Mariculture development in Indonesia ... (Michael A.

Rimmer)

MARICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA:

Prospects and Constraints

Michael A. Rimmer #

Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Australia

(Received 2 November 2010; Accepted 3 December 2010 )

ABSTRACT

Mariculture is an important component of Indonesian fisheries and aquaculture

production, directly contributing an estimated US$ 320 million in 2008. Because
most mariculture production is focussed on producing for export markets, mariculture
production is an important source of foreign earnings for the Indonesian economy.
This paper reviews the current status and prospects for continuing development of
mariculture in Indonesia. Currently the major mariculture commodity in Indonesia is
seaweed for carrageenan production. Seaweed production accounts for 98% of total
Indonesian mariculture production and 84% of value. The other major commodity
groups are marine finfish and pearl oysters. Commodities being developed for
mariculture in Indonesia include abalone and spiny lobsters. Prospects for continued
development of mariculture in Indonesia appear positive. Indonesia has several
advantages for mariculture development, including many potential mariculture sites,
a stable tropical climate, and does not suffer from cyclonic storms. The Government
of Indonesia is planning to increase aquaculture production substantially over the
next four years, including mariculture production. Globally, demand for seafood
products is expanding due to increasing population and increased per capita
consumption of fish products. Constraints to the continued development of
mariculture in Indonesia include: limited seed supply, particularly of species which
cannot be economically produced in hatcheries, such as spiny lobsters; need to
develop more efficient production systems for some marine finfish; the need to
improve environmental sustainability by improving feeds and reducing environmental
impacts; and market issues relating to environmental sustainability.

KEYWORDS: mariculture development, culture system, sustainability

MARICULTURE IN INDONESIA ture, particularly pond culture. This definition

also excludes stock enhancement or marine
This paper reviews the prospects and con-
‘ranching’.
straints for the continued development and
expansion of mariculture in Indonesia. The term Mariculture is an important contributor to
‘mariculture’ is used here in the currently Indonesian fisheries production (Table 1).
widely-accepted sense as the aquaculture of Based on FAO data (FAO, 2010), the value of
aquatic plants and animals that is undertaken maricultured products in Indonesia was over
in the sea. It thus excludes coastal aquacul- US$ 320 million in 2008 (Table 2). Because most

# Corresponding author. ACIAR Field Support Office, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
E-mail address: aceh_arp@iprimus.com.au

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Indonesian Aquaculture Journal Vol.5 No.2, 2010

Indonesian maricultured products are ex- Sea Cucumbers

ported, mariculture is also an important con-
tributor to foreign earnings. In Indonesia, the FAO data for 2008 report that Indonesia
dominant maricultured commodity group is produced 279 tonnes of sea cucumbers from
seaweed (mostly Kappaphycus species) which aquaculture (Table 1), valued at about USD 1.1
accounts for 98% of production and 84% of million (Table 2). However, as Tuwo (2004)
value of Indonesian mariculture production. notes, much of this production may be classi-
The other major commodity groups are marine fied as fisheries production rather than aqua-
finfish (including groupers and barramundi) and culture, because many fishers retain their
pearl oysters; while marine (spiny) lobsters and catch, generally sandfish or trepang pasir
sea cucumbers are relatively small contribu- (Holothuria scabra), in a cage or pond until the
tors to total production (Table 1, Table 2). number of specimens is large enough to sell
or process.
Seaweeds Tuwo (2004) notes the main problems with
Seaweeds are grown for: sea cucumber aquaculture in Indonesia are the
long grow-out period and the limited availabil-
♦ Direct consumption, either as food or for
ity of seed. Seed production of H. scabra is
medicinal purposes;
now well established and the Australian Cen-
♦ Production of the commercially valuable tre for International Agricultural Research
polysaccharides alginate and carrageenan; (ACIAR) recently published a hatchery manual
♦ Use as fertilisers; (Agudo, 2006). H. scabra seed have been pro-
duced by at least two government hatcheries
♦ Feed for other aquaculture commodities,
in Indonesia: Research Institute for Mariculture
such as abalone and sea urchins.
(Balai Besar Riset Perikanan Budidaya Laut
Although China is the world’s largest pro- Gondol, Bali), and Development Institute for
ducer of seaweed, China does not produce Mariculture (Balai Besar Pengembangan
the red and brown seaweeds needed for higher Budidaya Laut Lampung) (Handoko et al., 2005).
end food hydrocolloid production – Indonesia However, anecdotal reports indicate that
and the Philippines are the main producers of farmer interest in their culture was low, due to
farmed Kappaphycus and Eucheuma species low growth rates.
upon which the carrageenan industry depends There have been several small-scale trials
(Feng et al., 2004; Bixler & Porse, 2010). A re- with sea cucumber culture in South Sulawesi:
cent review of seaweed markets concluded Conand & Tuwo (1996) undertook growth tri-
that while seaweed hydrocolloid markets als in a small enclosure at Pulau Kambuno, near
continue to grow, instead of the 3%–5% per Sinjai, South Sulawesi, and Konsorsium Mitra
annum growth achieved in the 1980s and Bahari undertook a trial using on-shore tanks
1990s, recent market growth has dropped to at Pulau Badi, South Sulawesi (S. Blankenhorn,
1%–3% per year (Bixler & Porse, 2010). pers. comm.).
In addition to the traditional products de- Despite this limited success to date, there
rived from seaweed, such as agar and carrag- is good potential for culture of H. scabra in
eenan, there is research into alternative prod- tambak as a substitute for shrimp culture. Tri-
ucts or value streams. Recent trials at Balai als with sea cucumber in ponds in Vietnam has
Budidaya Air Payau Takalar, South Sulawesi, demonstrated that H. scabra can be success-
were undertaken to evaluate the potential to fully and profitably farmed in coastal ponds
culture red seaweeds for paper production (S. (Mills et al., 2008), and demand for sea cucum-
Raharjo, pers. comm.). The liquid component ber products, particularly in China, remains
of seaweeds, which was previously regarded
high (Chen, 2004).
as a waste product, can be used as fertiliser. In
Tamil Nadu, India, the liquid component of Molluscs
Kappaphycus is extracted and sold as a horti-
cultural fertiliser. This process can add con- Mollusc aquaculture in Indonesia is unusual
siderable value to the whole production sys- in that it is focussed on production of pearls
tem, because the liquid component is around rather than on edible bivalves (Table 1). In most
3½ times as valuable as the dry component (M. Asian countries, edible bivalves dominate
Sakthivel, pers. comm.). mollusc production. Poernomo (2006) provides

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 Table 1. Production (tonnes) of maricultured products in Indonesia from 2000 to 2008. Data: FAO (2010)

Group Spec ies 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Seaw eeds Euc heuma seaweeds nei 197,227 202,473 213,080 221,900 397,964 866,383 1,050,000 1,485,654 1,937,591
Ec hinoderms S ea c uc umbers nei - - 25 40 42 96 96 94 279
Pearl oy ster shells nei - - - - 38 437 437 - -
Penguin wing oy ster - - - - 12,953 15,911 15,911 - 19,662
Mollusc s Marine mollusc s nei - - 5 2,866 - - - - -
Crust ac eans Tropic al spiny lobsters nei - - - - - - - - 292
Barramundi 759 3,986 1,753 2,334 1,748 266 630 523 707
Groupers nei 1,159 3,818 7,057 8,665 6,552 6,493 3,132 6,370 4,268
Marine fishes nei 669 733 2,937 3,420 1,602 232 826 892 22,449
Finfish Milkfish - - - - 20 49 49 - 469

Table 2. Value (USD millions) of maricultured products in Indonesia from 2000 to 2008. Data: FAO (2010)

Group Spec ies 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Seaw eeds Euc heuma seaweeds nei 21.7 20.2 35 16.3 31.8 121.3 189 356.6 271.3
Ec hinoderms Sea c uc umbers nei - - 0 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.1
Pearl oy ster shells nei - - - - 110 194 194 - -
Penguin wing oy ster - - - - 26.8 8.3 8.3 - 10.2
Mollusc s Marine mollusc s nei - - 0 1.4 - - - - -
Crust ac eans Tropic al spiny lobsters nei - - - - - - - - 2.9
Barramundi 3.8 17.9 4.5 13.2 2.7 0.3 0.9 0.8 1.6
Groupers nei 4.4 13.4 38.3 79.7 47.4 13.7 6.1 12.3 8.4
Marine fishes nei 1.3 1.4 6.7 8.6 4 0.1 0.3 1 26.9
Finfish Milkfish - - - - 0 0 0 - 1.3

TOTAL 31. 2 52. 9 84. 5 119. 3 222. 9 338. 1 399 371 323. 6
Mariculture development in Indonesia ... (Michael A. Rimmer)

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Indonesian Aquaculture Journal Vol.5 No.2, 2010

a brief history of pearl farming in Indonesia, tion is undertaken in coastal ponds and thus
including its various ‘ups and downs’; Ministry does not meet the definition of ‘mariculture’
of Marine and Fisheries (Kementerian Kelautan given above. The same is true of crab culture.
dan Perikanan, KKP) reports that there are cur- Mariculture of crustaceans in Indonesia is ef-
rently 71 registered pearl aquaculture devel- fectively limited to spiny rock lobsters (Family
opment companies in Indonesia, in Bali, Panuliridae).
Lampung, Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa
Tenggara Timur, Maluku, Papua and Halmahera. Tropical spiny rock lobsters are cultured
in many parts of Southeast Asia, with the bulk
Pearl culture is technically intensive, par- of production in Vietnam and the Philippines.
ticularly the process of inserting a nucleus to In Vietnam, sea cage culture of lobsters started
promote formation of a pearl, and is thus better in the province of Khanh Hoa in the early 1990s
suited to large-scale commercial ventures. The and has expanded significantly around south-
period between nucleus insertion and harvest central Vietnam since 2000 (Hung & Tuan,
generally ranges between 9 months and 3 2009). Panulirus ornatus (ornate spiny lobster)
years. Pearl oysters are usually grown out us- is the dominant cultured species, but several
ing suspended culture systems, usually sus- other species, including P. homarus, P.
pended below rafts or on long-lines. The qual- stimpsoni and P. longipes, are also farmed. In
ity of the pearl is related to the length of the 2006, there were more than 49,000 cages pro-
culture period, but many insertions are unsuc- ducing approximately 1,900 t of product, val-
cessful, resulting in the death of the pearl oys- ued at about US$90 million (Hung & Tuan,
ter or ejection of the nucleus (Lucas, 2003). 2009). However, since that time production has
Poernomo (2006) notes that one of the factors declined due to the outbreak and widespread
leading to the success of Indonesian pearl farm- impacts of ‘milky disease’. In 2007 Vietnamese
ing has been the transfer of technologies once production was about 1,400 tonnes (Hung &
considered secret (e.g. seeding) and only avail- Tuan, 2009).
able through contracting foreign experts, to
local people. Lobster culture has considerable potential
in Indonesia (Jones et al., 2007; Pahlevi, 2009;
There has been substantial interest in se- Priyambodo & Suastika Jaya, 2010). In 2008 In-
lective breeding of pearl oysters, and a joint donesia produced 292 tonnes of lobsters from
Indonesian – Australian research project is aquaculture (Table 1) valued at a US$ 2.9 mil-
currently underway to develop appropriate lion (Table 2). However, much of this produc-
tools and evaluate the practicality of this ap- tion may be of lobster held only for short peri-
proach (Evans et al., 2007). Poernomo (2006) ods (‘fattening’) either to build up farm produc-
notes that the challenge of the future lies in tion or between visits by collectors / middle-
marrying stable production with developing men. Currently, lobster culture is most devel-
markets and ensuring a balance between sup- oped in Lombok where there are three main
ply and demand. lobster culture areas: Telong Elong Bay, Awang
Another mollusc that is currently being Bay and Gerupuk Bay (Priyambodo & Sarifin,
developed for mariculture in Indonesia is aba- 2009). ACIAR is supporting research into lob-
lone, which brings prices up to US$33 /kg ster puerulus collection in NTB, NTT, South
(Fermin et al., 2009). Several KKP centres have Sulawesi and Aceh (Pulau Simeulue) to iden-
successfully produced seed of abalone tify the composition, seasonal patterns and
Haliotis asinina and H. squamata. There is also potential capacity of the lobster puerulus re-
interest in culturing the ‘tokubushi’ abalone sources in these areas. Where there are ad-
H. diversicolor diversicolor, which is marketed equate seed resources identified, grow-out
as cocktail abalone in China, Japan, Taiwan and trials will also be undertaken.
Hong Kong (Fermin et al., 2009). Abalone has
There are several species of spiny lobsters
potential for grow-out in islands throughout
and slipper lobsters (kipas) caught and/or cul-
Indonesia, particularly eastern Indonesia
tured in Indonesia (Table 3). The composition of
(Fermin et al., 2009).
lobster catches seems to vary between differ-
ent locations. In Lombok, two lobster species
Crustaceans
are prevalent in puerulus catches: P. ornatus
Although there is substantial production of and P. homarus. Small numbers of P. versicolor
marine shrimps in Indonesia, all of this produc- and P. longipes are also caught (Priyambodo &

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 Mariculture development in Indonesia ... (Michael A. Rimmer)

Table 3. Spiny lobster and slipper lobster species commonly cultured in Indonesia
(from Jones et al., 2007)

Common name
Indonesian name Spiny Lobst ers Sc ient ific name

Mutiara Pearl lobster Panulirus ornatus

Pasir S and lobster P. homarus
Batik Red lobster P. longipes femoristriga
Pakistani P. polyphagus
Bambu Bamboo P. versicolor
Batu Blac k lobster P. penicillatus
Kipas Slipper lobst ers
Kipas merah Red slipper lobster Scyllarides squammosus
Kipas hitam Blac k slipper lobster Parribacus antarcticus
Kipas tanduk ?
Kipas Brown slipper lobster Thenus spp.

Sarifin, 2009). In contrast, sampling in Aceh in- often on fish traps (bagan) (Priyambodo &
dicated that P. homarus predominates (35%), Sarifin, 2009). Some farmers collect pueruli
followed by P. penicillatus (28%), P. versicolor using shelter traps, with bundles of rice bags,
(21%), P. longipes (12%), P. ornatus (2%), and P. canvas or netting as the settlement substrate
polyphagus (1%) (Tewfik et al., 2009). (Priyambodo & Sarifin, 2009). In Vietnam, coco-
nut logs drilled with holes are also used as
The two main species of lobster farmed in
settlement collectors. As the industry devel-
Indonesia are both highly marketable: P.
homarus at a harvest size of 200 to 300 g ops it is likely that a specialised seed capture
fetches around of IDR 150,000 (H-US$17) per sector will develop to supply grow-out farms
kg to the farmer, while P. ornatus (300–500 g) (Priyambodo & Sarifin, 2009). Catches of pueruli
sells for IDR 130,000 (H-US$14) per kg (Jones and juvenile lobsters are strongly seasonal, with
et al., 2007). The price paid for P. ornatus would peak catches in Lombok in November and De-
be higher if the lobsters were grown out to cember (Priyambodo & Sarifin, 2009).
around 1 kg, which is the preferred market size Hart (2009) surveyed markets for spiny
(Priyambodo & Suastika Jaya, 2009). lobster and concluded that China’s booming
Tropical spiny rock lobsters are cultured economy and expanding middle class contin-
in cages. In Indonesia, lobster culture cages ues to fuel demand for lobster, particularly
range in capacity from 3.5 m3 to 64 m3 and are P. ornatus. P. ornatus is the most important
made from synthetic mesh (fish net) of mesh lobster species used for celebratory events
size up to 15 mm, suspended from a floating in Southern China. Although live aquacultured
frame supported on plastic or steel drum floats P. ornatus from Vietnamese are discounted
(Jones et al., 2007; Priyambodo & Suastika Jaya, slightly over wild-caught product of the same
2009). In Vietnam, submerged cages may be size, the product overall commands a signifi-
used for nursing juvenile lobsters and are lo- cantly higher average selling level each year,
cated in shallow water. A feeding pipe allows and continues to find market space for as much
feed to be dropped into the cage, and limits as can be produced. Of the major tropical spe-
the depth at which this system can be used cies, P. penicillatus is considered as the next
(Tuan & Mao, 2004). preferred species by Asian markets, with
P. homarus and P. longipes achieving similar
To date, hatchery techniques for spiny rock
prices (Hart, 2009).
lobster remain experimental and aquaculture
is dependent on capture of wild seedstock. Slipper lobsters are well known through-
Pueruli (the unpigmented settlement stage) or out the world and are well-favoured in either
juvenile lobsters are captured after settling, frozen or live condition, with higher prices paid

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Indonesian Aquaculture Journal Vol.5 No.2, 2010

for live product. In general, the slipper lobsters corals reaching harvestable size in 3–12
bring lower prices than spiny lobsters. How- months. Because of the low level of capital
ever, there appears to be ongoing demand and investment needed, and the relatively simple
popularity for Scyllarides spp. in the Chinese propagation methods used, coral culture is
market which suggests that this might be a prof- suitable for remote coastal communities where
itable option for aquaculture, while the market infrastructure may be lacking.
capacity for both frozen and live Thenus spp.
also shows considerable potential (Hart, 2009). Marine Finfish

Other Invertebrates Production technology for marine finfish is

well established in Indonesia. While total pro-
Sponge aquaculture is generating consid- duction, by global standards, is relatively low,
erable interest amongst researchers, but com- a wide range of species are produced, includ-
mercial production of farmed sponges in the ing barramundi / Asian sea bass, groupers and
Asia-Pacific region is still experimental. milkfish. In addition, other species, such as
Potential markets for sponges are as bath cobia, are beginning to emerge as options for
sponges or in the production of bioactive Indonesian mariculture production.
compounds (de Voogd, 2007a; b; Duckworth
et al., 2009). The technology used to produce Groupers (Family Serranidae, Subfamily
sponges is similar to that used for seaweed Epinephelinae) are a popular commodity for
culture: sponges can be propagated culture in Indonesia. Demand for aquacultured
vegetatively, and little infrastructure is grouper is expanding rapidly in Asia, driven by
necessary to establish farms. The harvested high prices in the live fish markets of Hong
product (for bath sponges) can be dried and Kong and China, and the decreasing availabil-
stored and does not require infrastructure such ity of wild-caught product due to overfishing
as refrigeration (Duckworth et al., 2009). (Sadovy et al., 2003). Grouper production in
Consequently if commercial viability can be Indonesia has expanded due to increased
demonstrated, sponge aquaculture has availability of fingerlings. Many backyard
considerable potential in Indonesia, hatcheries in Bali are now producing grouper
particularly in Eastern Indonesia. De Voogd fingerlings, particularly the popular tiger grou-
(2007a; b) trialled six species of sponges in per (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus). Data on grou-
South Sulawesi and concluded that only one, per production indicate that the total produc-
Callyspongia (Euplacella) biru, which produces tion for Indonesia fluctuates greatly between
the bioactive compound amphitoxin, exhibited years. According to FAO data (Table 1), pro-
high enough growth rates to have aquaculture duction peaked in 2003 with about 8,600
potential. tonnes; however, 2008 production was just
over 4,200 tonnes.
To date, the market acceptance and eco-
nomic viability of commercial sponge farming In Indonesia, most barramundi / Asian sea
has not been established. Further assessment bass (Lates calcarifer) is produced in sea
of basic biological parameters, such as growth cages. In other countries, most barramundi pro-
and survival, as well as development of mar- duction is from brackishwater culture, or, in
keting channels, is necessary before large- Australia, from freshwater ponds (Rimmer,
scale sponge aquaculture can be developed. 2003). Global production of barramundi has
been relatively constant over the past 10 years
There has been some small-scale develop- at around 20,000 – 30,000 tonnes per annum,
ment of coral farming in the Pacific Islands and, and Indonesia contributes relatively little
through Konsorsium Mitra Bahari, in South
(<1,000 tonnes) to this total (Table 1).
Sulawesi. Both soft and hard corals have been
cultured, primarily for the marine aquarium Milkfish (Chanos chanos) is a popular com-
trade, although some hard corals are sold as modity in Asia and the Pacific. Globally, Indo-
curios or used for restoration of degraded ar- nesia and the Philippines are the largest pro-
eas on coral reefs. Corals are propagated ducers of milkfish, accounting for about >90%
vegetatively. Small pieces of live coral are of production. Milkfish fry (nener) are captured
glued to bases, and these are placed on from the wild, or produced in hatcheries.
underwater ‘tables’ fitted with galvanised wire Sudradjat & Sugama (2010b) estimate that less
mesh. Growth is reportedly rapid, with aquarium than 50% of Indonesia’s milkfish fry are sup-

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 Mariculture development in Indonesia ... (Michael A. Rimmer)

plied from wild capture. Indonesia is a major Government policy and support
producer of milkfish seed, with much of this
Mariculture development is strongly sup-
coming from ‘backyard’ or small-scale hatcher-
ported by government policy. The Govern-
ies (Siar et al., 2002; Sudradjat & Sugama,
ment of Indonesia plans to substantially in-
2010b). Most grow-out of milkfish is in brack-
crease production of fisheries and aquacul-
ish water ponds (Sudradjat & Sugama, 2010a),
ture by 2014 (KKP, 2010). Mariculture produc-
but recently there has been some production
tion will contribute to this target, with the
from sea cages. However, in 2008 Indonesian
focus on seaweed, grouper and barramundi
milkfish production from mariculture was less
production (Table 5).
than 500 tonnes (Table 1), compared with
277,000 tonnes of production from brackish Mariculture development is also supported
water. by a network of research centres and techni-
cal implementation units (TIUs) managed by
Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) is an emerg-
KKP. For mariculture, the Balai Besar Riset
ing species of considerable interest to farm-
Perikanan Budidaya Laut Gondol (Research In-
ers in the Asia-Pacific region. Production of this
stitute for Mariculture Gondol) in Bali and the
fast-growing (to 6 kg in the first year) species
Balai Riset Perikanan Budidaya Air Payau Maros
is set to expand rapidly, not only in Asia, but
(Research Institute for Coastal Aquaculture
also in the Americas. Currently, Indonesia pro-
Maros) in South Sulawesi are the main research
duces only small quantities of cobia from farms
centres involved in mariculture research and
in Kepulauan Seribu (Wahjudi & Michel, 2007)
development. Of the Indonesian TIU network,
and Lampung.
there are four TIUs dedicated to mariculture,
located in Lampung, Batam, Lombok and Am-
PROSPECTS AND CONSTRAINTS FOR
bon. In addition, the brackishwater aquacul-
MARICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN
ture TIUs, located in Aceh (Ujung Batee), Cen-
INDONESIA
tral Java (Jepara), East Java (Situbondo), and
South Sulawesi (Takalar) also support some
Prospects
mariculture activities. A major role of the TIUs
Although Indonesia has many advantages is to stimulate aquaculture production through
for mariculture development, there are also seedstock production, and the provision of
some constraints to developing this sector training and technical support services to the
further. These are outlined in Table 4. aquaculture industry.

Table 4. Summary of advantages and disadvantages of Indonesian mariculture

Fac t or Advant age Disadvant age

Geography An estimated 17,000 islands, prov ide Lac k of infrastruc ture,

many sites for maric ulture operations partic ularly on small islands
Climate Equatorial position, whic h brings high
temperatures throughout the y ear with
relativ ely little seasonal v ariation
Natural Unlike neighbouring c ountries, S ubjec t to v olc anic and
disasters Indonesia is not subjec t to c y c lonic tec tonic ac tiv ity
storms
Labour Av ailability of workforc e; low labour Lac k of semi-skilled and skilled
c osts labour
Biodiv ersity High biodiv ersity prov ides many R&D effort is div ided between
options for maric ulture dev elopment many spec ies
Produc tion of many different
spec ies prec ludes optimising
produc tion tec hnology for one
or a few spec ies

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Indonesian Aquaculture Journal Vol.5 No.2, 2010

Table 5. Planned production of maricultured commodities in Indonesia for the period 2009 to
2014 (KKP, 2010)

Commodit y Inc rease

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
(t onnes) ( % p. a. )

Seaweed 2,574,000 2,672,800 3,504,200 5,100,000 7,500,000 10,000,000 32%

Grouper 5,300 7,000 9,000 11,000 15,000 20,000 31%
Barramundi 4,600 5,000 5,500 6,500 7,500 8,500 13%

At the Provincial government level there is tonnes from 2006 production. This increased
a network of 23 Balai Benih Ikan Pantai (Coastal production will have to be provided by aqua-
Seed Production Centres), the role of which is culture because production from capture fish-
to stimulate local aquaculture production by eries has been relatively stable since the late
providing seedstock of species such as grou- 1980s and capture fisheries worldwide are
per or seaweed. Reportedly, the success of generally regarded as fully or over-exploited.
the BBIP scheme has been mixed but many
However, as noted below, this overall in-
centres have had only limited production due
crease in demand for seafood products is tem-
to lack of training and resourcing.
pered by the increasing demand, particularly
Market demand in developed country markets, for systems to
improve food safety and environmental
Unlike some other forms of aquaculture sustainability.
(particularly freshwater aquaculture) which may
provide direct protein sources to the farmers’ Constraints to Mariculture
families, mariculture is primarily focussed on Development
producing commodities for sale, either to
As noted earlier in this paper, Indonesia has
domestic or export markets. Consequently,
many advantages for the continued develop-
mariculture development is driven to a large
ment of mariculture, as well as a number of
extent by market demand, and increasingly by
disadvantages. Because mariculture produc-
international markets for seafood products.
tion is dominated by commodities produced
Globally, the demand for seafood products for export, mariculture development also
is increasingly being met by aquaculture. needs to consider a broad range of external
Aquaculture now provides almost 50% of influences. Recently, the issue of sustain-
global seafood production. Increase in per ability of aquaculture production has become
capita consumption of seafood, and increasing a significant issue in terms of accessing
population are the two factors driving an markets for seafood products. The following
increasing demand for fish and fishery products section lists some of the major constraints to
on a global basis. FAO estimates that in 2006, mariculture development in Indonesia, within
110.5 million tonnes of ‘fish’ (i.e. aquatic a context of environmental, economic and
animals) were utilised for human consumption. social sustainability.
This provides an estimated average annual
global per capita consumption of 16.7 kg of Seed supply
fish products. The trend since the 1960s has
Seed supply for mariculture comes from two
been a steady increase in per capita fish
sources: wild populations, where larvae or ju-
consumption and FAO expects that this trend
veniles are harvested to provide seedstock
will continue for the foreseeable future.
for grow-out (capture-based aquaculture) and
In addition, demand for fish products is in- hatchery production of seedstock. Capture-
creasing because of an increasing world based aquaculture is widely practised in the
population. In 2030, the world population is Asia-Pacific region. However, in general the
expected to reach 8.2 billion. If per capita con- availability of seed from wild sources is in de-
sumption of 16.7 kg is to be maintained in 2030, cline through over-fishing and habitat destruc-
global demand will be 137.5 million tonnes of tion (Sadovy, 2000; Ottolenghi et al., 2004).
fish, representing an increase of 27.1 million Consequently, there is a need to develop sus-

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 Mariculture development in Indonesia ... (Michael A. Rimmer)

tainable technologies for seed production, scale farms which typically contribute to total
particularly hatchery production. national production, and the limitations of
fisheries and aquaculture extension systems
Hatcheries are producing greater numbers
in Indonesia. Current extension systems, vari-
and a wider range of species, but the industry
ously applied by autonomous provincial and
is still reliant on capture of fingerlings for grow-
district governments, are often poorly
out, particularly for species that are difficult or
resourced and undervalued, leading to poor
costly to raise in hatcheries such as some grou-
pers or Napoleon wrasse Cheilinus undulatus service provision and dissatisfaction amongst
(Sadovy, 2000; Estudillo & Duray, 2003) or for both extensionists and farmers (Herianto et al.,
which there is no established hatchery tech- 2010).
nology, such as tunas (Ottolenghi et al., 2004)
or spiny rock lobsters (Williams, 2004). Feeds

The genetic impacts of hatchery produc- So-called ‘trash’ fish (small, low-value or
tion are poorly understood. There are indica- bycatch fish species) are a major source of
tions that inbreeding in some species has led feed inputs in aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific
to a decline in seedstock quality. For example, region. The term ‘trash’ fish is inaccurate in
Frost et al. (2006) found that as many as 55% of that these fish species would not necessarily
barramundi progeny from one hatchery were otherwise be wasted, and alternative uses in-
the offspring of a single male. Genetic man- clude reduction to fish sauce for human con-
agement protocols are required for hatcheries sumption, protein sources for other agricultural
to prevent inbreeding effects in captive popu- commodities (such as pigs and poultry) or even
lations. There is also a need to develop selec- direct human consumption (New, 1996; Tacon
tive breeding programs for a range of & Barg, 1998; Edwards et al., 2004; FAO, 2005).
maricultured commodities. Some of the desir- The issues associated with ‘trash’ fish us-
able selected traits include: disease resistance,
age are well documented, most recently in the
high growth rate, increased thermal tolerance,
report of the ‘APFIC Regional Workshop on Low
product colour, and biochemical composition
Value and ‘Trash Fish’ in the Asia-Pacific Re-
(e.g. carrageenan content in seaweeds). Es-
gion’ (FAO, 2005). Although pellet diets are
capes of cultured animals may have impacts
available for a range of marine finfish as well as
on the environment or on local conspecific
some crustaceans, there remain important con-
populations. Consequently, there is also a
straints to the widespread use of compounded
need to establish the biodiversity impacts of
diets for aquaculture:
introductions of new species, and of selec-
tively-bred organisms contributing to wild ♦ Farmer acceptance of pellet diets is often
populations (Nguyen et al., 2009). low because of the perception that these
diets are much more expensive than trash
Production systems fish. Farmers often do not appreciate that
the food conversion ratios of pellet diets
With the exception of pearl culture, mari-
(for finfish, usually 1.2–1.8:1) is dramatically
culture in Indonesia is still largely in the hands
better than that of ‘trash’ fish (usually 5–
of small- or medium-scale farms. An emerging
trend, particularly for marine finfish culture, is 10:1, but sometimes higher) and so the rela-
the development of large-scale farms incorpo- tive cost of pellet diets is often comparable,
rating a range of technologies to improve the or lower than, the cost of trash fish required
cost-efficiency of production. Marine finfish to produce the same biomass of fish.
aquaculture in many parts of Asia is adopting ♦ Variable feed quality, and deterioration due
the technologies used in Europe originally de- to transport and storage at high tempera-
veloped for large-scale salmon production, but tures, may also impact substantially on
the development of larger farms is still limited in growth and survival of the cultured fish.
Indonesia. These large-scale systems are likely ♦ Lack of farmer experience in feeding pel-
to be more cost-effective for some species lets may result in considerable wastage.
(such as cobia) than for others (groupers).
♦ Fish fed on ‘trash’ fish may not readily con-
Improving the performance of mariculture vert to a dry pellet diet, resulting in poor
production systems through farmer training is acceptance and perceived lack of appe-
made difficult by the large number of small- tite.

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Indonesian Aquaculture Journal Vol.5 No.2, 2010

♦ Distribution channels for pelleted feed are duction of these high trophic level species
not widely available in rural areas. As well that is expanding. Environmental impacts as-
as limiting accessibility to the feed, this sociated with marine finfish and lobster cage
factor increases the cost of the feed. aquaculture derive mainly from nutrient inputs
♦ Small-scale fishers or farmers operating fish from uneaten fish feed and fish wastes (Phillips,
cages may not have access to the finan- 1998). For example, studies carried out in Hong
cial resources necessary to invest in pur- Kong indicate that 85% of phosphorus, 80%–
chase of pelleted diets or infrastructure 88% of carbon and 52%–95% of nitrogen in-
such as refrigeration, finding it easier to puts (from ‘trash’ fish) to marine finfish cages
collect ‘trash’ fish themselves, or in small may be lost through uneaten food, faecal and
amounts as and when financial or ‘trash’ urinary wastes (Wu, 1995). These nutrient in-
fish resources are available. For many farm- puts, although small in comparison with other
ers, ‘trash’ fish collection is an opportunity coastal discharges, may lead to localised wa-
cost which in family-operated farms may ter quality degradation and sediment accumu-
lation. In severe cases, this ‘self pollution’ can
be easily absorbed, whereas the purchase
lead to cage farms exceeding the capacity of
of pellets is a cash cost.
the local environment to provide inputs (such
Fish health as dissolved oxygen) and assimilate wastes,
contributing to fish disease outbreaks and
Because mariculture in Indonesia is at a consequent mass mortality events.
relatively early stage of development, and in
most cases production is not intensive, it has Where intensity of production is relatively
had relatively few disease problems. Viral ner- low, the impacts of sea cage aquaculture on
vous necrosis (VNN) is a well-known pathogen coastal waters may be relatively insignificant
of various marine finfish species in hatcheries compared with terrestrial inputs. In one of the
(Walker & Winton, 2010), and parasites are a few studies of nutrient impacts of marine cage
significant problem in grouper farming (W. aquaculture in tropical systems, Alongi et al.
Sudja, pers. comm.). Rückert et al. (2009) found (2003) found that although fish cages theo-
that a major source of introduction of parasites retically contributed 26%–32% of nitrogen and
to farmed grouper was the use of ‘trash’ fish as 83%–99% of phosphorus to the coastal water
a feed, and the use of compounded feeds re- studied, there was no evidence of large-scale
duced the incidence of parasite infections. eutrophication due to the cages, and the ef-
fects of the cages was largely swamped by
However, the relative infrequency of dis- large inputs of organic matter from mangrove
ease should not allow complacency. As noted forests, fishing villages, fish cages, pig farms
earlier, the decline in production of spiny lob- and other industries within the catchment.
sters in Vietnam is due to the outbreak of ‘milky Similarly, a study of sea cage farms in Sumatra
disease’ (Hung & Tuan, 2009). Although the and South Sulawesi found that although there
exact cause of ‘milky disease’ has not been was some evidence of benthic enrichment at
established, it is believed to be associated with both farms, there was no clear evidence of
unrestricted mariculture development, high impact with distance from the cages at either
stocking densities, and the use of ‘trash’ fish farm (Alongi et al., 2009). This study also found
as feed may be causal factors (Hung & Tuan, that phytoplankton gross primary production
2009). Fish health issues need to be addressed accounted for 60%–77% of the total organic
holistically, taking into account a wide range input to the receiving environment, suggesting
of environmental factors in addition to the that the relative importance of fish cage wastes
health status of the cultured animals. must be assessed against natural inputs of
organic matter (Alongi et al., 2009).
Environmental impacts
Mariculture inputs may contribute to local
Although Indonesian mariculture produc- fisheries production: Sudirman et al. (2009)
tion is dominated by seaweeds, which can be found that the biomass of fish surrounding sea
considered as providing environmental ben- cages exceeded the biomass of fish inside the
efits (Neori et al., 2004; Troell et al., 2009), cages, and that wild fish outside the cages
there is a significant production of commodi- consumed a total amount of organic material
ties that require feed inputs, such as marine equivalent to that of the uneaten food leaving
finfish and crustaceans (lobsters), and it is pro- the cages, and directly consumed 27% of the

196
 Mariculture development in Indonesia ... (Michael A. Rimmer)

lost pellets, significantly reducing organic Markets

waste from the cages.
As noted above, many mariculture com-
There is increasing appreciation of the modities target international markets. Today,
environmental impacts of mariculture in South- food safety and production sustainability is-
east Asia, partly because of the worldwide sues are driving developments in these mar-
focus on the environmental impacts of kets, and regulators and industry are develop-
Atlantic salmon farming. However, in most ing increasingly stringent requirements in
countries there is a lack of legislative frame- terms of food safety and, increasingly, envi-
works and enforcement. Problems can be ronmental sustainability issues. While the ear-
addressed by more emphasis on local planning lier focus of seafood advisory and certifica-
initiatives and co-management frameworks, tion schemes has been on capture fisheries,
and zoning of coastal areas for marine fish more recently they have begun to include
farming. Hong Kong provides one example aquaculture products (Jacquet & Pauly, 2007;
where the government has designated marine Belton et al., 2009).
fish farming zones, however critics argue that
Many such schemes are contentious with
zoning has allowed too much crowding and
aquaculture producers. Some of the issues
localised water pollution (Lai, 2002; Sadovy &
identified in these schemes include: lack of
Lau, 2002). Therefore, zoning of marine fish
transparency regarding performance claims
farming areas has to be accompanied by
and assessment criteria, simplistic and biased
control measures that limit farm numbers (or
assessment criteria, inconsistent application
fish output, or feed inputs) to ensure effluent
of technical criteria between species and pro-
loads remain within the capacity of the
duction systems, and discriminatory access
environment to assimilate wastes (Phillips,
to the assessment process. On current indica-
1998). ACIAR has supported improved mari-
tions, such schemes are likely to act as non-
culture planning and zoning in Indonesia
tariff trade barriers, and particularly restrict
through the development of a Cage Aqua-
market access by smallholder aquaculture farm-
culture Decision Support Tool (CADS_TOOL)
ers (Belton et al., 2009). With mariculture pro-
which was jointly developed by the Austra-
duction in Indonesia so highly dependent on
lian Institute of Marine Science and Hasa-
small-scale producers, the proliferation of
nuddin University, South Sulawesi (Halide et
these schemes and their potential impacts on
al., 2009).
market access may in future be a significant
An area of mariculture that is generating limiting factor to expansion of mariculture in
some interest is the concept of Integrated Indonesia as well as in other Asia-Pacific coun-
Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) (Lüning & tries.
Pang, 2003; Neori et al., 2004; Troell et al.,
2009). In IMTA systems, nitrogenous wastes CONCLUSION
produced by fed organisms (e.g. finfish) are
Indonesia is a major producer of
removed by cultured macroalgae, reducing the
maricultured seafood products, particularly
environmental impacts of the overall aquacul-
seaweed. The archipelago has many advan-
ture system (Neori et al., 2004; Troell et al.,
tages for mariculture production, including site
2009). To date, most research on IMTA sys-
availability and climate. However, infrastruc-
tems has been undertaken in temperate envi-
ture in many areas that have potential for mari-
ronments. The limited amount of research un-
culture development is poor. While Indonesia
dertaken on tropical systems suggests that
has a large labour force available for maricul-
bacterial utilisation of dissolved nutrients is
ture production, much of this labour force is
much higher, and much more rapid, than is seen
unskilled. Government policy and support is
in temperate systems and that dissolved nutri-
strong, with a policy to substantially expand
ents may be largely utilised by bacterial or
mariculture production by 2015, and a network
phytoplankton populations close to the efflu-
of research centres and technical implemen-
ent source, and thus availability may be lim-
tation units to support mariculture develop-
ited for macroalgae production. Overall, the
ment.
application of IMTA in tropical mariculture sys-
tems needs substantially more research to Because mariculture production focuses
evaluate its potential to improve the environ- largely on commodities for export, production
mental sustainability of mariculture. systems as well as post-harvest handling and

197
Indonesian Aquaculture Journal Vol.5 No.2, 2010

processing must take into account the needs mangrove estuaries of peninsular Malaysia.
of international markets. Increasingly, interna- Marine Environmental Research, 55: 313-
tional markets are demanding improved food 333.
safety, including product traceability. An Alongi, D.M., McKinnon, A.D., Brinkman, R., Trott,
emerging trend is the requirement to demon- L.A., Undu, M.C., Muawanah, & Rachman-
strate environmental sustainability for aqua- syah. 2009. The fate of organic matter
culture production systems, including maricul- derived from small-scale fish cage aqua-
ture production. culture in coastal waters of Sulawesi and
Continued development of mariculture in Sumatra, Indonesia. Aquaculture, 295: 60-
Indonesia will require responses to the con- 75.
straints identified in this paper. Although Indo- Belton, B., Little, D., & Grady, K. 2009. Is re-
nesia has a strong R&D capability, much of the sponsible aquaculture sustainable aqua-
focus has been, and continues to be, on de- culture? WWF and the eco-certification of
veloping seed production technologies for a tilapia. Society & Natural Resources: An In-
wide range of species. With the identified need ternational Journal, 22: 840 - 855.
to respond to international market require- Bixler, H. & Porse, H. 2010. A decade of change
ments, more R&D effort needs to be expended in the seaweed hydrocolloids industry.
on developing and implementing improved Journal of Applied Phycology, p. 1-15.
food safety systems. This is an extremely chal- Chen, J. 2004. Present status and prospects of
lenging task in a country where much of the sea cucumber industry in China. In:
mariculture production comes from small-scale Lovatelli, A., Conand, C., Purcell, S., Uthicke,
producers. S., Hamel, J.-F., Mercier, A. (Eds.), Advances
in Sea Cucumber Aquaculture and Mana-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS gement. Food and Agriculture Organisation
This paper is derived from presentations of the United Nations, Rome, p. 25-38.
given at ‘Indonesian Aquaculture 2009’, held Conand, C. & Tuwo, A. 1996. Commercial ho-
in conjunction with the World Oceans Con- lothurians in South Sulawesi: fisheries and
gress, Manado, North Sulawesi, 12–14 May mariculture. SPC Beche-de-mer Information
2009, and the ‘International Seminar: Indone- Bulletin, p. 17-21.
sian Fisheries Development: Enhancing fish de Voogd, N.J. 2007a. An assessment of sponge
production and competitiveness in interna- mariculture potential in the Spermonde
tional market’ held at Hasanuddin University, Archipelago, Indonesia. Journal of the Ma-
Makassar, South Sulawesi, 22 November 2010. rine Biological Association of the UK, 87:
I thank the organisers of both conferences, 1,777-1,784.
including the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fish- de Voogd, N.J. 2007b. The mariculture poten-
eries, Indonesia, and the Faculty of Marine tial of the Indonesian reef-dwelling sponge
Science and Fisheries, Hasanuddin University. Callyspongia (Euplacella) biru: growth, sur-
I thank Sugeng Raharjo (BBAP Takalar, South vival and bioactive compounds. Aquacul-
Sulawesi), M. Sakthivel (Aquaculture Founda- ture, 262: 54-64.
tion of India), and Sven Blankenhorn (Mars Duckworth, A., Wolff, C., & Evans-Illidge, E. 2009.
Symbioscience) and Wajan Sudja (Asosiasi Farming bath sponges in tropical Austra-
Budidaya Ikan Laut Indonesia) for information lia, World Aquaculture, p. 20-22, 70.
provided on mariculture.
Edwards, P., Tuan, L.A., & Allan, G.L. 2004. A
survey of marine trash fish and fish meal
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