Electrical Drives

Dr. Sushma Gupta

Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
MANIT, Bhopal
 Introduction of Electrical Drives
• Speed control is required in large number of
industrial, commercial and domestic applications
like transportation, cement mill, drilling machine,
lifts, conveyer belt, fans, pumps, food mixer etc.
• To drive a system or load, prime mover may be
required.
• Prime mover may be diesel or petrol, gas or steam
engine, hydraulic or electric motors for supplying
mechanical energy for motion or speed control.
• Prime movers employed for motion or speed control
are called drives.
• Drives employing electric motors are known as
electrical drives.
• An electric motor is a source of motive power.
• Electrical motor with its control equipment and
energy-transmitting device is called
“Electrical drive”.
• Electrical motor with its control equipment,
energy-transmitting device together with its
working machine is called “Electrical drive
system”.
• An energy transmitting device (shaft, belt,
chain, rope etc.) is required to deliver power
from electrical motor to load.
• An electrical drive can be defined as an
electromechanical system for converting
electrical energy into mechanical energy for
various kinds of process control.
• An electrical drive is an industrial system
which performs the conversion of electrical
energy into mechanical energy for running and
controlling various processes.
• An electrical drive is defined as a form of
equipment designed to convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy and provide
electrical control of the processes.
 Advantages of Electrical Drives
• Electric drives can be started instantly, smoothly &
fully loaded immediately.
• Speed can be controlled over a wide range.
• Electrical braking can be employed. It gives
smooth deceleration & increase life of the
equipments compared to other form of breaking.
• In regenerative braking, considerably saving of
energy is possible.
• They have flexible control characteristics. Steady-
state and dynamic characteristics of Electric drives
can be modified according to load requirement.
• Electric drives have longer life, lower noise, cleaner
operation and lower maintenance requirement.
• Electrical drives do not pollute the environment.
• Cost is too low as compared to another system of the
drive.
• Facility for remote control and closed loop operation
is possible.
• It can be operated in four quadrants of speed-torque
plane.
• There is no need to refuel or warm the motor.
• Electric drives are powered by electrical energy,
which has many advantages over other forms of
energy.
 Choice of Electrical Drives
• Steady-state operation requirements-Nature of speed-
torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range,
quadrant of operation, efficiency, rating.
• Transient operation requirements- Acceleration,
deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance.
• Requirements related to the source- Type of source and
its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuation and
ability to accepted regenerated power.
• Capital & running cost, maintenance requirement and life.
• Space & weight restrictions.
• Environment and location.
• Reliability requirement.
Block Diagram of Electrical Drives

Source Power Modulator Motor Load

Sensing
Control Unit
Unit

Input
Command

Block Diagram of Electrical Drives

 Source
• In India, 1-phase or 3-phase, 50 Hz AC supplies are
available.
• Domestic and low power drives are fed from 1-phase
and 230 V supply.
• In small industry, low and medium power motors
(tens of kilowatts) are generally fed either from 220 V
or 440 V supply.
• In large scale industry, higher power rating motors are
fed from 3-phase, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV and higher.
• In case of induction and synchronous motors
maximum speed depends on the number of poles and
frequency. If high speed operation is required than
higher frequency supply can be used.
• In case of aircraft and space applications, 400 Hz
supply is used to achieve high power to weight
ratio for motors.
• In computer, switched mode power supply is
used. Computer operates at two voltages. The 3.3-
5 V is used by digital circuit and 12 V is used to
run the disk drive and fans.
• In India, 25 kV, 50 Hz and 1-Φ supply is
employed for traction.
• Metro trains run 800 Volt in Delhi.
• Before 2015, urban and sub-urban local trains
were operated at 1500 V DC but at present these
trains are operated at 25 kV, 50 Hz single-phase.
Role of Power Modulator or Converter
• Converts electrical energy of the source in the form
suitable to the motor.
• Converter is selected to make motor speed-torque
characteristics according to the load speed-torque
characteristics.
• During transients operation such as starting, braking
and speed reversal, it restricts source and motor
current within permissible values.
• Selects the mode of operation of the motor-motoring
or braking.
 Types of Power Modulator
• AC to DC Converter.
• AC voltage Controller or Regulator.
• Chopper
• Inverter
• Cycloconverter
AC to DC Converter or Rectifier
 Diode Rectifier

Half-Controlled Rectifier Full-Controlled Rectifier

AC voltage Controller
DC-DC Converter
CycloConverter
 Inverter

Three-Phase Inverter

Single-Phase Full Bridge Inverter with Waveforms

 Motor
• DC Motor- Shunt, Separately excited, Series
and Compound.
• Induction Motor-Squirrel-cage, wound rotor
and linear.
• Synchronous Motor- Wound field and
permanent magnet.
• Brushless DC motors.
• Stepper Motors.
• Switched Reluctance Motors.
 Brushless DC motors
• A brushless DC motor consists of a
rotor in the form of a permanent
magnet and stator in the form of poly-
phase windings.
• It differs from the conventional DC
motor in such a way that it doesn’t
contain brushes and the commutators.
• The brushless DC motor is driven by
inverter circuit consists of electronic • The rotor position is monitored by the
switches, stator windings are energized optical or magnetic transducer which
in sequence in order to rotate the rotor. supplies information to the electronic
• When supply is given to the stator it controller and based on this position, the
becomes electromagnet and produces stator winding is energized.
uniform field in the airgap. • Ferrite magnets are inexpensive but they
• Although supply is DC but switching have low flux density so rare earth alloy
makes AC voltage at the Stator magnet like Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and
terminals. Neodymium, Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB)
• Due to the interaction between are used to construct the Rotor.
electromagnet stator and permanent • Advantages are high efficiency, high
magnet rotor, rotor rotates speed, high power to weight ratio and less
continuously. noisy.
 Stepper Motors
• A stepper motor is a digital electro-
mechanical device.
• A stepper motor has salient pole stator
and rotor which operates in variable
reluctance mode.
• Rotor has no winding but made of
plain iron and stator is made of • Step angle is defined as the angle
laminated silicon steel which has which rotor has to travel to shift from
concentrated coils. one minimum reluctance position to
• It is a 4-phase, 4/2-pole variable another
reluctance stepper motor. • Step angle depends on the number of
• There is a high reluctance when stator poles on the stator and rotor.
and rotor poles are out of alignment.
X 360o
• As the stator pole pairs are energized,
reluctance torque make the rotor to move • At low command pulse rate, rotor
towards the minimum reluctance position moves in steps but when the pulse
and the rotor turns to align with the rate is made sufficiently high then
energized stator poles. rotor moves smoothly.
• Each step command pulse controls a • Stepper motor operates in open-loop
movement of the shaft that is known as mode.
step angle of the motor.
 Switched Reluctance Motors
• The Switched reluctance motor
(SRM) has both salient pole stator
and rotor.
• The SRM has concentrated coils on
the stator pole. The concentrated coils
are diametrically connected in series.
• A rotor has no winding and made of
laminated steel.
• It is a 4-phase 8/6 pole switched
reluctance motor.
• Number of poles in rotor is less than • In SRM, rotor does not have any
the number of poles in stator in order magnet and winding so they have low
to get self-starting capability. inertia and can achieve high
acceleration or speed compared to
• When a stator phase is excited, the
stepper motor.
reluctance torque make the rotor to
move towards the minimum • The SRM operates in closed loop
reluctance position. mode.
• As rotor reaches the minimum • For the closed loop control, speed
reluctance position, the excitation is sensors are required at the rotor.
shifted to the next phase so the rotor • The SRM is used as a variable speed
moves ahead. drives.
 Comparative Table of Machines

DC Motor Induction Motor Synchronous Motor

Squirrel Cage Wound Rotor
• Higher cost, Weight, • Cost is one-third of  It is more costly  It has higher full
volume and inertia. DC machine of same than squirrel cage load efficiency and
• Frequent rating. induction motor. power factor than
maintenance. • Small size compared  This requires Induction Motor.
• Unsuitable for to DC machine for maintenance more  It is available in
explosive and same rating. than squirrel cage higher power rating.
contaminated • Less weight. but less than DC  Higher cost and size
environments. • Extremely rugged. motor compared to
• Requires no  It is available in induction motor for
maintenance. higher power same ratings.
rating.  Requires more
maintenance
compare to IM
 PMSM has all the
advantages of
squirrel induction
motor but it is
available in lower
power rating.
Brushless DC Motor Stepper Motor Switched Reluctance Motor
 It is similar to PMSM It is used either for position  It is used for speed control.
 Lower cost. control or low speed control.  It has rugged construction because
 Converter is simple Only open-loop control is it’s rotor does not have any
and cheaper also. required to control the position. winding or magnet.
 High Reliability. Control circuitry requirement is  Low maintenance, long life.
 High Efficiency. (85- less.  Low cost of motor and converter.
90 %) It is low power drive.  Fast response owing to large torque
 It is used for low It is compatible with digital to inertia ratio.
power and high speed system.  High Efficiency and reliability.
drive. Low speed operation is possible  If one phase fails, the motor will
without reduction gear. still be operated at reduced torque.
Starting current is low.  Due to absence of magnet, rotor
has ability to withstand higher
Efficiency is poor. temperature therefore less cooling
Proper matching between motor is required.
and load is required.
 It has torque ripples and generates
noise.
 Parallel operation is not possible
from same converter.
 Load
• Load means it has to do specific work.
• Load may be rollers in rolling mill, grinder pots in food
processor, blades in fan, jobs for drilling machine, arm of
robot etc.
• Load requirement can be specified in terms of speed and
torque.
• A motor is chosen which is having speed-torque or
speed-current characteristics compatible to the load
characteristics.
• Motor will be compatible with load when speed and
torque requirement of load is satisfied without exceeding
current limit of motor.
• Natural characteristics of motor and load do not match
therefore converter is used between motor and source to
modulate the motor characteristic according to load.
 Sensing Unit
• Sensing circuit is used to sense the speed of motor and current &
voltage of motor etc.
• It is required for protection and closed loop control operation.
• To regulate the speed of the drive either Tacho-generator or optical
encoder is used for sensing the speed.
• Power circuit parameters like voltage and current of motor are
sensed either by isolation device (Opto-coupler) or transformer
which is connected between power circuit and control circuit.
• Hall effect sensors are used to measure the voltage and current of
the motor.
• Hall effect sensors are made of semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide, indium antimonide, indium arsenide, ferrosilicon
(FeSi) or ferronickel (FeNi)) to sense the voltage and current of
motor or converter.
• An opto-isolator or opto-coupler is an electronic component that
transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using
light. The IC 4N35 and PC 817 are opto-coupler ICs.
DC Tacho-generator
Optical Transducer for Speed
Measurement

AC Tacho-generator
Rotational speed in rpm = 60 f / No. of holes on disc
• As the number of holes in the disc is fixed and known
so the rotational speed can be measured by measuring
the pulse rate with an electronic counter.
• Electronic counter can be calibrated to indicate directly
the speed.
• Output is in digital format so does not require A/D
converter when used in digital instrumental system.

A basic 4-bit up synchronous counter

Hall Effect Sensors
 Control Unit
– Control unit generates the control signals to the power
modulator or converter according to the feedback signal
(speed and voltage or current).
– Control unit may be made by digital IC,
Microprocessor, DSP, dspace, FPGA for sophisticated
control.
– Command signal or reference signal which adjust the
operating point forms an input to the control unit.
– Control unit operates at lower voltage and power level.
– Low voltage control unit is isolated from power circuit
due to-
• Malfunction in the power circuit may damage the control unit.
• Converter generates the harmonics which can enter in the
control unit and interfere with its operation.
 Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Fundamental Torque Equations-
– Motor drives a load through transmission
system.
– Motor always rotates but load may rotate or
undergo a linear motion.
– Motor and load speed may be different. If load
has many parts then their speed may be
different or motion will be different.
– It is convenient to represent motor and load by
an equivalent system.
 J

Equivalent motor-load system

J = Moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to

the motor shaft, kg-m2
ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft,
rad/sec.
T = Instantaneous value of motor torque, N-m.
Tl = Instantaneous value of load torque , referred to the
motor shaft, N-m.
Load torque includes friction and windage torque of
motor.
• Motor-load system torque equation is:

• This equation is applicable to variable inertia

such as reel drivers, industrial robot etc.

• Motor developed torque is counter balanced

by a load torque and dynamic torque.
• Torque component J (dω/dt) is called dynamic
torque because it is presented during the
transient operation.
• The acceleration or deceleration of the drive mainly
depends on whether the load torque is greater or less than
the motor torque.
• During acceleration, the motor supplies the load torque
along with an additional torque component Jdωmt/dt to
overcome the drive inertia.
• The drives which have a large inertia, load torque must be
more for getting sufficient acceleration.
• The drive which requires a fast transient response, their
motor torque should be maintained at the highest value and
motor load system should be designed with a lower inertia.
• The energy associated with dynamic torque is stored in the
form of kinetic energy and given by the equation Jdω2m/dt.
• During the deceleration, the dynamic torque has a negative
sign and assists the motor developed torque T and maintains
the drive motion by extracting energy from stored kinetic
energy.
 Speed-Torque Convention and Multi-quadrant
Operation
Four Quadrant Operation of drives means that the machine operates in four
quadrants. They are Forward Braking, Forward motoring, Reverse
motoring and Reverse braking.

In motoring mode, the machine works as a motor

and converts the electrical energy into mechanical
energy, supporting its motion.
In braking mode, the machine works as a generator
and converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy and as a result, it opposes the motion.
The Motor can work in both, forward and reverse
directions, i.e., in motoring and braking operations.

The product of angular speed and torque is

equal to the power developed by a motor.
For the multi-quadrant operation of drives-
When the motor rotates in the forward direction the speed of the motor is
considered positive.
The rotation in the opposite direction gives reverse speed which is
denoted by a negative sign.
The drives which operate only in one direction, forward speed will be
their normal speed.
In loads involving up and down motions, the speed of the motor which
causes upward motion is considered to be in forward motion.

The rate of change of speed positively in the forward direction or the

torque which provides acceleration is known as Positive motor
torque.
In the case of retardation, the motor torque is considered negative.
Load torque is opposite to the positive motor torque in the direction.
In the I quadrant power developed is positive and the machine is working
as a motor supplying mechanical energy. The I (first) quadrant operation is
called Forward Motoring.

II quadrant operation is known as Braking. In this quadrant, the direction

of rotation is positive, and the torque is negative, and thus, the machine
operates as a generator developing a negative torque, which opposes the
motion.
In case of regenerative braking, the kinetic energy of the rotating parts is
available as electrical energy which may be supplied back to the mains.
In dynamic braking, the energy is dissipated in the resistance.

The III quadrant operation is known as the reverse motoring. The motor
works, in the reverse direction. Both the speed and the torque have
negative values while the power is positive.

In the IV quadrant, the torque is positive, and the speed is negative. This
quadrant corresponds to the braking in the reverse braking mode.
Speed-Torque Characteristic of Hoist
 Equivalent values of drive parameters

• In drives, different loads may be coupled

through different mechanism such as gears,
belt, crankshaft etc.
• These parts may have different speeds and
different types of motion such as rotational or
linear (translational).
• So it is required to find out the equivalent
moment of inertia and torque of motor-load.
 Loads of Rotational Motion
• Motor is driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft
and other through a gear with n and n1 teeth.

• Moment of inertia of motor and load directly coupled to its

shaft is Jo, motor speed and torque of the directly coupled load
be ωm and Tlo respectively.

• Where a1 is the gear tooth ratio

• If the losses in transmission are neglected, then the kinetic
energy due to equivalent inertia will be same as kinetic energy
of various moving parts.

• Power at the loads and motor will be same. If transmission

efficiency of the gears is η1 then

• Where Tl is the total equivalent load torque referred to the

motor shaft
• If in addition to load directly coupled to the motor with inertia
Jo there are m other loads with moment of inertia J1,J2
……..Jm and gear teeth ratios of a1, a2…….am then

• If m loads with torque Tl1, Tl2…….Tlm are coupled through

gears with teeth ratios a1, a2…..am and transmission efficiency
η1, η2……ηm, in addition to one directly coupled, then

• If loads are driven by belt drive instead of gears, then

equivalent inertia and torque will be same but a1, a2…..am will
be ratio of diameters of wheels driven by motor to the
diameters of wheels mounted on the load shaft.
 Loads with Translational Motion
• Motor drives two loads, one coupled directly to the shaft and
other through a Rack and pinion (convert rotational motion in
to linear motion).
• Moment of inertia of motor and load directly coupled to its
shaft is Jo, load torque directly coupled to motor is Tlo.
• Mass, velocity and force of the load with translational motion
be M1 (kg), v1 (m/Sec.) and F1 (Newtons) respectively.
• If the transmission losses are neglected, then kinetic energy
due to equivalent inertia J must be same as kinetic energy of
various moving parts.
•
• Power at the motor and load should be the same, If efficiency
of transmission is η1 then

• If, in addition to one load directly coupled to the motor shaft,

there are m other loads with translational motion with velocity
v1, v2……vm and masses M1, M2……Mm respectively, then

• A motor drives two loads. One has rotational motion. It is coupled to the
motor through a reduction gear with a = 0.1 and efficiency of 90%. The
load has a moment of inertia of 10 kg-m2 and a torque of 10 N-m. Other
load has translational motion and consists of 1000 kg weight to be lifted up
at an uniform speed of 1.5 m/s. Coupling between this load and the motor
has an efficiency of 85%. Motor has an inertia of 0.2 kg-m2 and runs at a
constant speed of 1420 rpm. Determine equivalent inertia referred to the
motor shaft and power developed by the motor.
Loads with rotational and translational motion

Rack and pinion: converts rotary to linear motion

A motor is used to drive a hoist. Motor characteristics are given by
Quadrant I, II and IV T = 200-0.2 N Nm , Quadrant II, III and IV T = -200-0.2 N Nm
When hoist is loaded, the net load torque Tl = 100 Nm and
When hoist is unloaded, net load torque Tl = -80 Nm Obtain the equilibrium speed for
operation in all the four quadrant
 Measurement of Moment of Inertia
• Moment of inertia can be calculated if dimensions and weights
of various parts of the load and motor are known.
• It can be measured experimentally by retardation test.
• In retardation test, the drive runs at a rated speed and then the
supply is switched off.
• Drive continuously run due to kinetic energy stored in it and
decelerates due to rotational mechanical losses.
• Variation of speed with time is recorded.
P = Rate of change of kinetic energy
= d/dt (1/2 Jωm2) = Jωm dωm/dt (1)
• From retardation test dωm/dt at rated speed is obtained.
• Drive is reconnected to the supply and run at rated speed and
rotational mechanical power input to the drive is measured.
• This is approximately equal to P. Now J can be calculated by
eq. 1
• The main problem is that rotational mechanical losses can not
be measured accurately because core losses and rotational
mechanical losses can not be separate out.
• In DC separately excited or a synchronous motor, retardation
test is carried out with field on.
• The core loss is obtained by deducting the copper loss from
armature power input.
• The Moment of inertia can be measured accurately by
graphical method.

Graphical method of determination of equivalent MI

• In this case, speed (ωm) vs time curve is obtained from
retardation test and rotational losses (P) vs speed (ωm)
curve is obtained by reconnecting the motor with supply.
• Using these two plots, rotational losses vs time plot can be
obtained.
• For time t1, ωm1 is found from retardation plot.
• For this speed (ωm1) rotational loss P1 is obtained from the
plot of rotational loss vs speed and plotted against t1.
• Area ‘A’ enclosed between the rotational loss vs time plot
and the time axis (shaded area), is the kinetic energy
dissipated during retardation test.
• If initial speed of the drive during retardation test was ωmo
then
½ Jωmo2 = A
 Stability consideration of Electrical Drives
• Electrical drive attains stable condition when it operates at a
constant speed.
• If developed motor torque is equal to the load torque including
friction & windage, then speed will be constant & electrical drives
run at equilibrium condition.
• In the presence of a disturbance, the equilibrium condition is
disturbed and the drive tries to take a new equilibrium position
under the new input conditions.
• The system is said to be stable if after disturbance it attains a new
equilibrium condition.
• The system is said to be unstable if it comes to rest or
continuously increasing in speed following the disturbance.
• The disturbances may be external or internal to the drive.
• The stability of a drive is very much affected by the controllers
parameters.
• The stability of a drive is influenced by the inertia of the rotating
masses and inductance of the motor.
• In case of sudden changes, equilibrium condition will change and
effects of these components can not be ignored.
• The stability behaviour of the drive taking into account the effects
of these parameters is called transient stability.
• If the changes from one state of equilibrium to another take place
very slowly then the effects of these components can be ignored
and stability behaviour of the drive is considered as steady-state
stability.
• In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is
negligible compared to its mechanical time constant.
• Therefore, during stability consideration, motor can be assumed in
electrical equilibrium and only speed-torque curves are taken for
the steady-state analysis.
 Steady-State Stability
• Drive has a characteristic as
• Similarly, an increase of Δωm in
speed caused by a disturbance
will make load torque greater than
the motor torque, resulting into
deceleration and restoration of
operation to point A.
• The Drive is operating at • Hence the drive is steady-state
equilibrium point A. The equilibrium stable at point A.
point will be termed as stable when • The next equilibrium point B
the operation will be restored after a which is obtained when the same
small departure from it due to a motor drives another load.
disturbance in the motor or load.
• Let the disturbance causes a
reduction of Δωm in speed.
• At new speed, motor torque is
greater than the load torque, motor
will accelerate and operation will be
restored to A.
• A decrease in speed causes the • Point C
load torque to become greater
than the motor torque, drive
decelerates and operating point
moves away from B.
• Similarly, when working at B an
increase in speed will make
motor torque greater than the • Point D
load torque, which will move
the operating point away from
B.
• Thus, B is an unstable point of
equilibrium.
Points A, C and D are stable. Point B is unstable
• Above discussion shows that an equilibrium point will be
stable when an increase in speed causes load-torque should be
more than the motor torque:
T = Tl + J d(ωm)/dt (1)
(2)
• Let a small perturbation in speed, Δωm, results in ΔT and
ΔTl perturbations in T and Tl respectively. Then from Eq. (1)

(3)
• Subtracting (1) from (3) and rearranging terms gives
• (4)
• For small perturbations, the speed torque curves of the motor
and load can be assumed to be straight lines. Thus

(5)
• where (dT/dωm) and (dTl/dωm) are respectively slopes of the
steady-state speed-torque curves of motor and load at
operating point under consideration.
• Substituting Eq. (5) into (4) and rearranging the terms yields

(6)
• This is a first order linear differential equation. If initial
deviation in speed at t = 0 be (Δωm)0 then the solution of Eq.
(6) will be
(7)
• An operating point will be stable when Δωm approaches zero
as t approaches infinity. For this the exponent of Eq. (7) must
be negative.
 Load Equalisation
• In some drive applications, load torque fluctuates widely
within short intervals of time.
• Examples are pressing machines, electric hammer, steel rolling
mills and reciprocating pumps where a large torque for short
duration is required during operation, otherwise the torque is
nearly zero.
• In such drives, if motor is selected to supply peak torque
demanded by load, first motor rating has to be high. Secondly,
motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply.
• If amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion
of supply line capacity, line voltage fluctuates, which
adversely affect other loads connected to the line.
• Problems of fluctuating loads are overcome by mounting a
flywheel on the motor shaft in non-reversible drives.
• Motor speed-torque characteristic is made drooping.
Flywheel Energy Storage
• During high load period, load torque will be much larger
compared to the motor torque.
• Therefore, deceleration occurs producing a large negative
dynamic torque component (J dωm/dt).
• Motor torque and dynamic torque [T + J d(ωm)/dt] = Tl
together are able to produce torque required by the load.
• During light load period, the motor torque exceeds the load
torque causing acceleration and speed is brought back to
original value before the next high load period.
• Variations of motor and load torques and speed for a periodic
load and for a drooping motor speed-torque curve are shown in
figures.
• It shows that peak torque required from the motor has much smaller
value than the peak load torque.
• Hence, a motor of much smaller rating than peak load can be used
and peak current drawn by motor from the source is reduced by a
large amount.
• Fluctuations in motor torque and speed are also reduced.
• Since power drawn from the source fluctuates very little, this is
called load equalisation.
• In variable speed and reversible drives, a flywheel cannot be
mounted on the motor shaft, as it will increase transient time of the
drive by a large amount.
• Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for load equalisation in
electrical drives is calculated as follows-
– Assuming a linear motor-speed-torque curve in the region of interest.

(1)
• where ωm0, ωmr and Tr are no-load speed, rated speed and rated
torque, respectively.
• Motor can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium
during transient operation of the motor-load system
due to slow response because inertia is large.
• Differentiating (1) and multiplying both sides by ‘J’
gives
(2)
(3)
• Where
(4)
• Term τm is defined as the mechanical time constant of
the motor. It is the time required for the motor speed
to change by (ωm0 – ωmr) when motor torque is
maintained constant at rated value Tr.
• T = Tl + J d(ωm)/dt (2)
(3)

• Consider now a periodic load torque, a cycle of which consists

of one high load period with torque Tlh and duration th, and
one light load period with torque Tll and duration tl. For high
load period (0 ≤ t ≤ th) solution of Eq. (3) is

(4)

• where Tmin is the motor torque at t= 0, which is also the instant

when heavy load Tlh is applied. If motor torque at the end of
heavy load period is Tmax, then from Eq. (4) can be write as:
(5)
• From equation (5)

• Solution of Eq. (3) for the light load period (th ≤ t ≤ th + tl) with the
initial motor torque equal to Tmax is

(6)

• When operating in steady-state, motor torque at the end of a cycle

will be the same as at the beginning of cycle. Hence at t′ = tl, T =
Tmin. Substituting in Eq. (6) gives
• (7)
• From equation (7)
• If W is the weight of the flywheel (kg) and R is the
radius (m).

• A motor equipped with a flywheel is to supply a load

torque of 1000 N-m for 10 Sec. followed by a light
load period of 200 N-m long enough for the flywheel
to regain its steady-state speed. It is desired to limit
the motor torque to 700 N-m. What should be the
moment of inertia of flywheel? Motor has an inertia
of 10 kg-m2. Its no load speed is 500 rpm and the slip
at a torque of 500 N-m is 5%. Assume speed-torque
characteristic of motor to be a straight line in the
region of interest.
 Components of Load Torque
• Friction Torque (TF): Friction presents at the motor
shaft and various parts of load.
• Windage Torque: When motor runs, wind generates
a torque which opposes the motion.
• Torque required to do the useful mechanical work:
– It may be constant and independent of speed (Shaping,
cutting and grinding where Hysteresis Motor is used).
– It may be function of speed.
– It may depend on path followed by load.
– It may be time variant or time invariant.
– It may vary cyclically.
 Friction Torque
• Friction torque can be resolved in three
components.
– First component is Viscous friction (Tv) which
varies linearly with speed-
Tv = B ωm B = viscous friction coefficient.
– Second component is coulomb friction (Tc) is
independent to speed
– Third component is standstill torque (Ts) which
presents in standstill condition or at zero speed
called static friction or stiction.
• To start the drive, motor torque should more
than stiction and coulomb friction torques.
 (a) (b)

Friction torque and its component

• Windage torque (Tw)is
Tw = C ω2m where C is constant
• For finite speed load torque is
Tl = TL + B ωm + Tc + C ω2m
Because stiction torque will be zero at finite speed.
• Components (Tc) is constant so that it can be merged in B
ωm so the load torque will be (TL + C ω2m +B ωm) and the
total required torque will be:

T = J dω/dt + TL + C ω2m + B ωm

• An additional component of load torque at shaft coupling

may exist which is known as coupling torque:
Te = Ke θe
Where θe is torsion angle of coupling (rad) and
Ke is constant which depends on torsion angle or
rotational stiffness of the shaft (N-m/rad).
 Nature and Classification of Load Torque
• Nature of load torque depends on the application.

• In some cases load torque

is function of speed for
exp- Fans, compressor,
Aeroplanes.
• Windage torque is
dominated in these cases.
• Same phenomena of load
torque is observed when
fluid opposes the motion.
• Ex- Centrifugal pumps
and ship-propellors.
• In low speed hoist, load ωm

torque (weight and

gravitational force) is
constant and independent of T
l

speed.
(a) Low speed Hoist

• In high speed hoist, viscous

friction and windage have
appreciable magnitude in
addition to gravity thus
speed-torque curve is
shifted towards right.
• Traction load when
moving on leveled
ground, load torque
requirement is more
than at standstill
condition.
• Due to heavy mass,
stiction is large.
• At finite speed,
stiction vanishes but
windage and viscous
friction dominate.
 Passive and Active Load Torque
• If load torque opposes the direction of motion of motor
drive or changes its direction then it is called passive
torque.
• Friction, Windage etc. are the examples of passive
torque.
• Active torque has the potential to drive the motor under
equilibrium condition
• If load torque retains its sign or opposes the motion in
one direction and aid it in another direction then it is
called active torque.
• This occurs due to kinetic or potential energy stored in
parts.
• The motor has to provide sufficient torque when these
torques opposes the motion.
• Gravitational, tension, compression etc. are the
example of active torque.
 Comparison of DC and AC Drive
DC Drives AC Drives
• The commutator makes the • Motor is reliable, requires little
motor bulky, costly and heavy. maintenance and can be used
• The commutator requires in all location.
frequent maintenance. • The power circuit of the
• Sparking at brushes makes it converter and its control are
environmental unsuitable in complex.
certain location.
• Power converter is simple and • Forced Commutation is used
inexpensive. with AC motor.
• Line commutation of the • Response depends on the type
converter. of control. Speed range is wide
• Fast response and wide speed with solid state converter.
range smooth control. • Large power/weight ratio.
• Small power/weight ratio. • Solid state converter
• Cost does not depend on the employed decides the cost.
solid state converter.
 Drives Classification
• If electrical drive motor runs at a nearly fixed speed then
drive is known as constant speed or single speed drive.
• Multi-speed or variable speed drives are those which
operate at discrete or different speed.
• When a number of motors are fed from common
converter or when load is driven by more than one motor,
the drive is termed as multi-motor drive.
• A variable speed drive is called ‘constant torque drive’
if the drive’s maximum torque capability does not change
with a change in speed setting. Examples. are
Traction drives, Compressors, Conveyors etc.
• A variable speed drive is called ‘constant power drive’
if the drive’s maximum power capability does not change
with a change in speed setting. Examples. are pressing
machine, metal cutting machine, spindle, milling
machine, paper machine etc.
• Ideally, it is desired that for a given speed
setting, motor speed should remain constant as
load torque is changed from no-load to full
load.
• Speed drops with an increase in the load
torque.
• Quality of a speed control system is measured
in terms of speed-regulation.
–
 Closed-Loop Control of Drives
• To reduce errors in speed, closed loop drives are
used in which speed is automatically set according to
the reference systems input.
• Advantages of closed loop drive-
– Improve stability of an unstable system.
– Increase the system sensitivity.
– Enhance robustness against external disturbances to the
process.
– It provides protection.
– It produces a reliable and repeatable performance.
– Steady state accuracy is improved.
– Enhancement speed response.
 Current Limit Control
• Current limit controller is used to limit the
converter and motor current below a safe limit
during transient operation.

• It has current feedback loop with threshold logic

circuit.
• If current is within a set maximum value, feedback loop
does not affect the operation.
• Under steady-state operation, current does not cross
maximum value so feedback loop does not affect
operation of drive.
• During transient operation, if current exceeds the set
maximum value then feedback loop becomes active and
current is forced below the set maximum value.
• Once current is within the limit then feedback loop
become inactive.
• Again if the current exceeds set maximum value again,
feedback loop again becomes active and brought the
current below the set maximum value.
• During starting, current fluctuates around the set
maximum value so feedback loop is active at that time.
 Closed-loop Torque Control
• This type of control is used in electrical
operated vehicle like car, electrical trains etc.
 Closed Loop Speed Control

Supply

• It has two loops, inner loop is current controlled and outer loop
is speed controlled.
• Inner current control loop is provided to limit converter and
motor current or motor torque below safe limit.
• If motor speed decreases (ωm), then get the positive
speed error (Δωm).
• Speed error is processed through speed controller
applied to a current limiter.
• Current limiter saturates even for small speed error.
• Current limiter sets reference current for inner
current loop that will be higher than feedback
current and drive will accelerate.
• Steady-state is reached at the desired speed and
current at which motor torque is equal to the load
torque.
• Increase in motor speed produces negative error
which saturates the current limiter in the reverse
direction.
• Current error will be negative and converter generates
the signals such that voltage applied to the motor will
be reduced and motor decelerates.
• Drive settles at a desired speed and current for which
motor torque is equal to load torque.
• Current and speed controller may be PI, PD or PID
depending upon the steady-state accuracy and
transient response.
 Closed Loop Position Control

• It consists of three loops, inner most loop is current

control loop, inner loop is closed-loop speed control
system and outer loop is position controlled.
• Current control loop restricts motor and load current
within safe limit.
• Closed-loop speed control restricts speed at the desired
value and enhance the speed of response.
• Position control is required in machine tool, rolling
mills, Robotics etc.
 P, PI, PD and PID Controller

Proportional Controller

Integral Controller

Derivative Controller
 Integral Controller

Proportional Controller

Derivative Controller

Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
S. No. Proportional Integral Derivative
1.
Deviation should not be
large. No limitations No limitations
2. Deviation should not be
sudden.
3. Proportional controller It returns back to It improves the
helps in reducing the steady the exact set point transient response of
state error, thus makes the following a the system.
system more stable. disturbance, means
4. Slow response of the over
it eliminates steady-
damped system can be made
state error.
faster with the help of these
controllers.
5. Due to presence of these It tends to make the It never improves the
controllers some offsets exist system unstable steady state error.
in the system. because it responds
slowly towards the
produced error.
6. Proportional controllers also It amplifies the noise
increase the maximum signals produced in the
system.
overshoot of the system.
Multi-motor Drives
Multi-motor Drives
 Mechanical Coupling

Continuous hot strip

rolling mills, Fibre
spinning mills and paper
mills
 For rth rolling stands

Drive with progressive change in reference speed

Drive with parallel arrangement of Reference Speed
 Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL) Control
• Closed-loop system which uses PI controller
has speed regulation of 0.2% .
• The PLL control can give speed regulation
upto 0.002%.
• The PLL is available in integrated circuit (IC
565) which is inexpensive.

Block Diagram of PLL

f1 Output
f2

Phase Detector
• Inputs of phase detector are reference frequency
and output frequency
• Output of phase detector is filtered by loop filter to
obtain a DC signal and applied as control voltage
to voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).
• Control voltage (comes from the phase difference
between two input signals) is required by VCO to
produce f such that it is equal to f*.
• Frequency of the VCO depends on the magnitude
of controlled voltage.
• Steady-state is reached when feedback frequency f
is equal to f* and loop is locked.
 Speed Control by PLL

Closed-loop speed control using PLL

Disadvantages:
1. Transient response is slow.
2. It has low speed limit.
 Voltage Controlled Oscillator
• Main component is the capacitor who’s charging and
discharging actually decides the formation of the output
waveform.
• The input is given in form a voltage which is converted to a
current signal and is applied to the capacitor.
• As the current passes through the capacitor, it starts charging
and a voltage starts building across it.
• As the capacitor charges and the voltage across it increases
gradually, the voltage is compared with a reference voltage
using a comparator.
• When the capacitor voltage exceeds the reference voltage,
comparator generates a high logic output which triggers
transistor and capacitor is connected to ground and starts
discharging.
• Thus the output waveform generated is the
representation of the charging and discharging of the
capacitor and the frequency is controlled by the
reference voltage.
• VCO output frequency changes in a direction that
reduces the phase difference.
 Reference Books
• “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives” By G. K.
Dubey, Narosa Publisher.
• “Power Semiconductor Drives” P. V. Rao, B S
Publisher.
• “Power Semiconductor Drives” S.
Sivanagaraju, M. Balasubba Reddy and A.
Mallikarjuna Prasad, PHI.
• “Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives”, By
G. K. Dubey, Prentice Hall