Energies 12 04547
Energies 12 04547
Energies 12 04547
Article
Detection of Typical Defects in Silicon Photovoltaic
Modules and Application for Plants with Distributed
MPPT Configuration
Jawad Ahmad 1 , Alessandro Ciocia 1 , Stefania Fichera 1, *, Ali Faisal Murtaza 2 and
Filippo Spertino 1
1 Energy Department, Politecnico di Torino, corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy;
jawad.ahmad@polito.it (J.A.); alessandro.ciocia@polito.it (A.C.); filippo.spertino@polito.it (F.S.)
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Central Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan;
ali.faisal@ucp.edu.pk
* Correspondence: stefania.fichera@polito.it; Tel.: +39-011-090-4596
Received: 21 October 2019; Accepted: 27 November 2019; Published: 29 November 2019
Abstract: During their operational life, photovoltaic (PV) modules may exhibit various defects for
poor sorting of electrical performance during manufacturing, mishandling during transportation
and installation, and severe thermo-mechanical stresses. Electroluminescence testing and infrared
thermographic imaging are the most common tests for checking these defects, but they are only
economically viable for large PV plants. The defects are also manifested as abnormal electrical
properties of the affected PV modules. For defect diagnosis, the appropriate parameters on their I-V
curves are open circuit voltage, photo-generated current, series resistance, and the shunt resistance.
The health of PV modules can be assessed by calculating these values and comparing them with the
reference parameters. If these defects are diagnosed in time, the power loss is avoided and safety
hazards are mitigated. This paper first presents a review of common defects in PV modules and
then a review of the methods used to find the above-mentioned parameters during the normal PV
operation. A simple approach to determine the resistances of the equivalent circuit is discussed.
Finally, through a modification in an ordinary maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm,
information about the state of health of PV modules is obtained. This method is effective, especially if
applied to submodule-integrated MPPT architectures.
1. Introduction
Over the last few years, concerns about climate change, global warming, and gas emissions have
pushed the policy makers toward the increase of renewable power generation, with a consequent
rapid cost decline. This is reflected in growing investments in electricity generation from wind and
solar power systems, such as photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) systems [1,2].
In particular, an enormous growth of installed PV plants has occurred: the installed capacity of PVs
throughout the world was 5.1 GW in 2005 and increased to 227 GW by the end of 2015 [3]. It is
anticipated that this trend is likely to continue, as demonstrated by various papers investigating the
effect and potential application of PV for the electric system (e.g., references [4,5]).
Recently, many governments have offered incentives for the installation of solar power plants.
Therefore, many PV modules have been manufactured in a rapid time frame, and, in many cases,
the performance of the modules has been below the common standards [6]. Owing to this and a
general lack of maintenance and proper vigilance, degradation in the performance of the PVs has been
reported by operation and maintenance personnel. The failure of solar modules can be divided into
three classes: infant mortality, midlife failure, and wear-out failure [7]. Furthermore, PV generators
exhibit light-induced power degradation from the outset after installation.
Infant mortality failures take place shortly after the modules are installed in the field. The defective
modules fail rapidly and have a significant effect on the costs for manufacturers and installers, as they
are responsible for these defects. Midlife failures occur when the PVs remain operational in the field
for many years and are subject to severe thermo-mechanical stresses. The failure of junction box
and cables, hotspots and burnout marks on cells and backsheets of the PV modules, glass breakage,
electrical disconnection of parts of cells due to cell breakage, encapsulant discoloration, damage to the
interconnection ribbons, etc. lead to midlife failures. These defects not only degrade the performance
of the PVs but can also lead to safety hazards. Wear-out faults determine the useful life of PV modules.
The working life stops when a safety problem occurs or the power generation falls below a certain
limit [7].
Even though PV technology has advanced, the substandard quality of cells and modules has
raised concerns. There have been reports that many PV devices have failed in the field during the first
two years and that the rate of module replacement has increased [3,6]. Thus, it is important to develop
methods to identify the sources of faults in PV modules during on-field operation and to isolate and
remove these failures [8]. The online detection and diagnosis of PV module’s faults has become a
technical and economic challenge [9].
• Thermal imaging only provides a qualitative diagnosis of the state of health of the PV modules,
and it may require expert knowledge to be performed properly [16];
• IR cameras with adequate specifications are expensive [17];
• In the case of large power plants, a manual IRT inspection requires too much time and is expensive;
thus, the use of unmanned drones equipped with IR camera could be necessary [6,8].
with low irradiance (G < 100 W/m2 ). The crystalline silicon PV cells work like a light emitting diode,
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
in which the semiconductors have emission spectra in the IR region (≈ 1000–1200 nm, and the 3peak,of 26
corresponding to the band gap, is 1150 nm) and not in the visible region. The emitted photons are
are detected by a sensitive camera equipped with indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) photodiodes, or
detected by a sensitive camera equipped with indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) photodiodes, or silicon
silicon devices, i.e., a silicon charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-
devices, i.e., a silicon charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor
semiconductor (CMOS.) [19,20].
(CMOS.) [19,20].
Starting from the data points after the scan of the I-V curve of a PV generator, the parameters short
circuit current (ISC ), open circuit voltage (VOC ), shunt resistance (Rsh ), series resistance (Rs ), and fill
factor (FF, ratio of maximum power to the product of ISC and VOC ) can be assessed. These quantities
are meaningful when performing the quantitative analysis of the defective modules. A brief summary
of some of the defects that can be diagnosed from the abnormal I-V curve is as follows [7]:
1. A lower ISC than the expected value may represent discoloration of encapsulation, glass corrosion, etc.;
2. A stepped-shaped I-V curve usually represents the current mismatch that may be caused by
damaged cells, gathering of soil over the surface, or partial shading;
3. A decrease in VOC shows the light induced degradation, the potential induced degradation, or
shorted bypass diode;
4. Increased slope near the ISC can be due to the formation of shunt paths in the PV cells;
5. A lower value of the slope of the characteristic curve near the VOC usually suggests an increase of
interconnection resistance, oxidization in the junction box, or damaged interconnecting ribbons.
Figure 4. EL images of two samples of modules with cracks: (a) on the left and (b) on the right.
Figure 4. EL images of two samples of modules with cracks: (a) on the left and (b) on the right.
Figure 5a4.shows
Figure the I-V
EL images curve
of two of theofcracked
samples modulesPV withmodule
cracks: referring to the
(a) on the left andEL(b)image presented in
on the right.
Figure 4a. This
Figure curve the
5a shows wasI-Vobtained
curve of under the irradiance
the cracked PV module of 714 W/m with
referring
2 airEL
to the temperature of 20 °C.
image presented in
Figure
Figure 5a
Figurealso shows
5a shows
4a. This the
curve the characteristic
wasI-V curve of
obtained curve of
the cracked
under the module
PV module
the irradiance from
of 714 datasheet
referring 2
W/m with specifications
to the
airEL for the
image presented
temperature given
of 20 ◦in
C.
conditions:
Figure 4a. the
This short
curve circuit
was current
obtained of the
under defective
the module
irradiance of is
714 lower
W/m 2than
with the
air
5a also shows the characteristic curve of the module from datasheet specifications for the given datasheet
temperature value
of (from
20 °C.
≈ 8 A to5a≈also
Figure
conditions: 6 the
A). Similarly,
shows
short the thecurrent
non-zero
characteristic
circuit slope
ofcurve
the ofofthe
defectivethe I-V
module curve
module isoflower
from the defective
datasheet module infor
thanspecifications
the datasheet the current
the
value given
(from
≈source region
conditions:
8 A to ≈ 6the also
A).short indicates
circuit
Similarly, thethe decrease
current
non-zeroof the in the shunt
defective
slope resistance.
module
of the I-V curveisof lowerFurthermore, Figure
than the module
the defective datasheet 5a shows
invalue that
(from
the current
≈the
8A
sourcedistribution
toregion of the
≈ 6 A).also cracks
Similarly,
indicates isnon-zero
thethe somewhat
decrease uniform
slope
in thethroughout
of shunt
the I-Vresistance.
curve of thethemodule andmodule
defective
Furthermore, that
Figureis the reason
in the
5a that
current
shows that
its I-V
source
the curve is
region also
distribution not step
indicates
of the shaped.
cracksthe Figure 5b
decrease in
is somewhat shows
the shunt
uniform the I-V curve
resistance.
throughout under STC
theFurthermore, of
module and that the
Figure module with
5a reason
is the shows thatEL
image
theI-V
its given
distributionin
curve is notFigure
of the
step 4b;
cracksin
shaped. this case,
is somewhat the
Figure 5b characteristic
uniform
shows throughout curve
the I-V curve is step
theunder shaped.
module STCand Also,
ofthat
the is in both steps
the reason
module withthat
ELof
theI-V
its
image electrical
curvein
given curve
is not in
FigurestepFigure
4b; shaped.5b,case,
in this the shunt
Figure
the 5b resistance
shows theiscurve
characteristic lower
I-V is than
curve step the case
under of
of Figure
STCAlso,
shaped. the 4a.steps
in module
both The lower
with EL
of the
parallel
image given
electrical resistance
curvein in of
Figure the
Figure 4b;module
5b,inthe
this in Figure 5b
case,resistance
shunt can be
the characteristic confirmed
is lower thancurve the from
is case
stepofthe lower
shaped. V
Figure Also, OC
4a. The as compared
in lower
both steps to
of
parallel
Figure
the
resistance5a. of the
electrical curve in Figure
module 5b, the
in Figure 5b shunt
can beresistance
confirmedisfrom lowerthethan
lower theVcaseasofcompared
Figure 4a.toThe lower
Figure 5a.
OC
parallel resistance of the module in Figure 5b can be confirmed from the lower VOC as compared to
Figure 5a.
5. Curves
Figure 5. Curves of
ofcracked
crackedmodules.
modules.(a)
(a)Current-voltage
Current-voltage(I-V) curve
(I-V) of of
curve thethe
module in Figure
module 4a; I-V
4a; (b)
in Figure (b)
curve of the module in Figure 4b.
I-V curve of the module in Figure 4b.
Figure
3.3. Hot Spot5.Heating
Curves of cracked modules. (a) Current-voltage (I-V) curve of the module in Figure 4a; (b)
3.3. Hot Spot Heating
I-V curve of the module in Figure 4b.
When a small crack appears in a PV cell during the manufacturing process or during transportation,
When a small crack appears in a PV cell during the manufacturing process or during
it
3.3.may
Hot have a very marginal effect on the performance of the cell. However, after installation,
Spot Heating
transportation, it may have a very marginal effect on the performance of the cell. However, after
micro cracks can evolve into the physical breakage of cells. As a consequence, a current mismatch
installation,
When micro cracks can evolve into athe physical breakage of cells. As a consequence, orathan
current
between theacells
small crackThe
occurs. appears
damaged in cells
PVmay cellhave
during
a much thesmaller
manufacturing
short circuit process
current during
the
mismatch
transportation,betweenit the
may cells
have occurs.
a very The damaged
marginal cells
effect onmay
the have a much
performance smaller
of the short
cell. circuit
However, current
after
healthy cells, and the characteristic curve of the entire submodule can change [39–41]. For example,
than the healthy
installation, micro cells, andcan
cracks theevolve
characteristic curve
into the cells,
physicalof the entire of submoduleAs acan change [39–41]. For
one submodule that has 20 series-connected withbreakage cells.either
two of the cells consequence,
damaged or under a current
the
example, one
mismatch submodule
between the that
cells has 20
occurs. The series-connected
damaged cells cells,have
may withatwo
muchof smaller
the cellsshorteither damaged
circuit currentor
shade, has a consequently lower ISC (or photo-generated current Iph ). The I-V curve of the healthy
under
thancells the
the in shade,
healthy has a consequently
cells, and the can lower
characteristic I (or photo-generated
curve the
SC of the entire current
submodule I ). The
can change
ph I-V curve
[39–41].of the
For
PV the forward region be drawn using single diode model [42–44], in which a single
healthy PV
example, onecells in the forward
submodule that region
has 20 can be drawn using
series-connected cells, the single
with two diode
of the model
cells [42–44],
either in which
damaged or
exponential and five parameters are involved in the cell behavior like a generator (both voltage and
a single
under the exponential and five parameters are involved in the cell behavior like a generator (both
current areshade, has As
positive). a consequently lower I[45],
shown in reference SC (or photo-generated current Iph). The I-V curve of the
more advanced models can be used to simulate the
voltage and current areforward
positive). As shown indrawn
reference [45], themore advanced models can beinused to
behavior of solar cells in reverse bias in order to studyusing
healthy PV cells in the region can be the partial single diode
shading model
effect. [42–44], which
asimulate
single
Figure
the behaviorand
exponential
6 shows the I-V
of solar
five cells in reverse
parameters
curve arebias
of the shaded
in order
involved in to
and irradiated
study
the cell the partiallike
behavior
cells.
shading
In this figure, a the effect. (both
generator
curve of the
voltage and current are positive). As shown in reference [45], more advanced
entire 20 cells is also given. This net I-V curve has a non-zero slope in the current source region due to
models can be used to
simulate the behavior of solar cells in reverse bias in order to study the partial shading effect.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 26
Figure 6 shows the I-V curve of the shaded and irradiated cells. In this figure, the curve of the
entire 20
Energies cells
2019, is also
12, 4547given. This net I-V curve has a non-zero slope in the current source region7 of due
26
to a relatively low shunt resistance Rsh of the partially shaded cells. Similarly, the Iph is also decreased
because of the current mismatch. The small Rsh represents the existence of a high conductivity shunt
a relatively low shunt resistance Rsh of the partially shaded cells. Similarly, the Iph is also decreased
path across the cell p-n junction or on the cell edges. These shunt paths lead the current away from
because of the current mismatch. The small Rsh represents the existence of a high conductivity shunt
the intended path and affect the performance of the module, particularly at low intensity levels
path across the cell p-n junction or on the cell edges. These shunt paths lead the current away from the
[46,47]. If the dissipated power goes beyond a certain value, hotspots may occur on the PV cells,
intended path and affect the performance of the module, particularly at low intensity levels [46,47].
making their failure possible or possibly resulting in further consequences to the other components
If the dissipated power goes beyond a certain value, hotspots may occur on the PV cells, making their
of the PV plant (e.g., fuses and wires), such as fires [48] and short circuits [49]. The magnitude of
failure possible or possibly resulting in further consequences to the other components of the PV plant
reduction in the shunt resistance depends upon various factors, such as the number of shaded cells
(e.g., fuses and wires), such as fires [48] and short circuits [49]. The magnitude of reduction in the shunt
or the level of irradiance.
resistance depends upon various factors, such as the number of shaded cells or the level of irradiance.
Figure7.7.I-V
Figure I-Vcurve
curveofofa a2020cell
cellsubmodule
submodulewith
withdifferent
differentvalues
valuesofofseries
seriesresistance.
resistance.
Figure 7. I-V curve of a 20 cell submodule with different values of series resistance.
3.5.
3.5.Potential
PotentialInduced
InducedDegradation
Degradation
3.5. Potential Induced Degradation
Potential
Potentialinducedinduceddegradation
degradation(PID) (PID)isisone oneofofthe thedefects
defectsthat thathashasgained
gainedthe theattention
attentionofofPV PV
expertsPotential
experts in in
recent induced
recent years.
years. degradation
In order (PID)
to increase
In order is one
the voltage
to increase of the defects that
of the PVofgenerators,
the voltage has gained the
the modules
the PV generators, attention
thearemodules of PV
connected are
experts
inconnected in form
series to recent PVyears.
in series strings.
to formIn The
order to increase
PVvoltages
strings. the the
ofThe voltage
strings
voltages can of the
of reach
the upPV
strings generators,
1500
canV in the1500
modules
grid-connected
reach up V in are
plants.
grid-
connected
The frames in
of series
the to
modules form arePV strings.
mechanically The voltages
connected of
to the strings
ground
connected plants. The frames of the modules are mechanically connected to ground for safety. In for can reach
safety. In up 1500
centralized V in grid-
inverter
connected
and
centralized plants.
string inverter
inverterThe
systems,
andframes
stringofinverter
a high the modules
voltage are amechanically
gradient
systems, develops,
high voltage connected
between
gradient to ground
the develops,
PV cells and for
thesafety.
between the In
module PV
centralized
frame, which inverter
leads and
to the string inverter
appearance of systems,
PID. a
Figure high
8 voltage
shows a
cells and the module frame, which leads to the appearance of PID. Figure 8 shows a PV string in PVgradient
string develops,
in which between
the modules the PV
are
cells andthe
connected
which the module
inmodules
series in are frame,
order to which
increase
connected inleads
the to in
system
series the appearance
voltage
order [52]. of
to increase ForPID. Figure
thesystem
the 8simplicity,
shows[52].
sake ofvoltage a the
PV string
Forexample in
the sake
which
shows the modules
five series-connected
of simplicity, are connected
the example shows modules. in series
fiveIn in order to increase
Figure 7, the potential
series-connected modules. the system
difference
In Figure voltage
between [52]. For
module 3
7, the potential the sake
and its
difference
ofbetween
simplicity,
frame the
is negligible. example
In modules shows 4 five
and 5,series-connected
the voltage gradientmodules.
between In Figure
the
module 3 and its frame is negligible. In modules 4 and 5, the voltage gradient between the cells7, the
and potential
the frames difference
increases
between
cells andmodule
positively, leading
the frames 3 the
andincreases
its frame
current fromis negligible.
the PVleading
positively, In modules
cells to the 4 and
the current
frame 5,
offrom
thethemodules.
voltage
the PV cellsgradient
to thebetween
Likewise, in case
frame ofthe
of
the
cells
modules and 1the
and frames
2, the increases
voltage ofpositively,
the frames leading
is higherthe current
than in from
the cells
modules. Likewise, in case of modules 1 and 2, the voltage of the frames is higher than in the cells the
andPVthecells to
leakagethe frame
current of the
flows
modules.
from
andthe Likewise,
theframe
leakage theincells
to current case of modules
[53].
flows from the1frame and 2,tothethevoltage
cells [53].of the frames is higher than in the cells
and the leakage current flows from the frame to the cells [53].
Figure 10. EL images of the samples modules affected by PID: (a) on the left and (b) on the right.
Figure 10. EL images of the samples modules affected by PID: (a) on the left and (b) on the right.
Figure 10. EL images of the samples modules affected by PID: (a) on the left and (b) on the right.
Energies 2019,
Energies 2019, 12,
12, 4547
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10
10 of
of 26
26
Figure
Figure 11. I-V curve
11. I-V curve of
of the
the module
module affected
affected by
by PID
PID in
in Figure
Figure 10a.
10a.
3.6. Defective Bypass Diodes
3.6. Defective Bypass Diodes
Bypass diodes are installed in the PV modules in order to protect PV cells against the current
Bypass diodes are installed in the PV modules in order to protect PV cells against the current
mismatch result of shading and other internal defects. In installing the bypass diodes in the modules,
mismatch result of shading and other internal defects. In installing the bypass diodes in the modules,
the magnitude of breakdown voltage of a single cell is considered [58]; thus, a diode is generally
the magnitude of breakdown voltage of a single cell is considered [58]; thus, a diode is generally
installed for a group of about 20–24 cells. One of the main defects of the bypass diodes is the short
installed for a group of about 20–24 cells. One of the main defects of the bypass diodes is the short
circuit fault. A short-circuited diode can be immediately detected from the reduction in power of
circuit fault. A short-circuited diode can be immediately detected from the reduction in power of the
the PV modules. If each PV module is equipped with three bypass diodes, the underperformance is
PV modules. If each PV module is equipped with three bypass diodes, the underperformance is
usually 1/3 of the maximum power and 1/3 of open circuit voltage (Figure 12). An open-circuited diode
usually 1/3 of the maximum power and 1/3 of open circuit voltage (Figure 12). An open-circuited
has no effect on the operation of an unshaded PV module. In the event of shading, a module with
diode has no effect on the operation of an unshaded PV module. In the event of shading, a module
open-circuited diode can be subject to high reverse voltage. Such a PV module is highly susceptible to
with open-circuited diode can be subject to high reverse voltage. Such a PV module is highly
damage and is even a fire hazard in the case of overheating [59].
susceptible to damage and is even a fire hazard in the case of overheating [59].
Figure 12. Current-voltage curves of module with one shorted bypass diode
Figure 12. Current-voltage curves of module with one shorted bypass diode.
Regarding
Regarding the failure
failure rate
rate of
of bypass
bypass diodes,
diodes, it is reported
reported in in reference
reference [60]
[60] that during the
that during the
inspection of an eight-year-old PV plant in Japan, out of 1272 modules, 47% showed diode failures. failures.
In
In another study, 26
another study, 26 out
out of
of 2352
2352 modules
modules showed
showed diode
diode failures
failures in
in Arizona,
Arizona, USA
USA [61].
[61]. Besides
Besides the
the
power
power reduction
reduction ofof the modules, the diode failures also can lead to follow-up faults
the modules, faults of
of the
the PV cells.
cells.
It is therefore
therefore important
important to to mention
mention the
the reasons
reasons for
for diode
diode failures.
failures. Some of the important factors for
the
the damaging
damaging of bypass diode
of bypass diode in
in PV
PV modules
modules are
are [62]
[62]
1. When a PV module of a string is shaded (or a few cells of a single module), the bypassed diodes
1. When a PV module of a string is shaded (or a few cells of a single module), the bypassed
of the shaded module start to conduct (partial shading). Due to conduction of current, their
diodes of the shaded module start to conduct (partial shading). Due to conduction of current,
temperature increases and can easily exceed the maximum temperature for the materials of the
their temperature increases and can easily exceed the maximum temperature for the materials of
PV modules (≈ 85 °C). ◦The regular operation of the bypass diodes causes spot heating in the PV
the PV modules (≈ 85 C). The regular operation of the bypass diodes causes spot heating in the
modules [63].
PV modules [63].
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 11 of 26
2. Bypass diodes undergo thermal runaway in the event of cyclic transition from forward to reverse
bias [64]. This thermal runaway takes place when the power dissipation in the reverse biased
diode is greater than the cooling capacity of the junction box.
3. Shading and fluctuations in irradiance can also lead to regular current cycling via the bypass
diodes. Self-heating leads to thermal cycling.
4. Finding the Values of Parameters for Fault Diagnosis from On-Site Measurements
As described in Section 2.2, abnormal variations in VOC , ISC , Rs , and Rsh , obtained after the
characterization of the I-V curve, suggest different types of defects of the PV modules. The estimation
of VOC and ISC of a PV module from onsite measurements is relatively easy; however, the calculation
of accurate values of Rs and Rsh from onsite measurements is challenging.
For this reason, in this section, different methods proposed in the literature are discussed which
find the values of the parasitic resistances. These methods permit the identification of a defect in
a poly-crystalline PV module. These methods are also valid for mono-crystalline silicon and thin
film modules, as written in reference [65]. Among the parameters previously listed in Section 2.2,
parasitic resistances can give information about the state of health of PV modules under operation,
and a rapid diagnosis of faults allows a fast maintenance and permits the reduction of energy losses.
For example, one of the reasons for the decrease of shunt resistance of the modules is the accumulation
of dirt on the surface of the modules. If the layer of dirt is not discovered in time, the operation of the
dirty module may result in the formation of hotspots. These hotspots represent permanent damage
to the PV modules. Likewise, the decreased shunt resistance also gives an indication of broken cells.
Similarly, an increased series resistance gives the indication of a broken cell interconnection.
For improving the performance of PV plants, online monitoring and diagnosis have become a
necessary feature of PV generation plants [66–71]. Recently, various manufacturers have developed
tools for visualizing the performance of PV arrays [67]. For example, the inverter in [67] can obtain
data about the energy generated from the PV plant in certain time intervals, the cumulative energy
production, etc. This information can be acquired from the inverter for further analysis related to the
state of health of the plant. Monitoring of the plants can be further improved if a scheme is developed
for finding the other parameters, like the parasitic resistances of the modules, their short circuit currents,
and open circuit voltages. Similarly, prototype devices have been proposed in references [68,69] that
can report the performance of PV modules under the field condition. To make these devices more
useful, the inclusion of information about the parasitic resistances is of great value.
V + IRs V + IRs
I = Iph − I0 exp −1 − . (1)
ns aVt Rsh
At the short circuit point I = ISC and V = 0, the above equation becomes
I Rs I Rs
ISC = Iph − I0 exp SC − 1 − SC . (2)
ns aVt Rsh
By taking the derivative of Equation (2) and after some simplifications the result is
where Rsh0 represents the segment between points B and C, as shown in Figure 13. The method
proposed in reference [70] is useful only when the PV module operates under the conditions close to
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 26
Regarding the determination of series resistance Rs, several methods are reported in literature.
The first method discussed here is the one given in [72]. This technique measures the degradation in
the PV-module
Energies 2019, 12, 4547performance through series resistance estimation. This scheme is based upon12 ofthe
26
single diode model with the characteristic equation given in Equation (1). The other important
quantities are calculated in the following equations, where the subscript n stands for nominal
STC. When the temperature of PV cells becomes high, the approximation of R as the slope of the I-V
conditions—that is, standard test condition (STC): Gn = 1000 W/m2, Tn = 25 °C,shaccording to references
curve, according to Equation (3), does not return an accurate value of the shunt resistance. This fact
[43,73–75].
will be made clear in the simulation results.
𝑇 𝐺G
𝑅 = 𝑅 , Iph =1 (−Iscn
0.217 ∆T )
+ KI𝑙𝑛 (6) (4)
𝑇 𝐺Gn
where NOCT is the normal operating cell temperature provided by the manufacturer of the PV
ISC
modules. G = Gn . (8)
ISC, n + KI ∆T
In this method [72], the reduction in the value of VMPP is considered as an outcome of the
The temperature
additional of the module
series resistance. is calculated
In the first step, VMPP from Ta the
the of
and IMPP as module are measured. In the second
step the reduction of VMPP is computed as
NOCT − 20◦ C
!
T = Ta + G, (9)
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 800W/m
, − 𝑉2 , . (10)
whereThe
NOCTincrease
is the in Rs is considered
normal to temperature
operating cell be brought about by an
provided increase
by the in the series
manufacturer of theresistance ΔRs
PV modules.
calculated
In thisasmethod [72], the reduction in the value of VMPP is considered as an outcome of the
additional series resistance. In the first step, V∆𝑅 ∆ I
and
MPP = . of the module are measured. In the second
MPP (11)
step the reduction of VMPP is computed as
The increase in Rs is considered to be brought about by an increase in the series resistance ∆Rs
calculated as
∆VMPP
∆Rs = . (11)
IMPP
The additional series resistance is normalized with respect to the model parameter as
∆Rs
N∆Rs = . (12)
Rs
In the above method, any degradation is translated in the form of increment in the module
Rs . However, it is important to note that many degradations like ageing, corrosion of the metal
semiconductor interface, and PID cause a reduction in VMPP . Similarly, a decreased Rsh also causes
a reduction in VMPP . The method proposed in reference [72] manifests these defects as a “fictitious
increase” in Rs . This means that the actual value of the Rs cannot be found by means of this procedure.
In [76] another method to find Rs is proposed. In this scheme the derivative of voltage with
respect to current is calculated at point nearby IMPP . As described in reference [72], the performance
degradation of a PV module is detected by monitoring the changes in PV generator’s series resistance.
In this way, the information about the variation of Rs is also obtained along with finding the MPP.
The knowledge of the short circuit current is needed and the same ISC is found from IMPP by the relation
ISC = IMPP /fI . Here, the value of the factor fI is approximately equal to 0.92, because the manufacturers
of PV modules declare IMPP and ISC corresponding to a ratio in the range 0.90–0.95. The optimal point
at which the derivative of voltage with respect to current is evaluated is denoted by Q. There are two
options for choosing Q:
Q = ISC − 0.75IMPP (13)
or
Vt G Tn
Rs = Rs0 + . −1 . (17)
ISC Gn T
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 14 of 26
Reference [71] makes use of RS0 for calculating the series resistance through the following equation:
1 akT −VOC
Rs = Rs0 − exp . (18)
I0 q nVt
Equation (18) can be used to calculate the value of the series resistance. However, for this purpose,
the accurate value of the VOC is required. It means that the PV generator has to be disconnected from
the load. Frequent disconnection of the PV generator from the load not only results in power loss but
can also create power quality issues in grid-connected PV plants.
4.2. The proposed Alternative Methodology for the Determination of Shunt and Series Resistances
In Section 4.1, some methods to find the parasitic resistances of PV modules is presented.
The limitations of these methods have also been discussed. In this subsection, a different method is
proposed to find the shunt and the series resistances. This method will be applied in Section 5.
Figure 13 shows the I-V curve of a PV module with uniform irradiance. Consider a point A on the
curve. This point is in the voltage source region of the characteristic curve. The equation that relates
the current (IA ) and voltage (VA ) at point A from the single diode model is
V + IA Rs V + IA Rs
IA = Iph − I0 exp A −1 − A . (19)
aVt Rsh
From the slope of segment BC in Figure 13, the value of ISC or Iph can be extrapolated.
Similarly, from the slope of segment between A and E points, the value of the open circuit voltage can be
extrapolated. Once the values of Iph and Rsh , Vt and I0 are known, the above equation can then be solved
numerically to find Rs . One of the well-known numerical algorithm is the Newton-Raphson (NR)
method. The NR algorithm can be easily implemented through a computer program. However, when it
is desired to calculate the value of series resistance under real time operation in the field, a powerful
microcontroller may be required for implementing the NR method for solving the Equation (19)
numerically. For reducing the computational burden on the microcontroller, the Equation (19) must be
expressed in an explicit form. According to [78], the influence of Rs is stronger in the voltage source
region, while that of Rsh is stronger in the current source of the PV electrical curve. According to
Figure 13, point A is in the voltage source region of the PV generator. Therefore, in Equation (19) the
term involving Rsh is neglected:
V + IA Rs
IA = Iph − I0 exp A −1 (20)
aVt
Iph − IA
!
aVt V
Rs = ln − A (21)
IA I0 IA
Finding the value of series resistance from Equation (21) involves the operation of a PV module
at a single point in the voltage source region of the I-V curve, for example, at point A in Figure 13.
When the module is operated at point A, the corresponding values of voltage VA and current IA are
then used in Equation (21). The value of saturation current I0 is dependent on the temperature which
is taken from temperature sensor [72] and then Equation (5) is used to calculate the saturation current.
Thermal voltage Vt is also temperature dependent. Thermal voltage is determined as Vt = ns kT/q
where ns is the number of series connected cells in the module, k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the
temperature, and q is the electron charge. Thus, through the use of Equation (21) one can easily estimate Rs.
Regarding the determination of Rsh , the characteristic equation Equation (1) is solved assuming
that the PV module operates at the MPP, where the value of RS is calculated according to Equation (21).
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 15 of 26
1. Take the operating point of the PV generator close to ISC . From the slope of the I-V curve close to
ISC , estimate the value of ISC (or Iph ).
2. Take the operating point of the PV generator close to VOC and estimate the value VOC from the
slope of the I-V curve (for example points A and E in Figure 13).
3. Calculate the value of Rs by using Equation (21)
4. Operate the PV generator at the MPP (or close to it) and use Equation (22) to find the value of Rsh .
The centralized MPPT architecture is the simplest, and the MPP tracking is performed on the entire
array. The drawback of this arrangement is that the power losses in case of the modules mismatching
and partial shading are high. Similarly, the fault diagnosis during the normal operation is extremely
difficult. To reduce the mismatch losses, string inverter architecture is one of the best solutions. In this
architecture, the MPP tracking for each string is performed and the mismatch losses are lower than in
case of centralized architecture. When the system voltages are higher, the modules are prone to PID in
the central and string inverter MPPTs. In order to further decrease the mismatching loss, module and
submodule integrated (SMI) MPPTs have been proposed in literature [79–83]. The architecture of SMI
MPPT is shown in Figure 14. Usually, in a PV module 20 or 24 PV cells are protected by a single bypass
diode. In case of SMI MPPTs, every submodule (a group of cells protected by the same bypass diode)
has its own MPPT. The SMI MPPTs most important advantages are listed below:
1. The SMI MPPT architecture decouples module from PV strings and in this way, the MPP control
of each SubModule (SM) is possible.
2. Online monitoring and diagnosis of the PV modules is easy. As shown later in this paper, it is
possible to check the existence of a fault by making small adjustment in the MPPT algorithm.
3. Some inverters are able to communicate with the PV modules by exchanging the performance
data [67]. In this way, the extent and the physical location of a fault is easily known.
4. In reference [84] it is predicted that, during the 30 years of operation, the SMI architecture yields
more power in different installations like PV plants on land, rooftop, façade, and electric vehicles.
In references [85,86], it is reported that this configuration gives 20% more energy as compared to
other types of DMPPTs.
5. The hardware for DMPPTs can be installed in the junction box of the PV module and a single
microcontroller performs the MPP tracking of all the three submodules [85]. Even though the
arrangement in [80] does not use a current sensor and measures the voltage drop across the
inductor of the buck converter for estimating the current, it is possible to use an accurate Hall
Effect based current sensor for accurate measurements. The cost of these sensors has decreased in
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 16 of 26
recent years and accurate sensing of current is possible without any substantial increase in the
system cost.
6. In references [76–80], researches investigate the possibility of avoiding the installation of bypass
and the reverse blocking diodes. According to [87], the insertion of the blocking diodes against
reverse currents can be avoided with crystalline silicon technology, provided that the short circuit
fault inside the submodule is not possible thanks to the double insulation typical of commercial
PV devices.
7. The PV modules in the string and centralized inverter schemes are subject to high voltage
stresses which make them vulnerable to PIDs. In the SMI MPPTs, every submodule operates
independently at a voltage less than 20 V. This eliminates the risk of PIDs.
8. The MPP tracking is quite easy as there is always a single peak on the P-V curve of the SM. In this
way, a conventional MPPT scheme can be used to track the peak. Through small modification in
the algorithm, it is also possible to improve the tracking speed of the conventional MPPT and to
obtain
Energies the
2019, 12, diagnostics
x FOR information.
PEER REVIEW 16 of 26
20
series
MPPT
connected
cells
20
series
connected MPPT
cells
20
series
MPPT
connected
cells
where R
where Rout is the
out is the output
output load
load resistance, i.e., V
resistance, i.e., Vout2 /Iout2
out2/I out2. .Considering
Consideringthe
theanalysis
analysisin
inreferences
references [86–88],
[86–88],
Rout
R iscalculated
out is calculatedas asfollows
follows
𝑅 =𝐷 . (24)
Before explaining the proposed algorithm, it is necessary to discuss the procedure that is
followed for operating a PV generator in a certain point on the I-V curve. This is done by setting the
duty cycle of the DC-DC converter to an appropriate value. Let us consider the case of a buck
converter. As an assumption, the converter is operating in a certain point with duty cycle D1 =
Energies 2019,
Vout1/Vin1 12, 4547
. The output side of the DC-DC converter, regulated at constant voltage, supplies a17load,of 26
which could be directly a DC load or the input side of a centralized voltage source inverter. Hence,
the selected value of duty cycle is inversely proportional to the imposed input voltage Vin. The voltage
and current at the input of the converter are Vin1 and2 V
Iin1, respectively. In order to operate the PV in a
Rout = D1 in1 . (24)
Iin1
certain point with voltage Vin2 and current Iin2, the new duty cycle D2 is calculated as
The flowchart given in Figure 15 describes the proposed method. At the beginning, the algorithm
𝐷 =the duty cycle
operates the SM close to the ISC . At this stage , (23)to
of the converter is changed slightly
shift the operating point to the higher voltage side, i.e., from point B to C in Figure 13. This is done for
where Rout is the output load resistance, i.e., Vout2/Iout2. Considering the analysis in references [86–88],
the purpose of calculating the slope of the I-V curve in the neighborhood of ISC and estimating the
Rout is calculated as follows
value of Iph . Then, Equation (3) is used to find the Rsh of the SM. The next step is to take the operating
point of the system to the Voltage Source Region𝑅 = 𝐷 of. the SM, as shown by block 5 in Figure(24)
(VSR) 15.
Figure 15. Flowchart of the algorithm performing MPP tracking and fault diagnosis.
Figure 15. Flowchart of the algorithm performing MPP tracking and fault diagnosis.
For this purpose, it is necessary to find Rout . The operation of the PV is still in the current source
region assuming that it has voltage V1 and current I1 , and using Equation (24), Rout is calculated.
The next step is to find the values of I2 and V2 in Equation (23). For this purpose, the current of the SM
is approximated equal to the half of its photo-generated current, V2 is approximated to be 90% of the
rated VOC of the SM. These values are inserted in Equation (23) to determine the value of duty cycle D2
of the converter for taking the operation to the VSR of the SM. By setting the duty cycle of the converter
equal to D2 , the operation is taken to the VSR, for example to point A in Figure 13. As shown in block 5
of the flowchart in Figure 15, the value of Rs of the SM is calculated using Equation (22). Then the duty
cycle of the converter is slightly increased to take the operating point to E in Figure 13. From the slope
of the segment AE the value of VOC of the SM is approximated and it is denoted as VOC,app . This is
done for estimating the MPP voltage of the SM. The duty cycle of the converter corresponding to MPP
is denoted as DMPP and is found by using Equation (23). In this case, it is necessary to replace I2 and
V2 with IMPP and VMPP , where
VOC,
!
app
IMPP = 0.92 Iph − , (25)
Rsh
By setting the converter’s duty cycle equal to DMPP , the operating point of the system is taken to
MPP. After taking the operating point of the SM close to the MPP, Rsh of the SM is calculated using
Equation (22). Then, the algorithm invokes a low cost P&O procedure to operate the system at the
MPP in the steady-state. In the steady-state operation, the value of the perturbation step is kept small
to reduce the oscillations around the MPP. The P&O algorithm maintains the operation at the MPP
for minor changes in the irradiance conditions. During the operation of the P&O algorithm the PV
output power is monitored for any abnormal variation. As shown in block 10, if the change in the
output power of the PV during a certain sampling period is greater than the recorded MPP power,
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 18 of 26
the whole process revealed in Figure 15 is repeated. As a conclusion, this process is a loop in which
the P&O works continuously. In case of an abnormal variation of power, or after a predefined time
overflow (several tens of seconds up to few minutes), the MPPT tracking with the determination of the
equivalent circuit parameters is performed; then, the traditional P&O restarts.
The algorithm presented above has been simulated in MATLAB/SIMULINK. The PV generator
used in the simulations is a typical 20 cell SM with rated VOC = 12.2 V and ISC = 8.2 A under STC.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26
The simulated I-V curve of the PV generator under STC is shown in Figure 16.
Solving the
the above
above equation forRRshsh gives
equationfor gives the value RRshsh =
the value Ω. This
= 47.95 Ω. This algorithm
algorithm is simulated for
two cases:
1.
1. When irradiance
When G ==500
irradiance G W/m22, ,and
500W/m andcell temperatureTT==298
celltemperature 298K;
K;
2.
2. When G ==700
When G 700W/m 2 andTT==348
W/m2 and 348K.K.
The
The SMSM isis connected
connected to to aa DC-DC
DC-DC buck buck converter
converter with with switching
switching frequency
frequency of of 100
100 kHz
kHz and
and the
the
sampling
sampling period
period is is taken
taken as
as 10
10 ms.
ms.
G=
2 and T = 298 K. At the start of the
Figure
Figure 17 17 shows
shows thethe simulation
simulation results when G
results when = 500
500 W/m
W/m2 and T = 298 K. At the start of the
algorithm,
algorithm, thethe PV
PV source
source is
is operated
operated close
close toto IISC
SC..
At tt =
At 0.01 s,
= 0.01 s, duty
duty cycle
cycle of
of the
the DC-DC
DC-DC converter
converter is is slightly
slightly reduced
reduced to to take
take the
the operating
operating point
point to
to
the right for estimating the value
the right for estimating the value of ISCSC of I . At this stage, R is found by using Equation
. At this stage, Rsh isshfound by using Equation (3), which is 47.9 (3), which is
Ω, asΩ,
47.9 as given
given in Figure
in Figure 17d. Then
17d. Then the operating
the operating point of point
the ofSMthe SM is to
is taken taken
VSR.toThis
VSR. is This
doneistodone
find to
Rs
find R using Equation (22) and
using Equation (22) and VOC, app. The
s V . The value of R is found to be 0.33 Ω, as shown
value of Rs is found to be 0.33 Ω, as shown in Figure 17e. At t =
OC, app s in Figure 17e.
0.05t =
At 0.05 s (given
s (given in Figure in Figure
17d) the17d) theofvalue
value of theresistance
the shunt shunt resistance Rsh = 49.4RΩ.
is calculated
is calculated = 49.4
sh This Ω. This is
is calculated
calculated
by solvingbythe solving the current-voltage
current-voltage equationequation
of the PV of the PV source
source for the forvalues
the values at that
at that point
point (similar
(similar to
Equation (27)). The value of shunt resistance, determined from the proposed method and the one
found from Equation (3) [70,71], does not differ much from each other in this case, but the difference
of the two methods increases when the temperature of the SM is higher. Similarly, the value of the
series resistance is also close to the one found for the SM under STC. As shown in Figure 17, from t =
0.05s, the algorithm invokes conventional P&O algorithm to maintain the operation of SM around
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 19 of 26
to Equation (27)). The value of shunt resistance, determined from the proposed method and the one
found from Equation (3) [70,71], does not differ much from each other in this case, but the difference of
the two methods increases when the temperature of the SM is higher. Similarly, the value of the series
resistance is also close to the one found for the SM under STC. As shown in Figure 17, from t = 0.05s,
the algorithm invokes conventional P&O algorithm to maintain the operation of SM around the MPP
in the steady
Energies 2019, 12,state,
x FORas indicated
PEER REVIEWby block 9 of Figure 15. 19 of 26
17. Simulation
Figure 17. Simulation results,
results,ininterms
termsofofpower
power (a),
(a), voltage
voltage (b),(b),
dutyduty cycle
cycle (c), (c),
shuntshunt resistance
resistance (d)
(d) and
and series
series resistance
resistance (e) all(e)
inall in function
function of time,
of time, of theof the presented
presented algorithm
algorithm under under irradiance
irradiance of 500 of
W/m5002
and 2 and temperature
W/mtemperature 298 K. 298 K.
However,
However, under
underthethesteady
steadystate,
state,if ifthere
thereis is
ananabnormal
abnormal variation in the
variation output
in the power
output of the
power of SM,
the
it
SM,indicates a change
it indicates either
a change in the
either inatmospheric
the atmospheric conditions or the
conditions orcondition of PV
the condition ofSM. In case
PV SM. of this
In case of
change, new MPP search operation begins, and at the end of the process,
this change, new MPP search operation begins, and at the end of the process, the new values ofthe new values of parasitic
resistances and otherand
parasitic resistances parameters of the PV of
other parameters SM arePV
the calculated.
SM are calculated.
Figure 18 shows the simulation results for
18 shows the simulation results for a second a second case study
case studywith G=
with G 700 W/m
= 700
2 2
W/mand andT =T 348 K.
= 348
By following the aforementioned procedure, the algorithm determines the values
K. By following the aforementioned procedure, the algorithm determines the values of parasitic of parasitic resistances.
The values ofThe
resistances. shunt resistance
values of shuntfound by usingfound
resistance Equation (3), which
by using is proposed
Equation in references
(3), which is proposed[70,71]
in
is 3.31 Ω (shown in Figure 18d), while the value calculated by the proposed
references [70,71] is 3.31 Ω (shown in Figure 18d), while the value calculated by the proposed technique is 46.37 Ω.
technique is 46.37 Ω. The shunt resistance found by the proposed technique is closer to that at the
STC. On the other hand, the technique given in references [70,71] gives an inaccurate value of the
shunt resistance. As given in Figure 18e, the value of series resistance using Equation (22) (which is
the proposed method) measures 0.2935 Ω. The main drawback of the method given in references
[7,76] is that the actual value of the series resistance cannot be calculated when the temperature
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 20 of 26
The shunt resistance found by the proposed technique is closer to that at the STC. On the other hand,
the technique given in references [70,71] gives an inaccurate value of the shunt resistance. As given in
Figure 18e, the value of series resistance using Equation (22) (which is the proposed method) measures
0.2935 Ω. The main drawback of the method given in references [7,76] is that the actual value of the
series resistance cannot be calculated when the temperature changes. However, the proposed method
calculates
Energies 2019,the
12, xvalue of series
FOR PEER resistance of the SM, which is close to the one at the STC.
REVIEW 20 of 26
The simulation results show how to perform diagnostics of the PV sub-module during the MPP
tracking. The
tracking. Thetechniques
techniquesproposed
proposedin in this
this paper
paper to
to find
find the
the parasitic
parasitic resistances
resistances are accurate as
compared to the methods proposed in the literature.
literature. The values of thethe parasitic resistances, IISC
parasitic resistances, SC, and
approximate
approximate values of the open circuit voltage (V OC,app) found during the execution of the MPPT
open circuit voltage (VOC,app ) found during the execution of the
algorithm are communicated to the centralized inverter equipped with microprocessormicroprocessor and software
able to
todetect
detectoccurred
occurredfaults
faults
of PV modules and send messages to the usersusers
of PV modules and send messages to the for addressing
for addressing the
the issues
issues [67,72]. These values can then be utilized to assess the existence of a fault
[67,72]. These values can then be utilized to assess the existence of a fault in the SM. in the SM.
6. Conclusions
In the present work, a review of defects, observed during the operational lifetime of PV modules,
has been presented. The main objective of the review is to study the effects of these defects on the
parameters of the equivalent of the PV modules, like the open circuit voltage, short circuit current,
series resistance, and shunt resistance. The common fault diagnostic techniques, like
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 21 of 26
6. Conclusions
In the present work, a review of defects, observed during the operational lifetime of PV
modules, has been presented. The main objective of the review is to study the effects of these
defects on the parameters of the equivalent of the PV modules, like the open circuit voltage,
short circuit current, series resistance, and shunt resistance. The common fault diagnostic techniques,
like electroluminescence and thermographic imaging, and their drawbacks have been discussed.
The alternative to the aforementioned diagnostic tests is to determine the parameters of the equivalent
circuit during the on-site operation of PV generators. With respect to current literature on this topic,
a simple method to detect the values of the series and shunt resistances in the equivalent circuit
of the PV generators has been proposed. Furthermore, it has been shown that MPPT tracking and
defect detection by equivalent circuit parameters can be combined. This combination can be fruitfully
applied in case of submodule integrated MPPT because no local maxima on the PV curve are present.
Regarding the reference values for diagnosis purpose, simulation results, carried out at two irradiances
and temperatures, demonstrate that a 20-cell polycrystalline silicon submodule, without intrinsic
defects or shadows, exhibits a series resistance within 0.3–0.5 Ω and a shunt resistance within 40–50 Ω.
This information is provided within 50 ms.
Author Contributions: J.A. carried out the original draft preparation and all the simulations. F.S. analyzed the
data and results. A.C. and S.F. contributed to the paper writing and the whole revision process. All authors
equally organized and refined the manuscript in the present form.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
a diode ideality factor
I PV cell current (A)
G irradiance on the cell surface (W/m2 )
Gn nominal irradiance (1000 W/m2 )
IMPP maximum power point current (A)
I0 saturation current (A)
Iph photo-generated current (A)
ISC short circuit current (A)
Iscn nominal short circuit current (A)
k Boltzmann constant (J/K)
KI thermal coefficients of current (A/◦ C)
KV thermal coefficients of voltage (V/◦ C)
ns number of cells in series
N∆Rs normalized increase in the series resistance
q electron charge (C)
Rs series resistance (Ω)
Rs,n series resistance of cells (Ω) under nominal conditions
RS0 series resistance close to V oc (Ω)
Rsh shunt resistance (Ω)
Rsh0 negative reciprocal of the slope of the I-V curve close to ISC (Ω)
T temperature of the module (◦ C)
Ta air temperature (◦ C)
Tn nominal temperature (◦ C)
V PV cell voltage (V)
VMPP maximum power point voltage (V)
VOC open circuit voltage (V)
VOCn nominal voltage (V)
Vt thermal voltage at STC temperature (≈25.7 mV)
Energies 2019, 12, 4547 22 of 26
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