AL-Mustaqbal university college

Pharmacy department

Principles of pharmacy practice

Lec 2
Ghada Ali PhD candidate
ghada.ali@mustaqbal-college.edu.iq
Objective

 Apply the method of ratio and proportion in problem-

solving.
 Apply the method of dimensional analysis in problem-
solving.
 Demonstrate an understanding of significant figures
 Ratio, Proportion and Variation
Ratio
The relative amount of two quantities is called their ratio. Since a
ratio relates the relative value of two numbers, it resembles a
common fraction except in the way in which it is presented.
Whereas a fraction is presented as, for example, 1/2 a ratio is
presented as 1:2 and is not read as ‘‘one half,’’ but rather as ‘‘one is
to two.’’ All the rules governing common fractions equally apply to a
ratio. Of particular importance is the principle that if the two terms
of a ratio are multiplied or are divided by the same number,
the value is unchanged, the value being the quotient of the first term
divided by the second. For example, the ratio 20/4 or 20:4 has a value
of 5; if both terms are divided by 2, the ratio becomes 10:2 or10/2,
again the value of 5.
The terms of a ratio must be of the same kind, for the value of a ratio
is an abstract number expressing how many times greater or smaller
the first term (or numerator) is than the second term (or
denominator). The terms may themselves be abstract numbers, or
they may be concrete numbers of the same denomination. Thus, we
can have a ratio of 20 to 4 (20⁄4) or 20 grams to 4 grams (20 grams/4
grams).When two ratios have the same value, they are equivalent. An
interesting fact about equivalent ratios is that the product of the
numerator of the one and the denominator of the other always equals
the product of the denominator of the one and the numerator of the
other; that is, the cross products are equal:
It is also true that if two ratios are equal, their reciprocals are equal:
Because 2⁄4 = 4⁄8, then 4⁄2 = 8⁄4.
We discover further that the numerator of the one fraction equals the
product of its denominator and the other fraction:

And the denominator of the one equals the quotient of its numerator
divided by the other fraction:

An extremely useful practical application of these facts is found in

proportion.
Proportion
A proportion is the expression of the equality of two ratios. It may be
written in any one of
three standard forms:

Each of these expressions is read: a is to b as c is to d, and a and d are

called the extremes (meaning ‘‘outer members’’) and b and c the
means (‘‘middle members’’).In any proportion, the product of the
extremes is equal to the product of the means. This principle
allows us to find the missing term of any proportion when the other
three terms are known. If the missing term is a mean, it will be the
product of the extremes divided by the given mean, and
if it is an extreme, it will be the product of the means divided by the
given extreme. Using this information, we may derive the following
fractional equations
In a proportion that is properly set up, the position of the
unknown term does not matter. However, some persons
prefer to place the unknown term in the fourth position—
that is, I n the denominator of the second ratio. It important t
o label the units in each position (e.g., mL, mg)
to ensure the proper relationship between the ratios of a
proportion..
Example:
If 30 milliliters (mL) represent 1⁄6 of the volume of a prescription,
how many milliliters will represent 1⁄4 of the volume?

1/6=0.167 and 1/4=0.25

0.167 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚 30𝑚𝑙
=
0.25 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑋𝑚𝑙
X=44.91 or ≈45ml, answer
Variation:
In the preceding examples, the relationships were clearly
proportional. Most pharmaceutical calculations deal with simple,
direct relationships: twice the cause, double the effect, and so on.
Occasionally, they deal with inverse relationships: twice the cause,
half the effect, and so on, as when you decrease the strength of a
solution by increasing the amount of diluent .b Here is a typical
problem involving inverse proportion: If 10 pints of a 5% solution
are diluted to 40 pints, what is the percentage strength of the
dilution?

10𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑋%
=
40𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 5%
10𝑥5
X= % = 1.25% , 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
40
 Dimensional analysis:
An alternative method to ratio and proportion in solving
pharmaceutical calculation problems.
• The method involves the logical sequencing and placement of a
series of ratios to consolidate multiple arithmetic steps into a single
equation.
• By applying select conversion factors in the equation—some as
reciprocals—unwanted units of measure cancel out, leaving the
arithmetic result and desired unit.
• Dimensional analysis scheme
Example calculations using Dimensional analysis
How many fluidounces ( fl. oz.) are there in 2.5 liters (L)?
Step 1. The given quantity is 2.5 L.
Step 2. The wanted unit for the answer is fluidounces.
Step 3. The conversion factors needed are those that will take us
from liters to fluidounces.
As the student will later learn, these conversion factors are:
1 liter = 1000 ml (to convert the given 2.5 L to milliliters), and
1 fluidounce = 29.57 mL (to convert milliliters to fluidounces)
Step 4. The unit path setup:
Note: The unit path is set up such that all units of measurement
will cancel out except for the unit wanted in the answer,
fluidounces, which is placed in the numerator.
Step 5. Perform the computation

1L
Significant figures
When we count objects accurately, every figure in the numeral
expressing the total number of objects must be taken at its face
value. Such figures may be said to be absolute. When we record
a measurement, the last figure to the right must be taken to be
an approximation, an admission that the limit of possible
precision or of necessary accuracy has been reached and that
any further figures to the right would not be significant—that is,
either meaningless or, for a given purpose, needless.
 A denominate number, like 325 grams, is interpreted as follows:
The 3 means 300 grams , neither more nor less, and the 2 means
exactly 20 grams more; but the final 5 means approximately 5 grams
more, i.e., 5 grams plus or minus some fraction of a gram. Whether
this fraction is, for a given purpose, negligible depends on how
precisely the quantity was (or is to be) weighed.
Significant figures, then, are serial figures that express the value of
a Denominate number accurately enough for a given purpose. The
accuracy varies with the number of significant figures, which are all
absolute in value except the last, and this is properly called uncertain.
Any of the digits in a valid denominate number must be regarded as
significant. Whether zero is significant, however, depends on its
position or on known facts about a given number.
The interpretation of zero may be summed up as follows
 Digits other than zero are significant.
• A zero between digits is significant.
• Final zeros after a decimal point are significant.
• Zeros used only to show the location of the decimal point are
not significant
Example
1. In 12.5, there are three significant figures; in 1.256, four significant
figures; and in 102.56, five significant figures.
2. In 0.65, there are two significant figures, and likewise two in 0.065
and 0.0065.
3. In 0.0605, there are three significant figures. The first 0 calls
attention to the decimal point, the second 0 shows the number of
places to the right of the decimal point occupied by the
remaining figures, and the third 0 significantly contributes to the
value of the number. In 0.06050, there are four significant figures,
because the final 0 also contributes to the value of the number.
Rules for rounding
1.When rounding a measurement, retain as many figures as will
give only one uncertain figure.
For example, in using a ruler calibrated only in full centimeter
units, it would be correct to record a measurement of 11.3
centimeters but not 11.32 centimeters, because the 3 (tenths) is
uncertain and no figure should follow it.
2. When eliminating unnecessary figures following a calculation,
add 1 to the last figure retained in a calculation if it is 5 or more.
For example, 2.43 may be rounded off to 2.4, but 2.46 should be
rounded off to 2.5.
3-When adding or subtracting approximate numbers, include
only as many decimal places as are in the number with the
fewest decimal places. For example, when adding 162.4
grams + 0.489 grams + 0.1875 grams +120.78 grams, the
sum is 283.8565 grams, but the rounded sum is 283.9 grams.
However, when an instrument has the capability to weigh
precisely all the quantities in such a calculation, rounding
may be estimated inappropriate. In this regard, there is an
assumption made in pharmaceutical calculations that all
measurements in the filling of a prescription or in
compounding a formula are performed with equal precision
by the pharmacist. Thus, for example, if the quantities 5.5
grams, 0.01 gram, and 0.005 gram are specified in a formula,
they may be added as if they are precise weights, with a sum
of 5.515 grams.
4. When multiplying or dividing two approximate numbers, retain
no more significant figures than the number having the fewest
significant figures. For example, if multiplying 1.6437 grams
by 0.26, the answer may be rounded from the calculated 0.427362
grams to 0.43 grams.
5. When multiplying or dividing an approximate number by an
absolute number, the result should be rounded to the same
number of significant figures as in the approximate number.
Thus, if 1.54 milligrams is multiplied by 96, the product, 147.84
milligrams, may be rounded to 148 milligrams, or to three
significant figures
Estimation
One of the best checks of the reasonableness of a numeric
computation is an estimation of the answer. If we arrive at a
wrong answer by using a wrong method, a mechanical repetition
of the calculation may not reveal the error. But an absurd result,
such as occurs when the decimal point is put in the wrong place,
will not likely slip past if we check it against a preliminary
estimation of what the result should be. Because it is imperative
that pharmacists ensure the accuracy of their calculations by
every possible means, pharmacy students are advised to agree
estimation as one of those means. Proficiency in estimating
comes only from constant practice
Therefore, pharmacy students are advised to obtain the practice of
estimating the answer to every problem met before
attempting to solve it. Estimation serves as a means for judging the
reasonableness of the final result.
The estimating process is basically simple. First, the numbers given
in a problem are mentally rounded off to slightly larger or smaller
numbers containing fewer significant figures; for example,
59 would be rounded off to 60, and 732 to 700. Then, the required
computations are performed ,as far as possible mentally, and the
result, although known to be somewhat greater or smaller
than the exact answer, is close enough to serve as an estimate.
In addition, we can obtain a reasonable estimate of the total by
first adding the figures in the leftmost column. The neglected
remaining figures of each number are equally likely to express
more or less than one-half the value of a unit of the order we have
just added, and hence to the sum of the leftmost column we add
half for every number in the column
Example:
Add the following numbers: 7428, 3652, 1327, 4605, 2791, and
4490.
Estimation:
The figures in the thousands column add up to 21,000, and with
each number on the average
contributing 500 more, or every pair 1000 more, we get 21,000 +
3000 = 24,000, estimated
answer (actual answer, 24,293).
Example:
Multiply 612 by 413.
Estimation:
4 X6 = 24, and because we discarded four figures, we must supply
four zeros, giving 240,000, estimated answer (actual answer,
252,756).
In division, the given numbers may be rounded off to
convenient approximations, but again, care is needed to preserve
the correct place values.
Example:
Divide 2456 by 5.91.
Estimation:
The numbers may be rounded off to 2400 and 6. We may divide 24
by 6 mentally, but we must remember the two zeros substituted for
the given 56 in 2456. The estimated answer is 400 (actual answer,
416).