some people agree; other people
feel hopeless about. There is always other choice. ............................. (others people) don’t.
3. Parents have a key role in developing healthy relationships “Another” is only used with
singular nouns:
within a family. Besides, other members of a family should He has bought another car.
We use “the other” or “the others”

make an effort to maintain good relationships. .................................. if the people/things referred to are
definite:
4. Basically, there are two reasons why teenagers use Four people in our class failed the
exam. The others passed.
violence. One is witnessing violence in the media. The other
is use of alcohol and drugs. ..................................................
5. One difficulty of living in metropolitan cities is high rents. Another problem is heavy
traffic. ...................................................
6. Only eight people could be saved from the collapsed building. Others, unfortunately, died.
...................................................
7. Some students attend classes on time while the others students tend to come late.
..................................................
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Exercise 5. Errors in Noun, Adjective, and Adverb Use
The following exercise provides practice at identifying and correcting some of the common
errors that writers make when using nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Look carefully at each
line in the text. Some are correct, but the others have a noun, adjective, or adverb in the wrong
form. If a line is correct, put a tick. If a line has an incorrect word, cross it out and write the
correct word in the blank.
Video Games with Careless Driving: Only a Game?
___√___ 0 Many young adults play games like Grand Theft Auto and Manhunt,
accidents 00 which feature dangerous driving and terrible car accident. Do these
_______ 1 games have a significantly effect on driving in the real world? The
_______ 2 answer seems to be yes. Driving too fastly is a common cause of
_______ 3 accidents for this age group, and people who play these games report
_______ 4 that they receive more speeding ticket. Young adults who play these
_______ 5 games also say they are more like to try to pass a car in a no-pass area.
_______ 6 Another differences is that young adults who do not play these games
_______ 7 hardly ever drive through a red light, but those who play them do this
_______ 8 quiet often. Many studies have shown the serious negative effects that
_______ 9 this games have on driving.
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Exercise 6. Errors in Countable and Uncountable Nouns Watch Out!
In order to check your knowledge about the use of nouns, go over The uncountable form is
usually used for materials
the following questions and choose the appropriate form. (iron, wool), liquids (juice),
and abstract qualities (luck).
1. Some people never listen to other people’s ADVICE/ADVICES.
Uncountable nouns take a
2. After you finish the prep program, you will have learned lots singular verb. They can’t be
used with numbers, and most
do not have a plural form.
of VOCABULARY/ VOCABULARIES.
It is important to check in a
3. Parents generally have high EXPECTATION/EXPECTATIONS of dictionary to learn if a noun is
countable or not.
their children.
4. Scientists need more INFORMATION/INFORMATIONS on the immune system in order to
find a cure for AIDS.
5. More RESEARCH/RESEARCHES needs/need to be done to find a cure for AIDS.
6. Being a successful student at ITU provides a lot of career OPPORTUNITY/OPPORTUNITIES.
7. Sometimes children should be given A PERMISSION/PERMISSION to choose what they
want to do, wear, and eat.
8. In recent years, the ASELSAN engineers have made great PROGRESS/PROGRESSES in
designing new technologies.
9. Shop windows are now made of unbreakable GLASS/GLASSES.
10. Does money really bring HAPPINESS/HAPPINESSES to people’s lives?
11. Our teacher gave us lots of HOMEWORK/HOMEWORKS for the weekend.
12. Psychologists can tell a lot about your personality by your DREAM/DREAMS.
Exercise 7. Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement and Verb Forms

The following sentences include typical mistakes in subject-verb agreement and verb forms.
Find the errors and write the correct answers in the space provided. Three of the sentences do
not contain any mistakes.
1. Burning fossil fuels releases a lot of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. ..........................................
2. The destruction of our forests cause severe environmental problems. ............................................
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3. One of the cause of wars is the ownership of natural resources. ............................................
4. I am imagining a world without wars in which all people live in harmony. .........................................
5. Spending time with old friends and relatives make many people happy. ...........................................
6. The number of people who have become environmentally conscious has increased. ....................
7. People should be aware of the possible health risks of use mobile phones. ..........................................
8. The main purpose of education is to teach people to think critically. ..........................................
9. People living in metropolitan cities are used to drive in heavy traffic. ..........................................
10. Parents of a child who wants to be an artist may prevent him/her to study art. ...............................
11. Choosing where living is an important decision you will make. ..........................................
Exercise 8. Errors in Verb Patterns

Flashback
The sentences below include typical examples illustrating
writers’ weaknesses in using some verb patterns. After Some verbs are used in this
pattern: verb + obj + infinitive
looking at the example below, rewrite each incorrect
Look at the examples below.
sentence using an appropriate verb pattern. Also, be careful
about tense use. Want + sb/sth + to V1 (active)
Incorrect Sentence Teenagers want their parents to
respect their decisions.
Parents usually do not want that their children live abroad
Teenagers want their problems to
during their entire life. end.
Want + sb/sth + to be V3
Correct Sentence (passive)
Verb Pattern: want sb to do sth Employers want conflicts to be
Parents usually do not want their children to live abroad resolved immediately.
during their entire life. Workmates want conflict makers
to be dismissed.
1. Most parents do not allow that their children can use Some common verbs used in this
computers for long hours. pattern:
________________________________________________ advise allow ask (= request)
beg cause challenge
________________________________________________ convince enable encourage
2. Especially, fossil fuel consumption is causing that carbon expect force hate
motivate permit persuade
dioxide increases.
teach tell warn
________________________________________________
3. The worst thing about wars is that they cause dying of innocent children.
___________________________________________________________________________
4. According to new laws, they don’t allow that people smoke in public places.
___________________________________________________________________________
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5. Authorities warn hunters that they not hunt endangered species. Watch Out!
_______________________________________________________ There are some exceptions to

the verb pattern Verb + Obj
+ infinitive. Can you
6. Climate change is causing that sea levels rise and glaciers melt. complete the patterns below?
make sb _____________
_______________________________________________________ let sb _____________
have sb _____________
7. Surprises by our friends make us to feel happy. help sb _____________
_______________________________________________________
Watch Out! 8. Employees who work hard deserve to promote and

Mind that some verbs have to be send abroad for a holiday.
followed by verbs in the gerund
form and some by verbs in the _______________________________________________
infinitive form. Which of the verbs
below are followed by “doing” and
which ones by “to do”? _______________________________________________
avoid ____ decide ____ 9. Youngsters must avoid to smoke and use harmful
deserve ____ admit ____
substances.
deny ____ threaten ____
enjoy ____ finish ____ _______________________________________________
promise ____ suggest ____
_______________________________________________
*Some verbs used with
prepositions also have to be 10. Environmentalists object to use nuclear energy and
followed by the gerund form.
suggest to use renewable energy resources.
I’m looking forward to living in
Istanbul. _______________________________________________
I’m used to driving in Istanbul.
_______________________________________________
Exercise 9. Errors in Active and Passive Verbs

In four of the eight sentences below, active or passive verbs are used incorrectly. Identify the
four mistakes and correct them.
1. Many animal species may become extinct because of decreasing food and water resources.
2. I wish that all wars would be end.
3. Children always want be understood by their family.
4. Because it is wireless, the Internet on your mobile phone can used anywhere.
5. This job involves long working hours and lots of travel.
6. Scientists claim that most of the earth’s rain forests are being destroyed.
7. Trees have planted in the area where there was a forest fire.
8. The government hopes to finish the project before the end of the year.
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Exercise 10. Errors in Relative Clauses and Noun Clauses
Although it is easy to make mistakes in relative clauses and noun clauses, proficient writers
double check to make sure that they have used these structures correctly. In six of the nine
sentences below, there are mistakes in relative clauses or noun clauses. If a sentence contains
a mistake, cross out the mistake and correct it in the space that follows the sentence.
1. There are many reasons why do marketers target children. ....................................
2. Recent studies have shown the different ways in which computers harm our body. ......................
3. Nowadays many people shop on the Internet are concerned about security. ........................................
4. Young people which are looking for adventure may meet people hoping to sell them
harmful drugs. ....................................
5. Many parents do not know that they need to do to solve the problems they are having with
their teenagers. ....................................
6. During your teenage years, it is really important who your friends are. ....................................
7. People are unlike robots in that they have an emotional response to everything what
happens. ....................................
8. Bodrum, which is a famous seaside resort, is in the south-west of Turkey. ....................................
9. Antalya is a coastal city in Turkey where many tourists come to. ....................................
Exercise 11. Errors in Making Comparisons

The following exercise tests your ability to edit different comparison structures. In the
underlined part of each sentence, there is an error in the comparison language used. Write the
correct usage in the space provided after the sentence.
1. Due to climate change, people will live in more hotter and hotter places. .............................................
2. Family arguments are most common cause of this problem. ..............................................
3. The screen on a mobile phone is very small to show a whole web page. ..............................................
4. A screen on a desktop PC is enough big to view an entire web page. ..............................................
5. Technology is developing so rapidly is why special effects in films are much better than
they were ten years ago. ..............................................
6. Young people feel more freer when they are with their friends. ..............................................
7. The more technology develops, films become more and more popular. .............................................
8. Water is far valuable today than it was twenty years ago. ..............................................
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Editing Vocabulary
It is also very easy to make vocabulary mistakes. The following exercises identify the areas
where students are most likely to make vocabulary mistakes and provide practice at finding
and correcting these errors.
Errors in Word Formation

A proficient writer uses the correct form of a word. To practice this skill, do the following
exercises.
Exercise 1. Use the word given in capitals at the end of each line to form a word that fits in
the space given.
1. Today’s ……………………………… generally prefers cinema to theatre. YOUNG
2. Air pollution caused by human activity ……………………………… the environment. THREAT
3. Modern robots look like humans and are similar in ………………………………, too. HIGH
4. Some parents don’t ……………………………… their children to drink Coke. PERMISSION
5. If parents are too strict, teenagers may ……………………………… to run away. CHOICE
6. Millions of elderly people live in ……………………………… . POOR
7. Crops are damaged in wars, which leads to ……………………………… . STARVE
Exercise 2. Choose an appropriate word from the box to complete the sentences.
die dead death deadly

1. The police are investigating his ……………………………… .
2. A snakebite can be ………………………………, so go to a doctor immediately if you are bitten.
3. Fewer people today ……………………………… of cancer because of more effective treatments.
4. Three ……………………………… bodies were removed from the bus after the accident.
affect effect effective effectiveness
5. The city is searching for an ……………………………… way to reduce traffic jams.

6. His parents’ divorce had a large ……………………………… on his grades.
7. The government tests the ……………………………… of newly developed drugs before they are
sold to the public.
8. The heavy rain may ……………………………… many parts of the country.
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Errors in Word Choice
A proficient writer can distinguish between two words or phrases which are close in meaning.
Do the following exercises to help you build your skills in choosing the correct word.
Exercise 3. Choose the correct word that completes the sentence.
1. Students .......................................... a lot of mistakes because of carelessness. MAKE/DO
2. Unfortunately, a war is going on almost ........................................ . EVERY TIME/ALL THE TIME
3. There were no deaths, but three people were .......................................... . INJURED/DAMAGED
4. E-mail is a widely used communication .......................................... . DEVICE/TOOL
5. The advertising campaign introduced the new ..................................... . PRODUCT/PRODUCTION
6. He did not get the job as he had no work ........................................ . EXPERIMENT/EXPERIENCE
7. Next week we will have the ........................................ test of the semester. LAST/LATEST
8. The administration will listen to any ........................................ suggestion. SENSITIVE/SENSIBLE
9. A small car is much more ..................... to run. ECONOMIC/ECONOMICAL
10. The government should ..................................... a new system to help the disabled. DEVICE/DEVISE
11. Due to crop failure, many African nations face ......................................... DROUGHT/FAMINE
12. The success of our project will ..................................... effective teamwork. BASE ON/DEPEND ON
Exercise 4. The box below contains vocabulary that you have studied in previous chapters.
Complete each sentence by choosing a word from the box. You do not need to change the
form of the words.
except arise boost complex distinction susceptible hazardous
exceed fatal accept determined variation inquisitive collaborate
1. Problems often ………………………… when employees do not know exactly what their boss
expects of them.
2. Credit cards have made the ………………………… between borrowing and spending unclear.
3. Everyone in our class likes our physics teacher because he can explain …………………………
problems in a clear, easy-to-understand way.
4. ………………………… for job opportunities, my hometown is an ideal place to live in.
5. In order to avoid …… …………………… chemicals, more people are buying organic produce.
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6. Many people are predicting the team will have another losing season, but team members
are confident that they can ………………………… everyone’s expectations.
7. This year’s clothing styles are not very original; they are only a slight ………………………… on
last year’s styles.
8. The ………………………… child asked his parents hundreds of questions every day.
9. The disease AIDS weakens the body’s immune system and makes it ………………………… to
infection.
10. We will be able to finish the project much more quickly if we …………………………, so let’s
divide up the work in a fair way.
11. Cancer almost always used to be a(n) ………………………… disease, but new treatments allow
many people to survive this illness.
12. Despite a(n) ………………………… effort, he was not able to win a medal in the race.
13. He refused to ………………………… the job offer because he thought the pay was too low.
14. Even during the economic crisis, the company was able to ………………………… sales.
Errors in Common Collocations

Exercise 5. Cross out the word or phrase that does not go with the words in italics. One
example is done for you.
0. go on have take a picnic
1. have experience live a lot of problems recently
2. the use of technology is increasing anymore at present these days
3. a wireless Internet connection allows enables provides people to
4. cannot guess picture imagine life without a cell phone
5. his description of the events did not correspond to associate with correlate with
6. a strong family likeness resemblance similar
7. cannot accept believe warn his latest scientific theory
8. difficult to bring up grow raise children in these conditions
9. give make reach a decision
10. accept show take responsibility
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11. make open start a war
12. gain have win experience
Revision of Editing Grammar and Vocabulary Mistakes
Exercise 6. Choose the underlined word or phrase that must be changed to make the sentence
correct and change it so that there is no error. This exercise contains many of the grammar
and vocabulary mistakes which you have studied in previous exercises.
1. Research shows that less boys than girls find jobs in which they help others, like nursing.
A B C D
2. A balanced diet contains all the foods needed by the body for growth, energy, and maintain
A B C D
of normal health.
3. Many people know what they should do for a health life, but they fail to live in this way.
A B C D
4. That the diesel engine is similar to the gasoline engine, but it runs on a heavier type of fuel.
A B C D
5. Sometimes an English word has an association with a place; for example, the kind of the
A B C D
cheese known as cheddar came from Cheddar, England.
6. Most psychologists belief that young adulthood is the most stressful period of adult life.
A B C D
7. Like chimpanzees, gorillas communication with a wide variety of sounds.
A B C D
8. Most African farmers only rise enough food for their families, so few crops are exported.
A B C D
9. More research needs to be done on the subject of single fathers bringing children.
A B C D
10. A recent study shows that many types of seafood are linked to reduce the risk of cancer.
A B C D
11. Many of the colour images we see do not contain all the colours but made of three
A B C D
primary colours mixed together.
12. Electricity is the perfect source of power because it is clean, silence, and easy to turn on
A B C D
and off.
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159
13. If you want to start an exercise program, remember that swimming and cycling is
A B C D
excellent for strengthening muscles.
14. The first bicycles had to be pushed by foot, and it was not by the time 1839 that
A B C
Kirkpatrick Macmillan invented a bicycle with pedals.
D
Editing Spelling, Punctuation, and Capitalization

Errors, in spelling, Punctuation, and capitalization make a piece of writing difficult too read,
so try to Avoid these misteaks. (Did you notice the five mistakes in the previous sentence?)
Exercise 1. Errors in Spelling

Below are twenty of the most commonly misspelled words. Choose the correct spelling of
each word.
1. a) phsychologicall b) psichological c) psychological d) psychologic
2. a) pysical b) physical c) phisycal d) pyhsical
3. a) sceince b) sicence c) science d) sciense
4. a) achievable b) acheivable c) achievible d) achieavable
5. a) anxieous b) anxous c) anxious d) anxeious
6. a) entusiastic b) enthusiastic c) entuhiastic d) enthuastic
7. a) unconscious b) unconcsious c) uncanscious d) unconsious
8. a) financally b) financialy c) financielly d) financially
9. a) existance b) existince c) exestance d) existence
10. a) critism b) criticism c) crictism d) critisicm
11. a) privilege b) previledge c) priviledge d) privilidge
12. a) changeble b) changible c) changeable d) changable
13. a) ignorence b) igneronce c) ignorance d) ignorantce
14. a) inteligence b) intelligence c) intelligance d) intellectence
15. a) occurance b) ocurrence c) occurence d) occurrence
16. a) foireng b) foreign c) foriegn d) foreaign
17. a) acceptable b) aceptable c) acceptible d) acceptabl
18. a) humurous b) humourous c) humorous d) humourus
19. a) succesful b) successfull c) sucessfull d) successful
20. a) discipline b) diciplin c) disipline d) disciplin
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Exercise 2. Errors in Punctuation and Capitalisation
Below is a paragraph with eight mistakes in capitalization and punctuation. Find these
commonly made mistakes and correct them. One example is done for you.
History of Edirne
northwest
Edirne, a city of 140,000 people located in the Northwest of
Turkey, is the centre of an agricultural region where grains, fruits, and
tobacco are grown. The city was founded in about 125 AD by Hadrian,
a roman emperor. Many battles have been fought at this city. Because
it is situated at a point where two rivers, the Maritsa and Ergene, join.
It remained in the hands of the Romans until it was taken by the Visigoths in 378. Later, the
Bulgarians and then the Crusaders, conquered the city. Edirne passed to the Ottoman Turks in
1361, it was the residence of the Ottoman sultans until the conquest of Constantinople in
1453. Russian soldiers’ captured the city twice (in 1829 and 1878) during the Russian-Turkish
Wars. In the early 1900s, it fell to Bulgaria but was later restored to Turkey. After it passed to
Greece in 1920 by the Treaty of Sèvres it was again restored to Turkey by the Treaty of
Lausanne in 1923. The citys many mosques include a magnificent mosque which was built by
Selim II and completed in 1574.
Editing the Links between Ideas

Exercise 1. Errors in Connecting Words
The following sentences demonstrate some typical mistakes in using words that link ideas.
Find the errors and correct them.
1. Adolf Hitler and his soldiers burnt more than one million people for creating a pure
German race.
2. Turkey has a good geographic location, so that other countries want to gain control over
Turkey.
3. Despite the use of fossil fuels is the major reason for global warming, no country seems to
take serious steps to fight global warming.
4. Unless you are not equipped with necessary skills and knowledge, mountain climbing can
be extremely dangerous.
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5. Young people may even steal money from their families because of find enough money to
buy alcohol.
6. Very few people deeply love their husbands or wives by the time they die.
7. Many students do not study daily. Otherwise, they usually revise subjects a few days before
exams.
8. In addition a satisfactory salary, employees need to have good working conditions.
9. Humans have caused great harm to their own species. On the other hand, nature and other
living beings have also been affected adversely by human activities.
Exercise 2. Errors in Parallel Structures

Proficient writers make use of parallel structures in their writing and edit their work carefully
to make sure these structures are balanced. Practice your editing skills in this area by
completing the following sentences. Make sure the words/phrases you add are parallel in
structure to the other words/phrases in the sentence.
1. Although a mobile phone is transportable, a desktop PC is more useful, ..............................................,
and easier to work on.
2. We use the Internet not only for communicating with friends but also .....................................................
........................................................................................
3. Advances in technology have created quick travel and ....................................................................................... .
4. The professor walked through the door, looked at the students, and ..........................................................
5. A successful employee does his work quickly and ................................................................................................. .
6. The reasons students drop out of school include poor academic performance and ..........................
........................................................................................ .
7. A good manager is able to motivate people, ............................................................................... , and maintain
high standards.
8. Learning a foreign language and ........................................................................................ are two things which
university students must do in order to prepare themselves for the future.
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In-Class Writing Task
Proficient writers do more than construct correct sentences. Their writing is easy to read
because of logical organization and interesting content. The essay below has some problems
in these areas. Use the Notes section to help you identify the problems, and then rewrite each
paragraph, improving its organization and content.
Essay question: Why should people sometimes do things that that they do not enjoy doing?
Notes Introduction
1. Notice the poor There are various things that people enjoy doing such as going
transition from the to football matches, the cinema, and concerts as well as hanging out
introductory sentence with friends. People should sometimes do things they do not enjoy for
to the thesis statement. three important reasons: to develop themselves personally and to fulfil
Add one or two
both their social and religious responsibilities.
sentences to make a
better transition. …............………...................................……………………………………………………….
2. There is a problem ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………

in the thesis statement. ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
Compare it with the
body paragraphs and ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
make the necessary ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
corrections.
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
Notes Body Paragraph 1
This paragraph has One important reason to do activities we do not enjoy is to

problems with its develop ourselves personally. One example of this is academic
unity. The notes below studies. Some students do not like doing assignments, writing
will help you identify research papers, or working on projects. Doing these things can be
and correct these
problems.
time-consuming; however, the personal benefits include exploring
subjects in depth and learning by cooperation. Unfortunately, there is
1. One sentence is too much competition at many universities. Another activity which
irrelevant. Do not you may not enjoy but is very important for your development is
include it when you reading a variety of reading materials.
rewrite the paragraph.
…............………...................................……………………………………………………….
2. One of the
supporting ideas lacks ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
support. Add one or ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
two sentences of
supporting details. .......................................................................................................................................................................
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3. Notice that the ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
person often changes
(“we”, “students”, ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
and “you”). Make ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………

sure that the same
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd)
is used in this ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
paragraph as in the
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
introduction.
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..……......................…….
Notes Body Paragraph 2
This paragraph has a Fulfilling social responsibility is important, too. Young people
number of problems can help people who cannot meet their own needs. They can be a big
with its coherence. brother or a big sister to children who do not have a mother or father.
The notes below will
help you identify and
They can spend time with handicapped people who need a helping
correct these errors. hand to complete their daily tasks. Young people can do things to
improve our environment, which is getting worse day by day. Young
1. The topic sentence people can plant trees. Young people can pick up litter. By doing
isn’t clearly connected these things, they can make the environment a cleaner and healthier
to the thesis statement. place for everyone.
Improve it.
…............………..............................……………………………………………………….
2. The sentences in ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
italics are too short.
Combine these three ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
sentences into one ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
sentence.
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
3. There are no ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………

sentence connectors,
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
which makes the
paragraph difficult to ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
understand. Add these
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
words where needed.
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………………
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Notes Conclusion
1. “Finally” is not an Finally, people should sometimes do things they do not

appropriate word to begin a enjoy to develop themselves personally and to fulfil both their
conclusion. Replace it with social and religious responsibilities. Perhaps you will even find
an appropriate sentence that you enjoy doing some activities that you thought you would
connector.
never like.
2. The concluding sentence ............………..............................……………………………….....……………………….
is too close to the thesis
statement. Express the idea ……….........................…………………………………………………………………………
in a different way. Make sure ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………
you include the changes you
make in the thesis statement. ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………
3. The final statement is a
prediction, but a suggestion ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………
for taking action would also ……….........................……………………………………………………………………………
work well. Change this
sentence to a call for action. ……….........................…………………………………………………………………………
……….........................……………………………………………………………………………
Writing Assignments
Below are topics for you to have more practice on writing.
1. Why should parents encourage their children to participate in team sports?
x physical fitness x friendship
x team spirit x social competence
x self-esteem x leadership skills
2. Why do advertising companies target teens in their ads?

x influence on parents x future customers
x purchasing power x desire for well-known brands
x interest in luxury items x sensitivity about appearance
3. What are the effects of growing up in a large family?

x sharing x responsibilities
x companionship x financial problems
x entertainment x personal space
4. What are the effects of having an ability to speak well?

x self-esteem x popularity
x positive impression x good relationships
x influence on people x career opportunities
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5. Compare and/or contrast two types of music.
x lyrics x performers
x listeners x popularity
x instruments x emotions
6. Compare or contrast two professions that you are considering entering.

x salary x qualifications
x working conditions x holidays
x prestige x job security
Self-Editing & Peer Editing

Go over your essay using the Editing Checklist after you finish writing. Then
swap essays with another group, go over the essay you received, and suggest any
changes if necessary. Finally, re-edit your essay and show it to another group.
if it’s OK.
Does it...
have a clear thesis statement which includes your
Introduction
subtopics?
at least two supporting ideas?
Body Paragraphs Are there...
supporting details and/or examples for each supporting
idea?
start with an appropriate connecting word
(e.g. all in all, on the whole)?
Conclusion Does it... include a summary of your main points?
have a final comment with a message OR suggestion
OR warning OR concern?
Check missing/incorrect prepositions

Grammar
for... missing/incorrect articles or quantifiers
appropriate use of verb forms (e.g. patterns, active-
passive)
appropriate use of singular/plural nouns
appropriate use of relative and noun clauses
correct use of comparison/contrast OR cause/effect
structures (e.g. are similar in vs. are similar in that, the
reason why ..... is that vs. the reason for ...... is)
connecting words/phrases related to comparison/
contrast OR cause/effect (e.g. unlike, in contrast,
Vocabulary Check another reason why ...... is, therefore)
for... appropriate word choice/word form
correct use of common collocations
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Sharpening Academic Skills

A Focus on Writing Paragraphs and Essays

The ITU School of Foreign Languages

Sharpening Academic Skills

İTÜ Vakfı Yayınları

© İTÜ VAKFI İKTİSADİ İŞLETMESİ

Bu baskının tüm hakları İTÜ Vakfı’na aittir.

Kapak & Uygulama

İTÜ Vakfı Yayınları

The authors and publisher would like to thank:

Chapter 1 Extending Sentences 10

Chapter 2 Cause Paragraphs 29

Chapter 3 Effect Paragraphs 49

Chapter 4 Comparison/Contrast Paragraphs 68

Chapter 5 Cause/Effect Essays 87

Chapter 6 Comparison and/or Contrast Essays 121

Chapter 7 Improving Editing Skills 147

1 Constructing and Different types of Various exercises on Tips about word

Verbs, adjectives and

Coherence Connecting words and Editing checklist Suggested online

Recognizing the Comparison and Writing a comparison Easily confused or

Parallel structures Editing checklist Writing assignments

Strategies for Useful vocabulary Using prompts to complete Rewrite exercise

Strategies for writing Editing checklists for cause

6 Recognizing Review of Drawing a mind map and Easily confused words

Discussing only Writing a comparison Rewrite exercise

Editing Focus Additional Writing Practice

p.1 commons.wikimedia.org, p.3 biosulf.org, p.8 yazarlikyazilimi.meb.gov.tr, p.16 public-domain-photos.

Prof. Dr. Burçkin Dal

A. Extending Simple Sentences Formed with the Verb “To Be”

We are in the digital age. [be + prep. phr.]

People are curious about cultures.

ITU students are in need of guidance.

without under against in with in favour of

financial security peace in the world

people Europe people threat/attack

3. People with a strong sense of environmental awareness are in favour of ...............................................

............................................................................... but are against ........................................................................................................... .

4. Children with ....................................................................................................................... are in need of ................................

5. The use of ................................................................................... in ...................................................................... is useful, so

Sbj Verb Adj for Sb/Sth to V1 Object/Place Time

BAD SERIOUS, DANGEROUS, HARMFUL

............................L A.............................G ..................R...............S T.............................G

GOOD IMPORTANT INTERESTING, DIFFICULT

...............................T A...............................G C.......................................

.................C............ .................K.........G .............F..........................

Exercise 4. By working in pairs, complete the sentences below.

Example: It is demanding for young researchers to work 12 hours a day

1. It is significant for ............................................. to ...........................................................................................................................

2. It is beneficial for students to .....................................................................................................................................................

3. It was hazardous for farmers to …............................................................………………………………………………...... .

4. It is fatal not to …...………………………………………………………………………………………............................………....

5. It will be surprising to …..........………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Subject Verb Adjective to V1 Object Place/ Time

China is determined to set up a manned space on the around

University were eager to develop environmentally all together last year.

glad/happy fortunate eager reluctant

3. Developing countries weren’t (eager/hesitant/fortunate) to ..............................................................................

4. ITU students with .................................................................................................................................................................. feel

B. From Simple Sentences to Compound and Complex Sentences

Which subordinators can replace “although”? ___ and _

b. _______ e. _ h. _______

c. _______ f. _ i. _______