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Ridge.
E. Alfred Wegener, who first developed the theory of continental drift argued that all landmasses
were originally part of a supercontinent that broke up into separate continents.
F. Early theories of continental drift were not widely accepted at the time because they failed to
explain why continents moved.

类别：地质类 真题 150822CN-P1

Title：Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age

Since the dawn of civilization, people have been curious about the age of Earth. In addition, we
have not been satisfied in being able to sate merely the relative geologic age of a rock or fossil.
Human curiosity demands that we know actual age in years.

Geologists working during the nineteenth century understood rock bodies, they would have to
concentrate on natural processes that continue at a constant rate and that also leave some sort of
tangible record in the rocks. Evolution is one such process, and geologist Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
recognized this. BY comparing the amount of evolution exhibited by marine mollusks then, Lyell
estimated that 80 million years had elapsed since the beginning of the Tertiary Period. He came
astonishingly close to the mark, since it was actually about 65 million years. However, for older
sequence of evolutionary development, estimates based on parts in the fossil record. Rates of
evolution for many orders of plants and animals were not well understood.

In another attempt, geologists reasoned that if rates of deposition could be determined for sedimentary
rocks, they might be able to estimate the time required for deposition of a given thickness of
strata, or rock layers. Similar reasoning suggested that one could estimate total elapsed geologic
time by dividing the average thickness of sediment transported annually to the oceans into the total
thickness of sedimentary rock that had ever been deposited in the past. Unfortunately, such estimates
did not adequately account for past difference in rates of sedimentation or losses to the total
section of strata during episodes of erosion. Also, some very ancient sediments were no longer
recognizable, having been converted to igneous and metamorphic rocks in the course of mountain
building. Estimates of Earth’s total age based on sedimentation rates ranged from as little as million
to over a billion year.

Yet another scheme for approximating Earth’s age had been proposed in 1715 by Sir Edmund Halley
(1656-1742), whose name we associate with the famous comet. Halley surmised that the ocean
formed soon after the origin of the planet and therefore would be only slightly younger that the
 托福在线练习 top.zhan.com 最海量的题库 最真实的模拟

age of the solid Earth. He reasoned that the original ocean was not salty and that subsequently salt
derived from the weathering of rocks was brought to the sea by streams. Thus, if one knew the total
amount of salt dissolved in the ocean and the amount added each year, it might be possible to calculate
the ocean’s age in 1899, Irish geologist John Joly (1857-1933) attempted the calculation. From
information provided by gauges placed at the mouths of streams. Joly was able to estimate the annual
increment of salt to the oceans. Then, knowing the salinity of ocean water and the approximate
volume of water, he calculated the amount of salt already held in solution in the oceans. An estimate
of the age of the ocean was obtained by diving the total salt in the ocean by the rate of salt added each
year. Beginning with essentially non-saline oceans, it would have taken about 90 million years of the
oceans to reach their present salinity, according to Joly. The figure, however, was off the currently
accepted mark of 4.54 billion by a factor of 50, largely because there was no way to account accurately
by recycled salt and salt incorporated into clay mineral deposited on the sea floors. Even though in
error, Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in
excess of a few million years. The belief in Earth’s immense antiquity was also supported by Darwin,
Huxley, and other evolutionary biologists, who saw the need for time in the hundreds of millions of
years to accomplish the organic evolution apparent in the fossil record.

Paragraph 2
Geologists working during the nineteenth century understood rock bodies, they would have to
concentrate on natural processes that continue at a constant rate and that also leave some sort of
tangible record in the rocks. Evolution is one such process, and geologist Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
recognized this. BY comparing the amount of evolution exhibited by marine mollusks then, Lyell
estimated that 80 million years had elapsed since the beginning of the Tertiary Period. He came
astonishingly close to the mark, since it was actually about 65 million years. However, for older
sequence of evolutionary development, estimates based on parts in the fossil record. Rates of
evolution for many orders of plants and animals were not well understood.

1. The word “tangible” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. physical

B. related

C. significant
D. helpful

2. It can be inferred form paragraph 2 that Charles Lyell based his study of the marine mollusk fossils
on which of the following assumptions?
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A. The Tertiary Period was separated into division of time that were equal in length.
B. Mollusks lived under rocks in the sea during the Tertiary period.

C. Evolution of mollusks proceeded at a uniform rate over time

D. Mollusks have evolved less rapidly with the passing of time

3. The word “sequence” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. observations

B. senses

C. series

D. categories

4. According to paragraph 2, Lyell’s strategy for estimation geologic dates was not very accurate for
periods before the Tertiary Period party because
A. Marine mollusks did not evolve until the Tertiary Period

B. fossil records of the very distant past are incomplete

C. there was not much agreement about how to identify or categorize earlier eras
D. the duration of previous geologic periods was difficult to determine

Paragraph 3
In another attempt, geologists reasoned that if rates of deposition could be determined for
sedimentary rocks, they might be able to estimate the time required for deposition of a given
thickness of strata, or rock layers. Similar reasoning suggested that one could estimate total elapsed
geologic time by dividing the average thickness of sediment transported annually to the oceans into
the total thickness of sedimentary rock that had ever been deposited in the past. Unfortunately, such
estimates did not adequately account for past difference in rates of sedimentation or losses to the
total section of strata during episodes of erosion. Also, some very ancient sediments were no longer
recognizable, having been converted to igneous and metamorphic rocks in the course of mountain
building. Estimates of Earth’s total age based on sedimentation rates ranged from as little as million
to over a billion year.

5. The phrase “another attempt” in the passage refers to

A. trying to understand the fossil record

B. trying to determine the evolutionary rate of marine mollusks

C. trying to understand natural processes

D. trying to determine Earth’s actual age

6. The world “converted” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. added

B. changed

C. restored

D. reduced

7. According to paragraph 3, all of the following were problems with the calculation of Earth’s age
using the study of sedimentary rocks EXCEPT
A. the inconsistency of sedimentation rates over time

B. the effect of geologic process on sedimentary rock

C. the expansion of some sedimentary rocks due to Earth’s internal heat

D. the loss of an unknown number of sedimentary layers due to erosion

Paragraph 4
Yet another scheme for approximating Earth’s age had been proposed in 1715 by Sir Edmund
Halley (1656-1742), whose name we associate with the famous comet. Halley surmised that the
ocean formed soon after the origin of the planet and therefore would be only slightly younger that
the age of the solid Earth. He reasoned that the original ocean was not salty and that subsequently
salt derived from the weathering of rocks was brought to the sea by streams. Thus, if one knew
the total amount of salt dissolved in the ocean and the amount added each year, it might be
possible to calculate the ocean’s age in 1899, Irish geologist John Joly (1857-1933) attempted the
calculation. From information provided by gauges placed at the mouths of streams. Joly was able to
estimate the annual increment of salt to the oceans. Then, knowing the salinity of ocean water and the
approximate volume of water, he calculated the amount of salt already held in solution in the oceans.
An estimate of the age of the ocean was obtained by diving the total salt in the ocean by the rate of
salt added each year. Beginning with essentially non-saline oceans, it would have taken about 90
million years of the oceans to reach their present salinity, according to Joly. The figure, however, was
off the currently accepted mark of 4.54 billion by a factor of 50, largely because there was no way to
account accurately by recycled salt and salt incorporated into clay mineral deposited on the sea
 托福在线练习 top.zhan.com 最海量的题库 最真实的模拟

floors. Even though in error, Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on
an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years. The belief in Earth’s immense antiquity was
also supported by Darwin, Huxley, and other evolutionary biologists, who saw the need for time
in the hundreds of millions of years to accomplish the organic evolution apparent in the fossil
record.

8. The world “approximating” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. thinking about

B. researching

C. estimating

D. demonstrating

9. The word “subsequently” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. later

B. furthermore

C. evidently

D. accidentally

10. According to paragraph 4, John Joly’s calculations were founded on all the following EXCEPT
A. knowing how salty the ocean water is

B. estimating how much salt enters the ocean each year

C. accounting for the amount of salt that is recycled

D. figuring the volume of water contained in the ocean

11. According to paragraph 4, in which of the following ways could Joly’s estimate of Earth’s age be
considered significant?
A. It proved that Halley’s idea about the age of the ocean was fairly accurate.

B. It indicated that Earth was much older than some scientists had claimed.

C. It was favored by the majority of scientists at the end of the nineteenth century
D. It was the basis for much modern research into the salinity of the ocean
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12. The author mentions “Darwin, Huxley, and other evolutionary biologists” in order
to
A. Provide evidence that Joly’s calculations inspired scientists working on other lines of scientific
inquiry
B. Support the claim that all of the leading scientists of the time believed that Earth was just over 90
million years old
C. Argue that Joly’s calculations would have been more exact if he had collaborated with experts in
other fields
D. Provide examples of scientists who believed the age of Earth to be greater than just a few million
on year, like Joly, in order to account for their findings

Paragraph 2
Geologists working during the nineteenth century understood rock bodies, they would have to
concentrate on natural processes that continue at a constant rate and that also leave some sort of
tangible record in the rocks. Evolution is one such process, and geologist Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
recognized this. ■By comparing the amount of evolution exhibited by marine mollusks then, Lyell
estimated that 80 million years had elapsed since the beginning of the Tertiary Period. He came
astonishingly close to the mark, since it was actually about 65 million years. ■However, for older
sequence of evolutionary development, estimates based on parts in the fossil record. ■Rates of
evolution for many orders of plants and animals were not well understood. ■

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the
passage.
More fundamentally, Lyell’s evolutionary approach is intrinsically limited because Earth
existed long before life and evolution began.
Where would the sentence best fit?

14. Directions：An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below.
Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important
ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that
are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Since the dawn of civilization, people have been curious about Earth’s age

Answer choices

A. It was not until the nineteenth century that attempts were made to determine the relative geologic
age of rocks and fossils.
 托福在线练习 top.zhan.com 最海量的题库 最真实的模拟

B. Charles Lyell made a good estimate of the Tertiary Period from the fossil record, but his method
could not be extended to earlier geological periods.
C. Attempts were made to calculate Earth’s age from the thickness of surviving sedimentary rock
and from the current level of the oceans’ salinity.
D. In the nineteenth century, scientists made a number of important, but unsuccessful, attempts
to calculate Earth’s age from the record of various natural processes.
E. Darwin and Huxley supported the accuracy of John Joly’s Calculation of Earth’s age because
it agree with their view of how long evolution had been in progress.
F. Earth’s true age, 4.54 billion years, was determined by combining data from the geological
and fossil records.

类别：地质类 真题 140712CN-P2

Title：How Soil is Formed

Soil formation is a dynamic process that takes place in different environments. It is strongly influenced
by the parent material, climate (largely vegetation and temperature and water exchanges), topography
(the elevations, depressions, directions and angles of slopes, and other surface features of the
landscape), and time.

The parent material is the unconsolidated mass on which soil formation takes place. This material
may or may not be derived from the on-site geological substrate or bedrock on which it rests. Parent
materials can be transported by wind, water, glaciers, and gravity and deposited on top of bedrock.
Because of the diversity of materials involved, soils derived from transported parent materials are
commonly more fertile than soils from parent materials derived in place. Whatever the parent
material, whether derived in place from bedrock or from transported material, it ultimately comes
from geological materials, such as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks, and the composition
of the rocks largely determines the chemical composition of the soil.

Climate is most influential in determining the nature and intensity of weathering and the type of
vegetation that further affects soil formation. The soil material experiences daily and seasonal
variations in heating and cooling. Open surfaces exposed to thermal radiation undergo the greatest
daily fluctuations in heating and cooling, soils covered with vegetation the least. Hill slopes facing
the sun absorb more heat than those facing away from the sun. Radiant energy has a pronounced