Plantwide process control

Introduction
Sigurd Skogestad, NTNU
May 2014

1
Tue AM

Part 1. Plantwide control

Introduction to plantwide control (what should we really control?)

Introduction.
– Objective: Put controllers on flow sheet (make P&ID)
– Two main objectives for control: Longer-term economics (CV1) and shorter-term
stability (CV2)
– Regulatory (basic) and supervisory (advanced) control layer

Optimal operation (economics)

– Define cost J and constraints
– Active constraints (as a function of disturbances)
– Selection of economic controlled variables (CV1). Self-optimizing variables.

2
 Why control?
• Operation

Actual value(dynamic)
Steady-state (average)

time

In practice never steady-state:

• Feed changes
• Startup
• Operator changes “Disturbances” (d’s)
• Failures
• …..
- Control is needed to reduce the effect of disturbances
- 30% of investment costs are typically for instrumentation and control
3
 Countermeasures to disturbances (I)

I. Eliminate/Reduce the disturbance

(a) Design process so it is insensitive to disturbances
• Example: Use buffertank to dampen disturbances
Tin
Tout

inflow ∞ outflow
(b) Detect and remove source of disturbances
• “Statistical process control”
• Example: Detect and eliminate variations in feed composition

4
 Countermeasures to disturbances (II)
II. Process control

Do something (usually manipulate valve)

to counteract the effect of the disturbances

(a) Manual control: Need operator

(b) Automatic control: Need measurement + automatic valve + computer
Goals automatic control:
• Smaller variations
• more consistent quality
• More optimal
• Smaller losses (environment)
• Lower costs
• More production

Industry: Still large potential for improvements!

5
 Classification of variables
d

u y
input (MV) Process output (CV)

Independent variables (“the cause”):

(a) Inputs (MV, u): Variables we can adjust (valves)
(b) Disturbances (DV, d): Variables outside our control

Dependent (output) variables (“the effect or result”):

(c) Primary outputs (CVs, y1): Variables we want to keep at a given setpoint
(d) Secondary outputs (y2): Extra measurements that we may use to
improve control

6
 Inputs for control (MVs)

• Usually: Inputs (MVs) are valves.

– Physical input is valve position (z), but we often simplify and say that
flow (q) is input

7
 Idealized view of control
(“PhD control”)

d, ys = y-ys

Control: Use inputs (MVs, u) to counteract the effect of the disturbances (DVs, d)
such that the outputs (CV=y) are kept close to their setpoints (ys)

8
 Practice: Tennessee Eastman challenge
problem (Downs, 1991)
(“PID control”)

9 Where place TC PC LC CC x SRC ??

 Notation feedback controllers (P&ID)
Ts
(setpoint CV)
T
(measured CV) MV (could be valve)
TC
2nd letter:
C: controller
I: indicator (measurement)
T: transmitter (measurement)

1st letter: Controlled variable (CV) = What we are trying to control (keep constant)
T: temperature
F: flow
L: level
P: pressure
DP: differential pressure (Δp)
A: Analyzer (composition)
C: composition
X: quality (composition)
10
H: enthalpy/energy
 Example: Level control

Inflow (d)
Hs
H
LC

Outflow (u)

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES:
INPUT (u): OUTFLOW (Input for control!)
OUTPUT (y): LEVEL
DISTURBANCE (d): INFLOW
11
 How we design a control system for a
complete chemical plant?
• How do we get from PID control to PhD control?

• Where do we start?
• What should we control? and why?
• etc.
• etc.

12
 Plantwide control =
Control structure design
• Not the tuning and behavior of each control loop,
• But rather the control philosophy of the overall plant with emphasis on
the structural decisions:
– Selection of controlled variables (“outputs”)
– Selection of manipulated variables (“inputs”)
– Selection of (extra) measurements
– Selection of control configuration (structure of overall controller that
interconnects the controlled, manipulated and measured variables)
– Selection of controller type (LQG, H-infinity, PID, decoupler, MPC etc.).
• That is: Control structure design includes all the decisions we need
make to get from ``PID control’’ to “PhD” control

13
 Previous work on plantwide control:

• Page Buckley (1964) - Chapter on “Overall process control” (still

industrial practice)
• Greg Shinskey (1967) – process control systems
• Alan Foss (1973) - control system structure
• Bill Luyben et al. (1975- ) – case studies ; “snowball effect”
• George Stephanopoulos and Manfred Morari (1980) – synthesis of
control structures for chemical processes
• Ruel Shinnar (1981- ) - “dominant variables”
• Jim Downs (1991) - Tennessee Eastman challenge problem
• Larsson and Skogestad (2000): Review of plantwide control

14
 • Alan Foss (“Critique of chemical process control theory”, AIChE
Journal,1973):

The central issue to be resolved ... is the determination of control

system structure. Which variables should be measured, which
inputs should be manipulated and which links should be made
between the two sets? There is more than a suspicion that the
work of a genius is needed here, for without it the control
configuration problem will likely remain in a primitive, hazily
stated and wholly unmanageable form. The gap is present
indeed, but contrary to the views of many, it is the theoretician
who must close it.

15
 Main objectives control system

1. Economics: Implementation of acceptable (near-optimal) operation

2. Regulation: Stable operation

ARE THESE OBJECTIVES CONFLICTING?

• Usually NOT
– Different time scales
• Stabilization fast time scale
– Stabilization doesn’t “use up” any degrees of freedom
• Reference value (setpoint) available for layer above
• But it “uses up” part of the time window (frequency range)

16
 Optimal operation (economics)
Example of systems we want to operate optimally

• Process plant
– minimize J=economic cost
• Runner
– minimize J=time
• «Green» process plant
– Minimize J=environmental impact (with given economic cost)

• General multiobjective:
– Min J (scalar cost, often $)
– Subject to satisfying constraints (environment, resources)

17
 Theory: Optimal operation

Objectives
Theory:
•Model of overall system

Present state
CENTRALIZED •Estimate present state
•Optimize all degrees of
OPTIMIZER freedom

Model of system Problems:

• Model not available
• Optimization complex
• Not robust (difficult to
handle uncertainty)
• Slow response time

Process control:
• Excellent candidate for
centralized control

18
(Physical) Degrees of freedom
 Practice: Engineering systems

• Most (all?) large-scale engineering systems are controlled using

hierarchies of quite simple controllers
– Large-scale chemical plant (refinery)
– Commercial aircraft
• 100’s of loops
• Simple components:
on-off + PI-control + nonlinear fixes + some feedforward

Same in biological systems

19
 Our Paradigm

Practical operation: Hierarchical structure

Manager

Process engineer

Operator/RTO

Operator/”Advanced control”/MPC

PID-control

20 u = valves
 Translate optimal operation
into simple control objectives:
What should we control?

CV1 = c ? (economics)

CV2 = ? (stabilization)

21
 Outline

• Skogestad procedure for control structure design

I Top Down
• Step S1: Define operational objective (cost) and constraints
• Step S2: Identify degrees of freedom and optimize operation for disturbances
• Step S3: Implementation of optimal operation
– What to control ? (primary CV’s) (self-optimizing control)
• Step S4: Where set the production rate? (Inventory control)
II Bottom Up
• Step S5: Regulatory control: What more to control (secondary CV’s) ?
• Step S6: Supervisory control
• Step S7: Real-time optimization

23
 Step S1. Define optimal operation (economics)

• What are we going to use our degrees of freedom (u=MVs)

for?
• Typical cost function*:

J = cost feed + cost energy – value products

• *No need to include fixed costs (capital costs, operators, maintainance) at ”our” time scale
(hours)
• Note: J=-P where P= Operational profit

24
 Optimal operation distillation column
• Distillation at steady state with given p and F: N=2 DOFs, e.g. L and V (u)
• Cost to be minimized (economics)
cost energy (heating+ cooling)
J = - P where P= pD D + pB B – pF F – pVV
value products cost feed
• Constraints
Purity D: For example xD, impurity · max
Purity B: For example, xB, impurity · max
Flow constraints: min · D, B, L etc. · max
Column capacity (flooding): V · Vmax, etc.
Pressure: 1) p given (d) 2) p free (u): pmin · p · pmax
Feed: 1) F given (d) 2) F free (u): F · Fmax
• Optimal operation: Minimize J with respect to steady-state DOFs (u)

25
 Step S2. Optimize

(a) Identify degrees of freedom

(b) Optimize for expected disturbances
• Need good model, usually steady-state
• Optimization is time consuming! But it is offline
• Main goal: Identify ACTIVE CONSTRAINTS
• A good engineer can often guess the active constraints

26
 Steady-state DOFs

Step S2a: Degrees of freedom (DOFs)

for operation

NOT as simple as one may think!

To find all operational (dynamic) degrees of freedom:

• Count valves! (Nvalves)
• “Valves” also includes adjustable compressor power, etc.
Anything we can manipulate!

BUT: not all these have a (steady-state) effect on the economics

27
 Steady-state DOFs

Steady-state degrees of freedom (DOFs)

IMPORTANT!
DETERMINES THE NUMBER OF VARIABLES TO CONTROL!
• No. of primary CVs = No. of steady-state DOFs

Methods to obtain no. of steady-state degrees of freedom (Nss):

1. Equation-counting
• Nss = no. of variables – no. of equations/specifications
• Very difficult in practice
2. Valve-counting (easier!)
• Nss = Nvalves – N0ss – Nspecs
• N0ss = variables with no steady-state effect
• Inputs/MVs with no steady-state effect (e.g. extra bypass)
• Outputs/CVs with no steady-state effect that need to be controlled (e.g., liquid levels)
3. Potential number for some units (useful for checking!)

4. Correct answer: Will eventually find it when we perform optimization

28 CV = controlled variable
 Steady-state DOFs
Typical Distillation column

5 3

1
4 DOFs:
With given feed and pressure:
NEED TO IDENTIFY 2 more CV’s
- Typical: Top and btm composition
6
2

Nvalves = 6 , N0y = 2* ,
NDOF,SS = 6 -2 = 4 (including feed and pressure as DOFs)
29
*N0y : no. controlled variables (liquid levels) with no steady-state effect
 Steady-state DOFs

Steady-state degrees of freedom (Nss):

3. Potential number for some process units
• each external feedstream: 1 (feedrate)
• splitter: n-1 (split fractions) where n is the number of exit streams
• mixer: 0
• compressor, turbine, pump: 1 (work/speed)
• adiabatic flash tank: 0*
• liquid phase reactor: 1 (holdup reactant)
• gas phase reactor: 0*
• heat exchanger: 1 (bypass or flow)
• column (e.g. distillation) excluding heat exchangers: 0* + no. of sidestreams
• pressure* : add 1DOF at each extra place you set pressure (using an extra
valve, compressor or pump), e.g. in adiabatic flash tank, gas phase reactor or
absorption column
• *Pressure is normally assumed to be given by the surrounding process and is then not a degree of freedom
• Ref: Araujo, Govatsmark and Skogestad (2007)
30 • Extension to closed cycles: Jensen and Skogestad (2009)
• Real number may be less, for example, if there is no bypass valve
 Steady-state DOFs

Distillation column (with feed and pressure as DOFs)

split

“Potential number”,
Nss= 0 (column distillation) + 1 (feed) + 2*1 (heat exchangers) + 1 (split) = 4
31 With given feed and pressure: N’ss = 4 – 2 = 2
 Step S2b: Optimize for expected disturbances
• What are the optimal values for our degrees of freedom u (MVs)?

J = cost feed + cost energy – value products

• Minimize J with respect to u for given disturbance d (usually steady-state):

minu J(u,x,d)
subject to:
Model equations (e,g, Hysys): f(u,x,d) = 0
Operational constraints: g(u,x,d) < 0

OFTEN VERY TIME CONSUMING

– Commercial simulators (Aspen, Unisim/Hysys) are set up in “design mode” and often
work poorly in “operation (rating) mode”.
– Optimization methods in commercial simulators often poor
• We use Matlab or even Excel “on top”

…. BUT A GOOD ENGINEER CAN OFTEN GUESS THE

32 SOLUTION (active constraints)
 Step S3: Implementation of optimal
operation
• Have found the optimal way of operation.
How should it be implemented?
• What to control ? (primary CV’s).
1.Active constraints
2.Self-optimizing variables (for unconstrained
degrees of freedom)

33
 Optimal operation - Runner

Optimal operation of runner

– Cost to be minimized, J=T

– One degree of freedom (u=power)
– What should we control?

34
 Optimal operation - Runner

1. Optimal operation of Sprinter

– 100m. J=T
– Active constraint control:
• Maximum speed (”no thinking required”)
• CV = power (at max)

35
 Optimal operation - Runner

2. Optimal operation of Marathon runner

• 40 km. J=T
• What should we control? CV=?
• Unconstrained optimum

J=T

uopt u=power

36
 Optimal operation - Runner

Self-optimizing control: Marathon (40 km)

• Any self-optimizing variable (to control at

constant setpoint)?
• c1 = distance to leader of race
• c2 = speed
• c3 = heart rate
• c4 = level of lactate in muscles

37
 Optimal operation - Runner
J=T

Conclusion Marathon runner

copt c=heart rate

select one measurement

c = heart rate

• CV = heart rate is good “self-optimizing” variable

• Simple and robust implementation
• Disturbances are indirectly handled by keeping a constant heart rate
38
• May have infrequent adjustment of setpoint (cs)
Selection of CV1

Expected active constraints distillation

• Both products (D,B) generally have purity specs

• Valuable product: Purity spec. always active
– Reason: Amount of valuable product (D or B) should methanol valuable
always be maximized + water product
• Avoid product “give-away” (“Sell water as methanol”) methanol
+ max. 0.5%
• Also saves energy water

Control implications:
1. ALWAYS Control valuable product at spec. (active cheap product
(byproduct)
constraint). water
2. May overpurify (not control) cheap product + max. 2%
methanol

39
 Example with Quiz:
Optimal operation of two distillation columns
in series

40
 QUIZ 1
Operation of Distillation columns in series
With given F (disturbance): 4 steady-state DOFs (e.g., L and V in each column)

N=41 N=41 > 95% B

> 95% A
αAB=1.33 αBC=1.5 pD2=2 $/mol
pD1=1 $/mol

F ~ 1.2mol/s
pF=1 $/mol < 4 mol/s < 2.4 mol/s

> 95% C
pB2=1 $/mol
Cost (J) = - Profit = pF F + pV(V1+V2) – pD1D1 – pD2D2 – pB2B2
Energy price: pV=0-0.2 $/mol (varies)

41 QUIZ: What are the expected active constraints?

DOF = Degree Of Freedom
Ref.: M.G. Jacobsen and S. Skogestad (2011) 1. Always. 2. For low energy prices.
 SOLUTION QUIZ 1

Operation of Distillation columns in series

With given F (disturbance): 4 steady-state DOFs (e.g., L and V in each column)

N=41 N=41 > 95% B

> 95% A
αAB=1.33 αBC=1.5 pD2=2 $/mol
pD1=1 $/mol
1. x B = 95% B
Spec. valuable product (B): Always active!
F ~ 1.2mol/s Why? “Avoid product
Hm….? give-away”
pF=1 $/mol < 4 mol/s < 2.4 mol/s

2. Cheap energy: V1=4 mol/s, V2=2.4 mol/s

Max. column capacity constraints active! > 95% C
Why? Overpurify A & C to recover more B pB2=1 $/mol
Cost (J) = - Profit = pF F + pV(V1+V2) – pD1D1 – pD2D2 – pB2B2
Energy price: pV=0-0.2 $/mol (varies)

42 QUIZ: What are the expected active constraints?

DOF = Degree Of Freedom
Ref.: M.G. Jacobsen and S. Skogestad (2011) 1. Always. 2. For low energy prices.
 QUIZ 2
Control of Distillation columns in series

PC PC

LC LC

Given

LC LC

QUIZ. Assume low energy prices (pV=0.01 $/mol).

43 How should we control the columns?
Red: Basic regulatory loops HINT: CONTROL ACTIVE CONSTRAINTS
 SOLUTION QUIZ 2
Control of Distillation columns in series

PC PC

LC LC
xB

1 unconstrained DOF (L1): CC xBS=95%

Use for what?? CV=?
•Not: CV= xA in D1! (why? xA should vary with F!)
•Maybe: constant L1? (CV=L1)
Given Hm…….
•Better: CV= xA in B1? Self-optimizing?
MAX V1 ACTIVE CONSTRAINTS! MAX V2
HINT: CONTROL
General for remaining unconstrained DOFs:
LOOK FOR “SELF-OPTIMIZING” CVs = Variables we can keep constant
WILL GET BACK TO THIS!LC LC

QUIZ. Assume low energy prices (pV=0.01 $/mol).

44 How should we control the columns?
Red: Basic regulatory loops HINT: CONTROL ACTIVE CONSTRAINTS
 SOLUTION QUIZ 2 (more details)

Active constraint regions for two

distillation columns in series

0
1

Energy 1
price
[$/mol]
2

2 0
3
1
[mol/s]
Cheap energy: 1 remaining unconstrained DOF (L1)
-> Need to find 1 additional CVs (“self-optimizing”)

More expensive energy: 3 remaining unconstrained DOFs

-> Need to find 3 additional CVs (“self-optimizing”)
45
CV = Controlled Variable
 How many active constraints regions?
• Maximum: n
2 c Distillation
nc = 5
– nc = number of constraints 25 = 32

BUT there are usually fewer in practice

xB always active
• Certain constraints are always active (reduces effective n c)
2^4 = 16
• Only nu can be active at a given time -1 = 15
– nu = number of MVs (inputs)
• Certain constraints combinations are not possibe
– For example, max and min on the same variable (e.g. flow)
• Certain regions are not reached by the assumed disturbance set
In practice = 8

46
 Comment: Distillation column control in
practice
1. Add stabilizing temperature loops
– In this case: use reflux (L) as MV because boilup (V) may
saturate
– T1s and T2s then replace L1 and L2 as DOFs.

2. Replace V1=max and V2=max by dpmax-controllers

(assuming max. load is limited by flooding)

• See next slide

47
 Comment: In practice
Control of Distillation columns in series

PC PC

LC LC

xB
T1 T2 T2s
TC T1s TC CC xBS=95%

Given
MAX V1 MAX V2

LC LC

48
 CV = Active constraint

More on: Active output constraints

Need back-off
c ≥ cconstraint
J

Loss
Jopt Back-off

c
a) If constraint can be violated dynamically (only average matters)
• Required Back-off = “measurement bias” (steady-state measurement error for c)
b) If constraint cannot be violated dynamically (“hard constraint”)
• Required Back-off = “measurement bias” + maximum dynamic control error

Want tight control of hard output constraints to reduce the

back-off. “Squeeze and shift”-rule
49
 CV = Active constraint

Hard Constraints: «SQUEEZE AND SHIFT»

COST FUNCTION

N Histogram
LEVEL 0 / LEVEL 1
2
Sigma 1 -- Sigma 2

Sigma 2
LEVEL 2
OFF
Q1 -- Q2
SPEC
W2
1.5

DELTA COST (W2-W1)

W1

1
Rule for control of hard output constraints:
•“Squeeze and shift”!
•Reduce variance (“Squeeze”) and “shift”
Sigma 1
setpoint cs to reduce backoff
0.5

SQUEEZE
Q2 Q1 QUALITY
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
50 SHIFT
© Richalet
 CV = Active constraint
Example. Optimal operation = max. throughput.
Want tight bottleneck control to reduce backoff!

Back-off
= Lost
production
Time

51
 CV = Active constraint
D1
Example back-off. xB

xB = purity product > 95% (min.)

• D1 directly to customer (hard constraint)
– Measurement error (bias): 1%
– Control error (variation due to poor control): 2%
– Backoff = 1% + 2% = 3%
– Setpoint xBs= 95 + 3% = 98% (to be safe)
– Can reduce backoff with better control (“squeeze and shift”)

• D1 to large mixing tank (soft constraint) xB xB,product

– Measurement error (bias): 1% ±2%

8
– Backoff = 1%
– Setpoint xBs= 95 + 1% = 96% (to be safe)
– Do not need to include control error because it averages out in tank

52
 Unconstrained variables

More on: WHAT ARE GOOD “SELF-

OPTIMIZING” VARIABLES?

• Intuition: “Dominant variables” (Shinnar)

• More precisely
1. Optimal value of CV is constant
2. CV is “sensitive” to MV (large gain)

53
 Unconstrained optimum

GOOD “SELF-OPTIMIZING” CV=c

1. Optimal value copt is constant (independent of disturbance d):

2. c is “sensitive” to MV=u (to reduce effect of measurement noise)

Equivalently: Optimum should be flat

Good Good BAD

54
 Example.
Control of Distillation columns. Cheap energy

PC PC

LC LC
xB
Overpurified CC xBS=95%

Given
MAX V1 MAX V2

LC LC

Overpurified

1 unconstrained DOF (L1): What is a good CV?

•Not: CV= xB in D1! (why? Overpurified, so xB,opt increases with F)
•Maybe: constant L1? (CV=L1)
55 •Better: CV= xA in B1? Self-optimizing?
Overpurified: To avoid loss of valuable product B
 More on: Optimal operation
minimize J = cost feed + cost energy – value products

Two main cases (modes) depending on marked conditions:

Mode 1. Given feedrate
Mode 2. Maximum production

56
 Mode 1. Given feedrate
Amount of products is then usually indirectly given and
J = cost feed– value products + cost energy
Often constant

Optimal operation is then usually unconstrained

“maximize efficiency (energy)”
Control:
•Operate at optimal trade-off
J= •NOT obvious what to control
energy •CV = Self-optimizing variable

57
copt c
 Mode 2. Maximum production
J = cost feed + cost energy – value products

• Assume feedrate is degree of freedom

• Assume products much more valuable than feed
• Optimal operation is then to maximize product rate

Control:
•Focus on tight control of bottleneck
• “Obvious what to control”
J •CV = ACTIVE CONSTRAINT

Infeasible
region

58 cmax c
 Conclusion optimal operation

ALWAYS:
1. Control active constraints and control them tightly!!
– Good times: Maximize throughput -> tight control of bottleneck

2. Identify “self-optimizing” CVs for remaining unconstrained degrees of freedom

• Use offline analysis to find expected operating regions and prepare control
system for this!
– One control policy when prices are low (nominal, unconstrained optimum)
– Another when prices are high (constrained optimum = bottleneck)

ONLY if necessary: consider RTO on top of this

59