Assignment title: STANDARDS ORGANIZATION & INTERNET

Course title: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

Course code: IT-363

Class: MSC-IT 1ST SMESTER

Submitted by: AROOJ ARIF

Roll no: 20010856-014

Submitted to: RESPECTED MADAM AYESHA

Submission date: 16 NOVEMBER 2020

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY,

GOVT.UNIVERSTY OF GUJRAT
ABSTRACT:

In this assignment we will discuss about three categorizing storage devices which are consist of
magnetic storage devices, optical storage devices and solid state storage devices .in the magnetic
storage devices hard disks, floppy disks and zip disks are common examples .in which we stored
number of bits on each tracks .then we will discuss about optical disk .In which data is stored in
optical storage by using techniques and technology to read and writing data.

After two categorizing we will discuss about solid state storage which is consisting of flash
memory and smart card .it is also a non volatile storage devices.
TABLE OF CONTANTS:

Categorizing storage devices:

 Magnetic storage
 Optical storage
 Solid state storage

 Magnetic storage
 How data is stored on a magnetic disk
 How data is organized on a disk
 Tracks and sectors
 Diskette (floppy disk)
 Hard disk

 Optical storage devices

 CD-ROM
 DVD-ROM
 Solid state storage devices
 Flash memory
 Smart card

CATEGORIZING STORAGE DEVICES:

The purpose of a storage device is to hold data even when the computer is turned off so the data
can be used whenever it is needed.

Storage involves two processes:

 Writing, or recording, the data so it can be found later for use.

 Reading the stored data, then transferring it into the computer's memory

The two main categories of storage technology used today are

 Magnetic storage
 Optical storage

Third category of storage Solid-state storage is increasingly being used in computer systems,
but is more commonly found in devices such as digital cameras and media players.

Most new PCs also have a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive. A built-in drive for removable high
capacity floppy disks is another common feature in new PCs.

MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES:

The surfaces of diskettes, hard disks, high-capacity floppy disks, and magnetic tape are coated
with a magnetically sensitive material, such as iron oxide, that reacts to a magnetic field.

HOW DATA IS STORED ON A DISK:

Magnetic storage devices use a similar principle to store data. Just as a transistor can represent
binary data as on or off the orientation of a magnetic field can be used to represent data. A
magnet has one important advantage over a transistor: that is, it can represent on and off without
a continual source of electricity. The surfaces of magnetic disks and tapes are coated with
millions of tiny iron particles so that data can be stored on them.

Each of these particles can act as a magnet, taking on a magnetic field when subjected to an
electromagnet. The read/write heads of a magnetic disk or tape drive contain electromagnets that
generate magnetic fields in the iron on the storage medium as the head passes over the disk or
tape.
The read and write heads record strings of Is and Os by alternating the direction of the current
in the electromagnets. To read data from a magnetic surface, the process is reversed. The read
and write head passes over the disk or tape while no current is flowing through the
electromagnet. The head possesses no charge, but the storage medium is covered with magnetic
fields, which represent bits of data. The storage medium charges the magnet in the head which
causes a small current to flow through the head in one direction or the other depending on the
fields polarity. The disk or tape drive senses the direction of the flow as the storage medium
pastes by the head and the data is sent from the read/write head into memory.

HOW DATA IS ORGANIZEDS ON A MAGNETIC DISK:

Before the computer can use a magnetic disk to store data, the disk’s surface must be
magnetically mapped so that the computer can go directly to a specific point on it without
searching through data.

The process of mapping a disk is called formatting or initializing. When you purchase new
diskettes or high-capacity floppy disks, they should already be formatted and ready to use with
your computer in a new computer the built-in hard disk is almost always already formatted and
has software installed on it. If you buy a new hard disk by itself, however you may need to
format it yourself, but this b not difficult to do. You may and it helpful to reformat diskettes from
time to time, because the process ensures that all existing data is deleted from the disk. During
the formatting process, you can determine whether the disks surface has faulty spots, and you
can copy important system files to the disk. You can format a floppy disk by using operating
system commands.

TRACKS AND SECTORS:

TRACKS:

When you format a magnetic disk, the disk drive creates a set of concentric rings, called tracks,
on each side of the disk. The number of tracks required depends on the type of disk. Most
diskettes have 80 tracks on each side of the disk. A hard disk may have several hundred tracks on
each side of each platter. Each track is a separate circle, like the circles on a bulls eye target. The
tracks are numbered from the outermost circle to the innermost, starting with 0.

In the next stage of formatting the tracks are divided into smaller parts. Imagine slicing a disk
the way you slice a pie.

Each slice would cut across all the disk's tracks, resulting in short segments called sectors.
Sectors are where data is physically stored on the disk. In all diskettes and most hard disks, a
sector can store up to 512 bytes (0.5 KB). All the sectors on a disk are numbered in one long
sequence, so that the computer can access each small area on the disk by using a unique number.
 Tracks are concentric circles on a disks surface

SECTORS:

A sector is the smallest unit with which any magnetic disk drive can work; the drive can read or
write only whole sectors at a time. If the computer needs to change just one byte out of 512 it
must rewrite the entire sector. If a diskette has 80 tracks on each side, and each track contains 18
sectors, then the disk has 1,440 sectors (80 X 18) per side, for a total of 2,880 sectors. This
configuration is true regardless of the length of the track.

The disks outer most tracks are longer than the inner most track, but each track is still divided
into the same number of sectors. Regardless of physical size, all of a diskette's sectors hold the
same number of bytes that is the shortest, inner most sectors hold the same amount of data as the
longest, outermost sectors.

Of course a disks allocation of sectors per track is somewhat wasteful, because the longer outer
tracks could theoretically store more data than the shorter inner tracks. For this reason most hard
disks allocate more sectors to the longer tracks on the disks surface. As you move toward the
hard disks center each sub sequent track has fewer sectors. This arrangement takes advantage of
the hard disks potential capacity and enables a typical hard disk to store data more efficiently
than a floppy disk. Because many hard disks allocate sectors in this manner their sectors per
tracks specification is often given as an average. Such hard disks are described as having “an
average of x sectors per track.
 Sectors on a disk Each with a unique number

DISKETTES (FLOPPY DISKS):

The drive includes a motor that rotates the disk on a spindle and read/write heads that can move
to any spot on the disk's surface as the disk spins. The heads can skip from one spot to another on
the disk’s surface to find any piece of data without having to scan through all of the data in
between.

Parts Of a diskettes and a diskette drive

Diskettes spin at about 300 revolutions per minute. Therefore, the longest it can take to position a
point on die diskette under the read/write heads is the amount of time required for one revolution
about 0.2 second. The farthest the heads have to move is from the center of the diskette to the
outside edge .The heads can move from the center to the outside edge in even less time about
0.17 second. Because both operations (rotating the diskette and moving the heads from the center
to the outside edge) take place simultaneously, the maximum time to position the heads over a
given location on the diskette known as the maximum access time remains the greater of the two
times, or 0.2 second.

The maximum access time for diskettes can be longer however because diskettes do not spin
when they are not being used. It can take about 0.5 second to rotate the disk from a dead stop.

A 3.5-inch diskette is encased in a hard plastic shell with a sliding shutter. When the disk is
inserted into the drive, the shutter is slid back to expose the disks surface to the read and write
head. A disks density is a measure of its capacity the amount of data it can store. To determine a
disks density, you can multiply its total number of sectors by the number of bytes each sector can
hold. For a standard floppy disk, the equation looks like this:

2,880 sectors

x 512 bytes per sector

1,474,560 total bytes

A 3.5- inch diskette

HARD DISK:

A hard disk includes one or more platters mounted on a central spindle, like a stack of rigid
diskettes. Each platter is covered with a magnetic coating, and the entire unit is encased in a
sealed chamber. Unlike diskettes, where the disk and drive are separate, the hard disk and drive
are a single unit.

It includes the hard disk, the

motor that spins the platters,
and a set of read/write heads.

The smallest hard disks available

today can store several
hundred megabytes; the
largest store 200 GB or even
more. Most entry-level
consumer PCs now come with
hard disks of at least 40 GB, but
minimum capacities arc continually increasing. The hard disks found in most PCs spin at a speed
of 3,600, 7,200, or 10,000 revolutions per minute. Very-high performance disks found in
workstations and servers can spin as fast as 15,000 rpm. The speed at which the disk spins is a
major factor in its overall performance.

The hard disks high rotational speed allows more data to be recorded on the disk’s surface. This
is because a faster-spinning disk can use smaller magnetic charges to make current flow through
the read and write head. The drive’s heads also can use a lower intensity current to record data
on the disk. Hard disks pack data more closely together than floppy disks can but they also hold
more data because they include multiple platters.

TAPE DEVICES:
Tape drives read and write data to the surface of a tape the same way an audio cassette recorder
docs.

The difference is that a computer tape drive writes digital data rather than analog data—discrete
Is and Os rather than finely graduated signals created by sounds in an audio recorder.

Tape storage is best used for data that you do not use often, such as backup copies of your hard
disk's contents. Businesses use tape drives for this purpose because they are inexpensive,
reliable, and have capacity as high as 200 GB and greater.

New-generation tape drives feature data capacity 200 GB and higher, and can transfer
several megabytes of data per second.

OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICE:

The most popular alternatives to magnetic storage systems are optical systems, including CD-
ROM, DVD-ROM, and their variants. These devices fall into the category of optical storage
because they store data on a reflective surface so it can be read by a beam of laser light. A laser
uses a concentrated, narrow beam of light, focused and directed with lenses, prisms, and mirrors.

CD-ROM:

In the computer world, however, the medium is called compact disc-read-only memory (CD-
ROM). CD-ROM uses the same technology used to produce music CDs. If your computer has a
CD-ROM drive, a sound card, and speakers, you can play audio CDs on your PC.
A CD-ROM drive reads digital data from a spinning disc by focusing a laser on the disc’s
surface. Some areas of the disc reflect the laser light into a sensor, and other areas scatter the
light. A spot that reflects the laser beam into the sensor is interpreted as a 1, and the absence of a
reflection is interpreted as a 0. Data is laid out on a CD-ROM disc in a long, continuous spiral.
Data is stored in the form of lands, which are flat areas on the metal surface, and pits, which are
depressions or hollows.

a land reflects the laser light into the sensor. and a pit scatters the light. A standard compact disc
can store 650 MB of data or about 70 minutes of audio. A newer generation of compact discs,
however; can hold 700 MB of data or 80 minutes of audio.

the sectors are bid out differently than they are on magnetic disks.

The arrangement of sectors on a compact disc and a magnetic disc

The sectors near the middle of the CD wrap farther around the disk than those near the edge. For
the drive to read each sector in the same amount of time, it must spin the disc faster when
reading sectors near the middle and slower when reading sectors near the edge. Changing the
speed of rotation takes time enough to seriously impair the overall performance of the CD-ROM
drive. The first CD-ROM drives could read data at 150 KBps (kilobytes per second) and were
known as single-speed drives. Today, a CD-ROM drive's speed is expressed as a multiple of the
original drives speed 2x, 4x, 8x, and so on. A 2x drive reads data at rate of 300 KBps.
DVD-RAM:

Many of today's new PCs feature a built-in digital video disc- read-only memory (DVD-ROM)
drive rather than a standard CD-ROM drive. DVD-ROM is a highdensity medium capable of
storing a full-length movie on a single disks the size of a CD. DVD-ROM achieves such high
storage capacities by using both sides of the disc and special data-compression technologies and
by using extremely small tracks for storing data.

The latest generation of DVD-ROM disc actually uses layers of data tracks, effectively doubling
their capacity. The devices laser beam can read data from the first layer and then look through it
to read data from the second layer. DVDs look like CDs.

DVD-ROM drives can play ordinary CD-ROM discs. The DVD movie player also will play
audio CDs as well as many types of data CDs, such as home-recorded audio discs, video CDs,
and others. Since each side of a standard DVD-ROM disc can hold 4.7 GB, these discs can
contain as much as 9.4 GB of data. Dual-layer DVD-ROM discs can hold 17 GB of data.

FLASH MEMORY:

As you learned in Chapter 4, flash memory is a special type of memory chip that combines the
best features of RAM and ROM. Like RAM , flash memory lets a user or program access data
randomly. Also like RAM, flash memory lets you overwrite any or all of its contents at any time.
Like ROM, flash memory is nonvolatile, so data is retained even when power is off. Flash
memory has many uses. For example, it is commonly used in digital cameras and multimedia
players such as MP3 players.

A new type of storage device for PCs called the flash memory drive is about the size of a car
key.

In fact, many users carry a flash memory drive on their keychain. These tiny dcviccs usually
conncct to a computer’s USB or FireWire port and can store 256 M B or more of data.

SMART CARDS:
Although it looks like an ordinary credit card, a smart cord is a device with extraordinary
potential.

Smart cards contain a small chip that stores data. Using a special device called a smart card
reader the user can read data from the card, add new data, or revise existing data.

Some smart cards, called intelligent smart card also contain their own tiny microprocessor and
they function like a computer. Although they have not yet come into widespread use, smart cards
are finding many purposes both current and future.

EXAMPLE:

For example, large hotels now issue guests a smart card instead of a key the card not only allows
guests to access their room, but it also allows guests to charge other services and expenses to the
card as well. Someday, smart cards may be used to store digital cash that can be used to make
purchases in stores or online. Smart cards could store a person’s entire medical history, or they
could be used as a source of secure ID.