Gujranwala Electric and Power Company

Internship Report

by

Muhammad Aamir

B.Sc. Electrical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology,

Lahore (RCET Campus)

Internship Program

26 June to 9 August, 2019

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 Contents
1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ------------------------------------- 3

2. Rules of Internship ------------------------------------- 4

3. Different Questions ------------------------------------- 5
4. WAPDA DEPARTMENTS ------------------------------------- 7
4.1 NEPRA ------------------------------------- 7
4.2 PDC ------------------------------------- 7
4.3 RCC ------------------------------------- 7
4.4 NPCC ------------------------------------ 7
4.5 NTDC ------------------------------------- 7
5 Grid Station: ------------------------------------- 9
5.1 Components of grid station --------------------------- 10
6 Transformer ------------------------------------- 25
6.1 Current Transformer ----------------------------------- 25
6.2 Potential Transformer ----------------------------------- 32
6.3 Power Transformer ----------------------------------- 33
6.4 Ideal Transformer ---------------------------------- 34
6.5 Parts of Transformer --------------------------------- 39
6.6 Cooling in Transformer ---------------------------------- 41
6.7 Losses in Transformer ---------------------------------- 41
7 Transmission Line ---------------------------------- 43
8 Capacitor Bank ---------------------------------- 45
9 DC Rectifier ----------------------------------- 46
10 Distance Relays ----------------------------------- 46
11 Differential Relays ----------------------------------- 47

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  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All the praises and admires for our Almighty Allah for completing
my internship and become able to write my internship report. I want to
acknowledge to all of those who helped me to complete my report and to gain
knowledge about activities throughout the period of my Internship in GEPCO
and for writing the Internship report. I want to pay great thanks to the GEPCO
staff who guided me and helped me during my Internship over there. A great
deal of appreciation goes to whole GEPCO STAFF.

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  Rules of Internship

The vast majority of interns working at for-profit organizations must be paid at least the
minimum wage and any applicable overtime. Technically, paid interns are temporary
employees and treated virtually the same as regular employees with respect to labor law. But
you may legally hire an unpaid intern if the following six criteria are met:

1. The internship, even though it includes actual operation of the facilities of the
employer, is similar to training which would be given in an educational environment.
2. The experience is for the benefit of the intern.
3. The intern does not displace regular employees but works under close supervision of
existing staff.
4. The employer providing the training derives no immediate advantage from the
activities of the intern and on occasion its operations may actually be impeded.
5. There is no guarantee of a job at the conclusion of the internship.
6. Both parties understand that the intern is not entitled to wages for the internship.

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  Different Questions

 Why we use transformer instead of generation high voltage?

As the amount of generating voltage increases, the size (insulation) also
increases and hence the size of machine also increases that's why we do not generate
such high voltage and use transformer to step up the voltage level for transmission.

 Why we step up the voltage level for transmission?

As the voltage is high, the current decreases and we need to lessen the amount
of current because less power losses during transmission. there is a thermal capacity
of a material according to which it can bear the amount of current passing through it.
And we need to decrease the cost of wire that's why current is leaded to decrease
according to the metal use for transmission wires.

 Why we didn't use high voltage like 11kv instead of 415V?

With the increase of voltages, the insulation of electrical appliances also
increases and hence the size of device becomes bigger.

 What is the effect of cloud light on transmission lines?

When the cloud light is shine, then it transmit both side of the lines in
Consumers side in finish with help of Grounding and in Grid station it end up by the
lighting arresters. In this this light controls.

 What is corona effect?

In electricity, a corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the
ionization of a fluid or gas surrounding a conductor that is electrically charged.
Spontaneous corona discharges occur naturally in high-voltage systems unless care is
taken to limit the electric field strength.

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  Why the input of transformer is AC?
Since the frequency of DC is zero so there will be no varying magnetic field
and no voltage will be produced on the secondary winding. and if we give DC to the
input of transformer then since the resistance of windings of transformer are very
small and inductive reactance will b zero then there will be a very huge current flow
will occur through winding and it will burn.

XL = 2πfL
This inductive reactance limits the current in case of AC voltage.
There are three terminals at input of a transformer which are three phases while at output ,
there are four terminal and the fourth one is common(Ground).

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  WAPDA DEPARTMENTS
4.1 PEPRA:

PEPRA stands for Pakistan Electric Power and Recruitment Authority. All the
DISCOS in the country are under PEPCO and its operations are to manage the DISCOS all
over country. Discos in the country are GEPCO , LESCO , MEPCO , IESCO , PESCO ,
KESCO , HESCO , and FESCO ,TESCO ,SEPCO and HUBCO.

4.2 PDC:

PDC stands for Power Distribution Center. As there is shortfall of electricity crises
in Pakistan is past 20 years so USAID program developed a project named as LDI (Load
Data Improvement) project to assist Government of Pakistan to achieve the objective through
improving the performance and capacity of Electricity through Distribution companies i.e.
GEPCO .Its original purpose was to effectively monitor and control the power flows on each
DISCO. The Software that control that effectively monitors is MTI (Micro Tech Industry). In
this process Installation of AMR meters by MTI field in close coordination with DISCO and
grid station on all 11kv incoming and outgoing feeders .2354 AMR meters to support project
life. Up gradation of DISCO with live screen, computer hardware and furniture .Where get to
know about live data such as either feeders are off either scheduled is on or off , also tell us
about allocated quote of grid and to tell us about power factor and much more . And Control
panel do have continuous interaction with grid station to keep the flow of Electricity.

4.3 RCC:

RCC stands for Regional Control Center. It is for operation of 132 KV and 66KV
and 220 KV which include Load shedding and maintenance .

4.4 NPCC:

NPCC stands for National Power Control Center. It basically control the switching
of all grids which first take permission from RCC and got a permit so officially that grids can
be switched on or switched off .

4.5 NTDC:

NTDC stands for National Transmission And Dispatch Company. After

unbundling of WAPDA, NTDC was incorporated as a Public Limited Company in Nov, 06
1998 under the Companies Ordinance 1984 (now Companies Act 2017), with its Head Office
at Lahore. After having Certificate for Commencement of Business, NTDC started its
commercial operations from March 01, 1999.

NEPRA granted Transmission License to NTDC in December 2002 to engage in the

exclusive transmission business for a term of thirty (30) years.

In Gujranwala there is only one Grid of 220kv that is Ghakkar Grid Station

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Functions:

National Transmission and Dispatch Company (NTDC) links Power Generation Units
with Load Centers spread all over the country (including Karachi) and thus establishes and
governs one of the largest interconnected Networks.

The Company is responsible for evacuation of Power from the Hydroelectric Power
Plants (mainly in the North), the Thermal Units of Public (GENCOs) and Private Sectors
(IPPs) (mainly in the South) to the Power Distribution Companies through primary (EHV)
Network.

 Transmission Network Operator (TNO)

Operation and Maintenance of 500/220kV Network Planning, Design and

Construction of the new 500/220kV System and strengthening/ up gradation of the
existing one.

 System Operator (SO)

Arranging Non-Discriminatory, Non-Preferential Economic Dispatch

Ensuring Safe, Secure and Reliable Supply.

 Wire Business
o Transmission Planning
o Design and Engineering
o Project Development and Execution
o Operation and Maintenance of Transmission Assets

 System Operation & Dispatch

o Generation Dispatch
o Power System Operation and Control

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  Grid Station
Grids basically get supplies from generation plants or from different grid stations that too
get supply from generation or from GENCO. In GEPCO there are 57 132 KV grid and 3 66
KV grid.

I did an internship in 132KV Grid Station Pasrur

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5.1 Components of GRID:

 Wave trap:

Wave trap is used to create high impedance to the carrier wave high frequency
communication entering in to unwanted destinations typically substation. Carrier wave
communication uses up to 150 kHz to 800 kHz frequency to send the all the
communication. These high frequency damages the power system components which are
designed to operate 50 Hz and 60 Hz in other countries. Wave traps are also called as
line traps. It consists of an inductor coil which is connected in series with the
high voltage power system.

 Line Isolator :
It is basically a switch and no load device that keeps it different from circuit
breaker .If we want to work on circuit breaker of line that we need to open the line
isolator and earth the wire. There is an earth wire in line isolator that keeps it
different from bus isolator .It a disconnector, disconnect switch or isolator
switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for
service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical
distribution and industrial applications, where machinery must have its source of
driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are

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 used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. The disconnector is
usually not intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for safety isolation.
Disconnectors can be operated either manually or automatically. Unlike load
switches and circuit breakers, disconnectors lack a mechanism for suppression
of electric arcs, which occurs when conductors carrying high currents are electrically
interrupted. Thus, they are off-load devices, with very low breaking capacity,
intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other control
device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the
disconnector while it supplies a circuit. Standards in some countries for safety may
require either local motor isolators or lockable overloads (which can be padlocked).

 Circuit breaker :

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short circuit. Its
basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike a fuse, which
operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current
circuits or individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect high
voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit breaker, RCD or a
fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system is often abbreviated as
OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by High Voltage Circuit
Breaker inside electrical grid substaion. In substations the protection relay scheme can be
complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or ground/earth
fault. Electrical protection should be provided against the following abnormal conditions:

• Overloading (excessive currents not due to faults).

• Transformer faults.
• Short-circuit faults between phases.
• Short-circuit faults to earth.

Operation:

All circuit breaker systems have common features in their operation, but details vary
substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker.

The circuit breaker must first detect a fault condition. In small mains and low voltage circuit
breakers, this is usually done within the device itself. Typically, the heating or magnetic
effects of electric current are employed. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages
are usually arranged with protective relay pilot devices to sense a fault condition and to
operate the opening mechanism. These typically require a separate power source, such as a
battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current
transformers, protective relays, and an internal control power source.

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Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must open to interrupt the circuit; this is
commonly done using mechanically stored energy contained within the breaker, such as a
spring or compressed air to separate the contacts. Circuit breakers may also use the higher
current caused by the fault to separate the contacts, such as thermal expansion or a magnetic
field. Small circuit breakers typically have a manual control lever to switch off the load or
reset a tripped breaker, while larger units use solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric
motors to restore energy to the springs.

The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must
also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit. Contacts
are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly conductive materials.
Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to arcing while
interrupting the current. Miniature and molded-case circuit breakers are usually discarded
when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers
have replaceable contacts.

When a high current or voltage is interrupted, an arc is generated. The length of the arc is
generally proportional to the voltage while the intensity (or heat) is proportional to the
current. This arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the
gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit
breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium the arc forms in. Different
techniques are used to extinguish the arc including:

Lengthening or deflecting the arc

Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
Division into partial arcs

It also works as a switch and trips whenever load exceeds its limit and it is on
load device, which means it can be made off even if the load is on . Furthermore
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current from an overload or short
circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. Unlike
a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset
(either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation .Circuit breakers are
made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect low-current circuits or
individual household appliance, up to large switchgear designed to protect high
voltage circuits feeding an entire city. The generic function of a circuit
breaker, RCD or a fuse, as an automatic means of removing power from a faulty
system is often abbreviated as OCPD (Over Current Protection Device).

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 Types of Circuit breaker

 Vacuum circuit breaker

In this breaker vacuum is used as insulator and as an arc-quenching medium
VCB also used as a high voltage control switch. There is no oil. Therefore, will not
occurring any fire problems in this kind of circuit breaker. Vacuum circuit breakers in
particular are useful for controlling and protecting electrical systems. Vacuum circuit
breakers offer many advantages as compared to other types of circuit breakers.

 Oil Minimum Circuit Breakers (OMCB)

Nowadays OMCBs are very popular in sub stations and power stations. In oil
minimum circuit breakers, the current breaker takes place inside of the interrupter.
The enclosure of the interrupter is made of insulating material like porcelain. Hence
the clearance between the live parts and the enclosure can be reduced and lesser
quantity of oil require for internal insulation. This type of circuit breaker is used
widely in outdoor sub-station, rated even up to 66 kV. The type of oil circuit breaker
is bulky. Oil circuit breakers are comprising of a tank filled with insulating oil. There
are 2 kinds of OCBs. Those are.In OCBs there are fixed and movable contacts. It has
3 porcelain bushings, 3-phase line current set to fixed contacts. When the circuit
breaker is closed, the line current of each phase penetrate the tank by means of a

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 porcelain bushing, flow through the first fixed contact to the second fixed contact, and
then out by second bushings.

 Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)

ACB is used against very high current. Air circuit breakers are commonly
used in electrical distribution systems. Air circuit breakers which include operating
mechanisms that are mainly exposed to the environment. ACB is also protecting for
over load, short circuit and earth fault. Most of air circuit breakers are use in indoor
type substations.

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 SF6 High Voltage Circuit Breaker

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is an alternative to air as an interrupting

medium. SF6 is a colorless nontoxic gas, with good thermal conductivity and density
approximately five times that of air. The principle of operation is similar to the air
blast breakers, except that the SF6 gas is not discharged into the atmosphere. A closed
circuit completely sealed and self-contained construction is used. SF6 Circuit
Breakers are mostly use in Indoor Type Primary sub stations in Sri Lanka and other
countries because of its convenience.
SF6 Gas has good qualities as bellow.

 Good heat transfer quantity.

 Pressure can be checked easily
 Short arcing time
 Compartmented SF6 HV load-break isolating switch

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 Bus bar isolator
It is also used as switch and a no load device and there is no permanent earth
switch there that makes it different from line isolator, but when need to work we do
earth the wire so current can be grounded to avoid any damage.
 Bus bar

In electric power distribution, a bus bar (also bus bar) is a metallic strip or bar,
typically housed inside switchgear, panel boards, and busway enclosures for local
high current power distribution. They are also used to connect high voltage equipment
at electrical switchyards, and low voltage equipment in battery banks. They are
generally insulated, and have sufficient stiffness to be supported in air by insulated
pillars. These features allow sufficient cooling of the conductors, and the ability to tap
in at various points without creating a new joint. The term bus bar is derived from the
Latin word omnibus, which translates into English as "for all", indicating that a bus
bar carries all of the currents in a particular system.

TYPES OF BUS BARS

 Single Bus Bar

The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and easy. The system
has only one bus bar along with the switch. All the substation equipment like the
transformer, generator, the feeder is connected to this bus bar only. The advantages of
single bus bar arrangements are

 It has low initial cost.

 It requires less maintenance
 It is simple in operation

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 Drawbacks of Single Bus-Bars Arrangement:

 The only disadvantage of such type of arrangement is that the complete supply is
disturbed on the occurrence of the fault.

The arrangement provides the less flexibility and hence used in the small substation
where continuity of supply is not essential.

Single Bus-Bar Arrangement With Bus Sectionalized:

In this type of busbar arrangement, the circuit breaker and isolating switches are
used. The isolator disconnects the faulty section of the busbar, hence protects
the system from complete shutdown. This type of arrangement uses one
addition circuit breaker which does not much increase the cost of the system.

Advantage of single Bus-bar Arrangement with Bus

Sectionalization:

The following are the advantages of sectionalized bus bar.

 The faulty section is removed without affecting the continuity of the supply.
 The maintenance of the individual section can be done without disturbing the
system supply.
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 The system has a current limiting reactor which decreases the occurrence of the
fault.

Disadvantages of Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with

Sectionalization:

 The system uses the additional circuit breaker and isolator which increases the
cost of the system.

Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement:

Such type of arrangement uses two type of busbar namely, main busbar and the
auxiliary bus bar. The busbar arrangement uses bus coupler which connects the
isolating switches and circuit breaker to the busbar. The bus coupler is also used
for transferring the load from one bus to another in case of overloading. The
following are the steps of transferring the load from one bus to another.

1. The potential of both the bus bar kept same by closing the bus coupler.
2. The bus bar on which the load is transferred is kept close.
3. Open the main bus bar.

Thus, the load is transferred from the main bus to reserve bus.

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 Advantages of Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement:

 The continuity of the supply remains same even in the fault. When the fault
occurs on any of the buses the entire load is shifted to the another bus.
 The repair and maintenance can easily be done on the busbar without disturbing
their continuity.
 The maintenance cost of the arrangement is less.
 The potential of the bus is used for the operation of the relay.
 The load can easily be shifted on any of the buses.

Disadvantages of Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement:

 In such type of arrangements, two bus bars are used which increases the cost of
the system.
 The fault on any of the bus would cause the complete shutdown on the whole
substation.

Double Bus Double Breaker Arrangement:

This type of arrangement requires two bus bar and two circuit breakers. It does
not require any additional equipment like bus coupler and switch.

Advantages of Double Bus Double Breaker:

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 This type of arrangement provides the maximum reliability and flexibility in the
supply. Because the fault and maintenance would not disturb their continuity.
 The continuity of the supply remains same because the load is transferrable
from one bus to another on the occurrence of the fault.

Disadvantages of double bus Double breaker:

 In such type of arrangement two buses and two circuit breakers are used which
increases the cost of the system.
 Their maintenance cost is very high.
 Because of its higher cost, such type of bus-bars is seldom used in substations.

Sectionalized Double Bus Bar Arrangement:

In this type of bus arrangement, the sectionalized main bus bar is used along
with the auxiliary bus bar. Any section of the busbar removes from the circuit
for maintenance and it is connected to any of the auxiliary bus bars. But such
type of arrangement increases the cost of the system. Sectionalization of the
auxiliary bus bar is not required because it would increase the cost of the
system.

One and a Half Breaker Arrangement:

In this arrangement, three circuit breakers are required for two circuits. The
each circuit of the bus bar uses the one and a half circuit breaker. Such type of
arrangement is preferred in large stations where power handled per circuit is
large.

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 Advantages of One and a Half Breaker Arrangement:

 It protects the arrangement against the loss of supply.

 The potential of the bus bar is used for operating the relay.
 In such type of arrangement, the additional circuits are easily added to the
system.

Disadvantages of One and a Half Breaker Arrangement:

 The circuit becomes complicated because of the relaying system.

 Their maintenance cost is very high.

Ring Main Arrangement:

In such type of arrangement, the end of the bus bar is connected back to the
starting point of the bus to form a ring.

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 Advantages of Ring Main Arrangement:

 Such type of arrangement will provide two paths for the supply. Thus the fault
will not affect their working.
 The fault is localized for the particular section. Hence the complete circuit is not
affected by the fault.
 In this arrangement, a circuit breaker can be maintained without interrupting the
supply.

Disadvantages of Ring Main Arrangement:

 Difficulties occur in the addition of the new circuit.

 Overloading occurs on the system if any of the circuit breakers is opened.

Mesh Arrangement:
In such type of arrangement, the circuit breakers are installed in the mesh
formed by the buses. The circuit is tapped from the node point of the mesh.
Such type of bus arrangement is controlled by four circuit breakers.

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When a fault occurs on any section, two circuit breakers have to open, resulting
in the opening of the mesh. Such type of arrangement provides security against
bus-bar fault but lacks switching facility. It is preferred for substations having a
large number of circuits.

 Bus bar coupler

Bus coupler is a device which is used to couple one bus to the other without
any interruption in power supply and without creating hazardous arcs. Bus coupler is
a breaker used to couple two bus bars in order to perform maintenance on other circuit
breakers associated with that bus bar. It is achieved with the help of a circuit
breaker and isolators.

11kv bus bar coupler is used to shift the load of one transformer to other
transformer such as in grid station if there is any fault in any transformer due to
incoming then we can shift the load of one transformer into another transformer.

132kv bus coupler is used to shift the load one bus bar into another bus bar
like in grids if we want to work on one bus bar we can easily shift the load on single
bus bar.

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  Transformers

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a varying electromotive
force (emf) or "voltage" in a second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils,
without a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered
in 1831 described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating
voltages in electric power applications.

Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have
become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current
electrical energy.[3] A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and
electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of
tons.

Definition

A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one voltage level to ac

electric power at another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It consists of
two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core. These coils are
(usually) not directly connected. The only connection betwecn the coils is the common
magnetic flux present within the core.

CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER
The principal purpose of a transformer is to convert ac power at one voltage level to
ac power of the same frequency at another voltage level. Transformers are also
used for a variety of other purposes (e.g., voltage sampling, current sampling, and impedance
transformation), but this chapter is primarily devoted to the power transformer. Power
transformers are constructed on one of two types of cores. One type of construction consists
of a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings wrapped
around two sides of the rectangle. This type of construction is known as core form and is
illustrated in Figure 2- 2. The other type consists of a three-legged laminated core with the
windings wrapped around the center leg. nil’s type of construction is known as shell form
and is illustrated in Figure 2- 3. In either case, the core is constructed of thin laminations
electrically isolated from each other in order to minimize eddy currents. The primary and
secondary windings in a physical transformer are wrapped one on top of the other with the
low-voltage winding innermost. Such an arrangement serves two purposes:
I. It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core. 2. It results
in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the two windings were separated by a
distance on the core.
Power transformers are given a variety of different names, depending on their use in
power systems. A transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step
its voltage up to transmission levels (110+ kV) is sometimes called a unit transformer.
The transformer at the other end of the transmission line, which steps the voltage

24
 down from transmission levels to distribution levels (from 2.3 to 34.5 kV), is called a
substation transformer. Finally, the transformer that takes the distribution voltage and
steps it down to the final voltage at which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220
V, etc.) is called a distribution transformer. All these devices are essentially the same-
the only difference among them is their intended use In addition to the various power
transformers, two special-purpose transformers are used with electric machinery and
power systems. The first of these special transformers is a device specially designed
to sample a high voltage and produce a low secondary voltage directly proportional to
it. Such a transformer is called a potential transformer. A power transformer also
produces a secondary voltage directly proportional to its primary voltage; the
difference between a potential transformer and a power transformer is that the
potential transformer is designed to handle only a very small current. The second type
of special transformer is a device designed to provide a secondary current much
smaller than but directly proportional to its primary current. This device is called a
current transformer.
.1. Current transformer
Its purpose is to measure the large current first it step down the current from
high to low current then it measures the current . In grid it purpose is of protection
like if current is overflowing which it is dangerous for the transformer we turn off the
132kv line to protect the power transformer.
In other words a current transformer (CT) is a type of transformer that is used to
reduce or multiply an alternating current (AC). It produces a current in its secondary
which is proportional to the current in its primary. Current transformers, along with
voltage or potential transformers, are instrument transformers. Instrument
transformers scale the large values of voltage or current too small, standardized values
that are easy to handle for measuring instruments and protective relays. The
instrument transformers isolate measurement or protection circuits from the high
voltage of the primary system.
A current transformer provides a secondary current that is accurately proportional to
the current flowing in its primary. The current transformer presents a negligible load
to the primary circuit. Current transformers are the current-sensing units of the power
system and are used at generating stations, electrical substations, and in industrial and
commercial electric power distribution.

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USE
Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical
utility's watt-hour meter on many larger commercial and industrial supplies.
High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain or polymer insulators to isolate
them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage
transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT
window.
Current transformers can be mounted on the low voltage or high voltage leads of a power
transformer. Sometimes a section of a bus bar can be removed to replace a current
transformer.
Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection
devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering
and protection circuits and allows current transformers with different characteristics
(accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.
The burden (load) impedance should not exceed the specified maximum value to avoid the
secondary voltage exceeding the limits for the current transformer. The primary current rating
of a current transformer should not be exceeded or the core may enter its non-linear region
and ultimately saturate. This would occur near the end of the first half of each half (positive
and negative) of the AC sine wave in the primary and would compromise the accuracy.

26
Many digital clamp meters utilize a current transformer for
measuring alternating current(AC).

Safety of Current Transformer (CT)

Current transformers are often used to monitor high currents or currents at

high voltages. Technical standards and design practices are used to ensure the safety
of installations using current transformers. The secondary of a current transformer
should not be disconnected from its burden while current is in the primary, as the
secondary will attempt to continue driving current into an effective
infinite impedance up to its insulation break-down voltage and thus compromise
operator safety. For certain current transformers, this voltage may reach several
kilovolts and may cause arcing. Exceeding the secondary voltage may also degrade
the accuracy of the transformer or destroy it. Energizing a current transformer with an
open circuit secondary is equivalent to energizing a voltage transformer (normal type)
with a short circuit secondary. In the first case the secondary tries to produce an
infinite voltage and in the second case the secondary tries to produce an infinite
current. Both scenarios can be dangerous and damage the transformer.

Accuracy of Current Transformer (CT)

The accuracy of a CT is affected by a number of factors including:

 Burden  Load
 Burden class/saturation  External electromagnetic
class fields
 Rating factor  Temperature

27
 Physical configuration
 The selected tap, for multi-
ratio CTs
 Phase change
 Capacitive coupling
between primary and
secondary
 Resistance of primary and
secondary
 Core magnetizing current

28
 Accuracy classes for various types of measurement and at standard loads in the
secondary circuit (burdens) are defined in IEC 61869-1 as classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1
and 3. The class designation is an approximate measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio
(primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is 1% at rated current; the ratio error of a
Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also important, especially in power
measuring circuits. Each class has an allowable maximum phase error for specified load
impedance.

Current transformers used for protective relaying also have accuracy requirements at
overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate performance of relays
during system faults. A CT with a rating of 2.5L400 specifies with an output from its
secondary winding of twenty times its rated secondary current (usually 5 A × 20 = 100 A)
and 400 V (IZ drop) its output accuracy will be within 2.5 percent.

Burden:
The secondary load of a current transformer is termed the "burden" to distinguish it
from the primary load.
The burden in a CT metering electrical network is largely resistive impedance presented to its
secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA,
15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA and 60 VA. ANSI/IEEE burden ratings are B-0.1, B-0.2, B-
0.5, B-1.0, B-2.0 and B-4.0. This means a CT with a burden rating of B-0.2 will maintain its
stated accuracy with up to 0.2 Ω on the secondary circuit. These specification diagrams show
accuracy parallelograms on a grid incorporating magnitude and phase angle error scales at the
CT's rated burden. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are
switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common cause of excess
burden impedance is the conductor between the meter and the CT. When substation meters
are located far from the meter cabinets, the excessive length of cable creates a large
resistance. This problem can be reduced by using thicker cables and CTs with lower
secondary currents (1 A), both of which will produce less voltage drop between the CT and
its metering devices.
Knee-point core-saturation voltage:
The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the secondary
voltage above which the output current ceases to linearly follow the input current within
declared accuracy. In testing, if a voltage is applied across the secondary terminals
the magnetizing current will increase in proportion to the applied voltage, until the knee point
is reached. The knee point is defined as the voltage at which a 10% increase in applied
voltage increases the magnetizing current by 50%.[1] For voltages greater than the knee point,
the magnetizing current increases considerably even for small increments in voltage across
the secondary terminals. The knee-point voltage is less applicable for metering current
transformers as their accuracy is generally much higher but constrained within a very small

29
range of the current transformer rating, typically 1.2 to 1.5 times rated current. However, the
concept of knee point voltage is very pertinent to protection current transformers, since they
are necessarily exposed to fault currents of 20 to 30 times rated current.[2]
Ideally, the primary and secondary currents of a current transformer should be in
phase. In practice, this is impossible, but, at normal power frequencies, phase shifts of a few
tenths of a degree are achievable, while simpler CTs may have phase shifts up to six
degrees.[3]For current measurement, phase shift is immaterial as ammeters only display the
magnitude of the current. However, in wattmeter, energy meters, and power factor meters,
phase shift produces errors. For power and energy measurement, the errors are considered to
be negligible at unity power factor but become more significant as the power factor
approaches zero. At zero power-factor, any indicated power is entirely due to the current
transformer's phase error.[3] The introduction of electronic power and energy meters has
allowed current phase error to be calibrated out.[4]

Construction:

Bar-type current transformers have terminals for source and load connections of the primary
circuit, and the body of the current transformer provides insulation between the primary
circuit and ground. By use of oil insulation and porcelain bushings, such transformers can be
applied at the highest transmission voltages.
Ring-type current transformers are installed over a bus bar or an insulated cable and have
only a low level of insulation on the secondary coil. To obtain non-standard ratios or for other
special purposes, more than one turn of the primary cable may be passed through the ring.
Where a metal shield is present in the cable jacket, it must be terminated so no net sheath
current passes through the ring, to ensure accuracy. Current transformers used to sense
ground fault (zero sequence) currents, such as in a three-phase installation, may have three
primary conductors passed through the ring. Only the net unbalanced current produces a
secondary current - this can be used to detect a fault from an energized conductor to ground.
Ring-type transformers usually use dry insulation systems, with a hard rubber or plastic case
over the secondary windings.
For temporary connections, a split ring-type current transformer can be slipped over a cable
without disconnecting it. This type has a laminated iron core, with a hinged section that
allows it to be installed over the cable; the core links the magnetic flux produced by the
single turn primary winding to a wound secondary with many turns. Because the gaps in the
hinged segment introduce inaccuracy, such devices are not normally used for revenue
metering.
Current transformers, especially those intended for high voltage substation service, may have
multiple taps on their secondary windings, providing several ratios in the same device. This
can be done to allow for reduced inventory of spare units, or to allow for load growth in an
installation. A high-voltage current transformer may have several secondary windings with
the same primary, to allow for separate metering and protection circuits, or for connection to
different types of protective devices. For example, one secondary may be used for branch
overcurrent protection, while a second winding may be used in a bus differential protective
scheme, and a third winding used for power and current measurement.

Special types:

30
Specially constructed wideband current transformers are also used (usually with
an oscilloscope) to measure waveforms of high frequency or pulsed currents within pulsed
power systems. Unlike CTs used for power circuitry, wideband CTs are rated in output volts
per ampere of primary current.
If the burden resistance is much less than inductive impedance of the secondary winding at
the measurement frequency then the current in the secondary tracks the primary current and
the transformer provides a current output that is proportional to the measured current. On the
other hand, if that condition is not true, then the transformer is inductive and gives a
differential output. The Rogowski coil uses this effect and requires an external integrator in
order to provide a voltage output that is proportional to the measured current.

Standards:

Ultimately, depending on client requirements, there are two main standards to which current
transformers are designed. IEC 61869-1 (in the past IEC 60044-1) & IEEE C57.13 (ANSI),
although the Canadian and Australian standards are also recognized.[5]

High voltage types:

Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage
electrical substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside
switchgear or in apparatus bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current
transformers are used. In a switchyard, live tank current transformers have a substantial part
of their enclosure energized at the line voltage and must be mounted on insulators. Dead
tank current transformers isolate the measured circuit from the enclosure. Live tank CTs are
useful because the primary conductor is short, which gives better stability and a higher short-
circuit current rating. The primary of the winding can be evenly distributed around the
magnetic core, which gives better performance for overloads and transients. Since the major
insulation of a live-tank current transformer is not exposed to the heat of the primary
conductors, insulation life and thermal stability is improved.
A high-voltage current transformer may contain several cores, each with a secondary
winding, for different purposes (such as metering circuits, control, or protection).[6] A neutral
current transformer is used as earth fault protection to measure any fault current flowing
through the neutral line from the wye neutral point of a transformer.

High frequency line trap:

A line trap (high-frequency stopper) is a maintenance-free parallel resonant circuit,
mounted inline on high-voltage (HV) AC transmission power lines to prevent the
transmission of high frequency (40 kHz to 1000 kHz) carrier signals of power line
communication to unwanted destinations. Line traps are cylinder-like structures connected in
series with HV transmission lines. A line trap is also called a wave trap.
The line trap acts as a barrier or filter to prevent signal losses. The inductive
reactance of the line trap presents a high reactance to high-frequency signals but a low
reactance to mains frequency. This prevents carrier signals from being dissipated in the
substation or in a tap line or branch of the main transmission path and grounds in the case of
anything happening outside of the carrier transmission path. The line trap is also used to
attenuate the shunting effects of high-voltage lines.
31
 .2. Potential transformer
It is not an easy way to measure the high voltage and currents associated with power
transmission and distribution systems, hence instrument transformers are often used to step-
down these values to a safer level to measure. This is because measuring meters or
instruments and protective relays are low voltage devices, thereby cannot be connected
directly to high voltage circuit for the purpose of measurement and protection of the system.

In addition to the reduction of voltage and current levels, these transformers isolate the
measuring or protective circuit from the main circuit which is operating at high power levels
.The current transformers reduce the level of current to the instrument or relay operating
range, whereas potential transformers transforms the high voltage to a circuit operating low
voltage. In this article we are going to discuss in detail about the potential transformers.

32
.3. Power Transformer
A transformer that is used to transform AC power in power system networks, r
adio apparatus, and automatic systems. Apower transformer operates with a constant e
ffective voltage. The frequency of power-
transformer current in most countries,including the USSR, is 50 hertz (Hz); in the US
A and some other countries it is 60 Hz. Power transformers are the mostcommon class
of transformers. Transformers have been built (1975) for a power of 1300 megavolt-
amperes and a voltage of750 kilovolts

33
Purpose of Transformer:

 To step up or step down voltage

 To step up or step down Current
 For Isolation , mean for protection

6.4 Ideal Transformer

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic

flux in the transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying EMF or
voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. The primary and
secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so
that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings. With a
voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected to the
secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions.

According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding
proportional to its number of windings. In the secondary winding the voltage is determined
by Faraday's equation 1 (see box at right). In the primary winding the voltage is determined
by equation 2. The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF. This is in accordance
with Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any
such change in magnetic field.

The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the
winding turns ratio according to equation 3. However, some sources use the inverse
definition.

According to the law of conservation of energy, any load impedance connected to the ideal
transformer's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent, real and reactive power.

The ideal transformer identity shown in equation 5 is a reasonable approximation for the
typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being
inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.

By Ohm's law and the ideal transformer identity:

“the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed the apparent load impedance
referred to the primary circuit to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary
circuit load impedance.”

34
 Role Of Vector Group In Transformer
The vector group designation indicates the windings configurations and the difference
in phase angle between them.
Three phase transformer consists of three sets of primary windings, one for each phase, and
three sets of secondary windings wound on the same iron core.

The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common
configurations are the delta, in which the polarity end of one winding is connected to the non-
polarity end of the next, and the star, in which all three non-polarities (or polarity) ends are
connected together. The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3-
phase transformer can have its primary and secondary windings connected the same (delta-
delta or star-star), or differently (delta-star or star-delta. when the primary and secondary
windings are connected differently, the secondary voltage waveforms will differ from the
corresponding primary voltage waveforms by 30 electrical degrees. This is called a 30 degree
phase shift.

Basic Idea of Winding

An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two
are linked by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon
which ways round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced
by 180 degree.

When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil
voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in
the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or
not.

35
Six Ways to wire Star Winding:

36
Six Ways to wire Delta Winding:

Winding connection designations

First Symbol: for High Voltage: Always capital letters.

D=Delta, S=Star, Z=Interconnected star, N=Neutral
Second Symbol: for Low voltage: Always Small letters.
d=Delta, s=Star, z=Interconnected star, n=Neutral.
Third Symbol: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number (1,6,11)
The Determination of vector group of transformers is very important before connecting two
or more transformers in parallel. If two transformers of different vector groups are connected
in parallel then phase difference exist between the secondary of the transformers and large
circulating current flows between the two transformers which is very detrimental.

1. Digit 0 =0° that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor

2. Digit 1 =30° lagging (LV lags HV with 30°) because rotation is anti-clockwise.
3. Digit 11 = 330° lagging or 30° leading (LV leads HV with 30°)
4. Digit 5 = 150° lagging (LV lags HV with 150°)
5. Digit 6 = 180° lagging (LV lags HV with 180°)

37
Fashions of winding connections

 Delta connection:
No common terminal. Join end1 of one winding with the end2 of other winding
and do it as same for all windings. e.g.

 Y-Connection:
Three phases and one common terminal. to make windings in Y-connected , short the
three same terminals of all windings. e.g

Environmental Effects:

 We cannot neglect the effect of surroundings on our project because they are part of
it. When a project becomes finalized then ADB (Asian Development Bank ) passes
budget for project. First step is to purchase the piece of land.
 Minimum 8 kanals’ of land is required for a Grid station but if 8 kanal’s are not
available like in big cities then we build smart Gird stations.
 For placement of poles on a land, specific amount is given to the owner for the use of
land to place a pole for a specific time.
 Civil people do all the work of construction.E.g.For building a transmission line in
Gujranwala, we cut about 190 trees and paid the money for these trees to the Forest
department of Pakistan. Costing about RS: 6000 per tree.

38
National Environmental Quality Standards:

The National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) were first promulgated in

1993 and have been amended in 1995 and 2000. The following standards that are
specified in the NEQS may be relevant to the Tranche-1 subprojects:
Maximum allowable concentration of pollutants (32 parameters) in municipal and
liquid industrial.

6.5. Parts of transformer

 Core
Power transformer cores are constructed of sheets of grain-oriented silicone
steel, designed to have a very low resistance to the flow of magnetic flux (reluctance).
These sheets of silicone steel have a very thin coating of varnish or enamel on them so
they are magnetically coupled, but electrically separate. The transformer’s windings
are wound around the core, with the low-voltage winding wound against the core and
the high-voltage winding wound over it. This arrangement reduces the dielectric stress
between the low- and high-voltage windings and between windings and core.
Transformers will be wound as core-form or shell form types.

 Windings
Power transformer cores are constructed of sheets of grain-oriented silicone
steel, designed to have a very low resistance to the flow of magnetic flux (reluctance).
These sheets of silicone steel have a very thin coating of varnish or enamel on them so
they are magnetically coupled, but electrically separate. The transformer’s windings
are wound around the core, with the low-voltage winding wound against the core and
the high-voltage winding wound over it. This arrangement reduces the dielectric stress
between the low- and high-voltage windings and between windings and core.
Transformers will be wound as core-form or shell form types.

 OIL
Transformer oil or insulating oil is an oil that is stable at high temperatures
and has excellent electrical insulating properties. It is used in oil-filled transformers,
some types of high-voltage capacitors, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and some types of
high-voltage switches and circuit breakers.

 Conservator tank
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof the
transformer main tank. The main function of conservator tank of transformer is to
provide adequate space for expansion of oil inside the transformer.
When transformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises, the volume of oil
inside transformer increases. A conservator tank of transformer provides adequate

39
 space to this expanded transformer oil. It also acts as a reservoir for transformer
insulating oil.

 Breather
Most of the power generation companies use silica gel breathers fitted to the
conservator of oil filled transformers. The purpose of these silica gel breathers is to
absorb the moisture in the air sucked in by the transformer during the breathing
process.

 Bushing tube
In electric power, a bushing is an insulated device that allows
an electrical conductor to pass safely through a grounded conducting barrier such as
the case of a transformer or circuit breaker. Bushings are typically made from
porcelain; though other insulating materials are also possible, generally porcelain is
used.

 Radiator tube
Because of flow of electric current through the winding of Transformer and
due to core losses, heat is produced in the windings and core. Because of this heat the
temperature of Transformer oil increases. ... Cooling of Transformer Oil is the basic
and main purpose of Radiator.

 Tap changer
Tape changer is used to increase or decrease the voltage by increasing the taps
of power transformer . The purpose of a tap changer is to regulate the output voltage
of a transformer. It does this by altering the number of turns in one winding and
thereby changing the turns ratio of the transformer. There are two types of transformer
tap changers: an on-load tap changer (OLTC) and a de energized tap changer (DETC).
Note that not all transformers have tap changers.

 Buchholz relay
Buchholz relay is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay universally
used on all oil immersed transformers having rating more than 500 kVA. Buchholz
relay is not provided in relays having rating below 500 kVA from the point of view of
economic considerations.Buchholz relay is used for the protection of transformers
from the faults occurring inside the transformer. Short circuit faults such as inter turn
faults, incipient winding faults, and core faults may occur due to the impulse
breakdown of the insulating oil or simply the transformer oil. Buchholz relay will
sense such faults and closes the alarm circuit.

 Cooling fans
These fans also help in transformer cooling. They are fitted below or at the
side of radiator tubes and provide cool air.

40
  Diaphragm
Diaphragm is a cap shaped object and fixed on the top of power transformer, it
acts as emergency exit for transformer inner oil and gases.

 Wheels
Transformer has small wheels upon which it can be rolled from one place to
another. As they hold the transformer at a height from the ground or foundation so air
flow is possible beneath transformer.

6.6 Cooling of power transformer

When the transformers operate continuously, as a result the core, coils, main tank and the
transformer oil heats up to a high temperature which can affect the operation, maintenance,
and output voltage of the transformer. In grid stations transformers are kept cool through
three different processes. That is:

1. ONAN: It stands for oil natural air natural. In this method fans are OFF and the
transformer is cooled by natural air, same is the case of oil which circulates by
spontaneous motion of hot and cold oil.

 ONAF: It stands for oil natural air forced. This method is applied under a bit
higher temperature. Oil circulation takes place by itself while the air is provided by
radiator fans.

2. OFAF: It stands for oil forced air forced. This method is applied under highest
temperatures. Fans are ON that provide more air and the circulation of oil is also
speedup by oil circulation pump.

6.7. Losses in Transformer

The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any accurate model
of transformer behavior. The major items to be considered in the construction of such a
model are
 Copper losses.
Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the current in the
windings.
 Eddy current losses.

Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer.
They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.

41
 Hysteresis losses.
Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic
domains in the core during each half-cycle They are a complex, nonlinear function of
the voltage applied to the transformer.
 Leakage flux.

The fluxes <PLP and 4>u. which escape the core and pass through only one of the
transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a self-
inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance must
be accounted for.

 Lighting addesters
A lightning arrester (alternative spelling lightning
arrestor) (also called lightning diverter) is a device used on electric power systems
and telecommunication systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system
from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-
voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge,
which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the
surge is diverted through the arrester, in most cases to earth.
In telegraphy and telephony, a lightning arrester is placed
where wires enter a structure, preventing damage to electronic instruments within and
ensuring the safety of individuals near them. Smaller versions of lightning arresters,
also called surge protectors, are devices that are connected between each electrical
conductor in power and communications systems and the Earth. These prevent the
flow of the normal power or signal currents to ground, but provide a path over which
high-voltage lightning current flows, bypassing the connected equipment. Their
purpose is to limit the rise in voltage when a communications or power line is struck
by lightning or is near to a lightning strike.
If protection fails or is absent, lightning that strikes the
electrical system introduces thousands of kilovolts that may damage the transmission
lines, and can also cause severe damage to transformers and other electrical or
electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage spikes in incoming power
lines can damage electrical home appliances or even produce death.
Lightning arresters are used to protect electric fences. They consist of a spark gap and
sometimes a series inductor.
Lightning arresters can form part of large
electrical transformers and can fragment during transformer ruptures. High-voltage
transformer fire barriers are required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as
projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, per NFPA 850

42
 7. Transmission line
In communications and electronic engineering, a ransmission line is a specialized cable
or other structure designed to conduct alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents
with a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into account.
Transmission lines are used for purposes such as connecting radio
transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are then called feed lines or feeders),
distributing cable television signals, trunk lines routing calls between telephone switching
centers, computer network connections and high speed computer data buses.
This article covers two-conductor transmission line such as parallel line (ladder line), coaxial
cable, strapline, and microstrip. Some sources also refer to waveguide, dielectric waveguide,
and even optical fiber as transmission line, however these lines require different analytical
techniques and so are not covered by this article; see Waveguide (electromagnetism).

Overview:

Ordinary electrical cables suffice to carry low frequency alternating current (AC), such
as mains power, which reverses direction 100 to 120 times per second, and audio signals.
However, they cannot be used to carry currents in the radio frequency range,[1] above about
30 kHz, because the energy tends to radiate off the cable as radio waves, causing power
losses. Radio frequency currents also tend to reflect from discontinuities in the cable such
as connectors and joints, and travel back down the cable toward the source. These reflections
act as bottlenecks, preventing the signal power from reaching the destination. Transmission
lines use specialized construction, and impedance matching, to carry electromagnetic signals
with minimal reflections and power losses. The distinguishing feature of most transmission
lines is that they have uniform cross sectional dimensions along their length, giving them a
uniform impedance, called the characteristic impedance, to prevent reflections. Types of
transmission line include parallel line (ladder line, twisted pair), coaxial cable, and planar
transmission lines such as strapline and microstrip. The higher the frequency of
electromagnetic waves moving through a given cable or medium, the shorter
the wavelength of the waves. Transmission lines become necessary when the transmitted
frequency's wavelength is sufficiently short that the length of the cable becomes a significant
part of a wavelength.

At microwave frequencies and above, power losses in transmission lines become excessive,
and waveguides are used instead, which function as "pipes" to confine and guide the
electromagnetic waves. Some sources define waveguides as a type of transmission line;
however, this article will not include them. At even higher frequencies, in
the terahertz, infrared and visible ranges, waveguides in turn become lossy,
and optical methods, (such as lenses and mirrors), are used to guide electromagnetic waves.
The theory of sound wave propagation is very similar mathematically to that of
electromagnetic waves, so techniques from transmission line theory are also used to build
structures to conduct acoustic waves; and these are called acoustic transmission lines.

History:
Mathematical analysis of the behavior of electrical transmission lines grew out of the work
of James Clerk Maxwell, Lord Kelvin and Oliver Heaviside. In 1855 Lord Kelvin formulated
43
a diffusion model of the current in a submarine cable. The model correctly predicted the poor
performance of the 1858 trans-Atlantic submarine telegraph cable. In 1885 Heaviside
published the first papers that described his analysis of propagation in cables and the modern
form of the telegrapher's equations.

Applicability:
In many electric circuits, the length of the wires connecting the components can for the most
part be ignored. That is, the voltage on the wire at a given time can be assumed to be the
same at all points. However, when the voltage changes in a time interval comparable to the
time it takes for the signal to travel down the wire, the length becomes important and the wire
must be treated as a transmission line. Stated another way, the length of the wire is important
when the signal includes frequency components with corresponding wavelengths comparable
to or less than the length of the wire.
A common rule of thumb is that the cable or wire should be treated as a transmission line if
the length is greater than 1/10 of the wavelength. At this length the phase delay and the
interference of any reflections on the line become important and can lead to unpredictable
behavior in systems which have not been carefully designed using transmission line theory.

The four-terminal model:

Variations on the schematic electronic for a transmission line.

For the purposes of analysis, an electrical transmission line can be modelled as a two-port
network (also called a quadrupole), as follows:
In the simplest case, the network is assumed to be linear (i.e. the complex voltage across
either port is proportional to the complex current flowing into it when there are no
reflections), and the two ports are assumed to be interchangeable. If the transmission line is
uniform along its length, then its behavior is largely described by a single parameter called
the characteristic impedance, symbol Z0. This is the ratio of the complex voltage of a given
wave to the complex current of the same wave at any point on the line. Typical values of
Z0 are 50 or 75 ohms for a coaxial cable, about 100 ohms for a twisted pair of wires, and
about 300 ohms for a common type of untwisted pair used in radio transmission.
When sending power down a transmission line, it is usually desirable that as much power as
possible will be absorbed by the load and as little as possible will be reflected back to the
source. This can be ensured by making the load impedance equal to Z0, in which case the
transmission line is said to be matched.

44
A transmission line is drawn as two black wires. At a distance x into the line, there is
current I(x) travelling through each wire, and there is a voltage difference V(x) between the
wires. If the current and voltage come from a single wave (with no reflection),
then V(x) / I(x) = Z0, where Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the line.
Some of the power that is fed into a transmission line is lost because of its resistance. This
effect is called ohmic or resistive loss (see ohmic heating). At high frequencies, another effect
called dielectric loss becomes significant, adding to the losses caused by resistance.
Dielectric loss is caused when the insulating material inside the transmission line absorbs
energy from the alternating electric field and converts it to heat (see dielectric heating). The
transmission line is modelled with a resistance (R) and inductance (L) in series with a
capacitance (C) and conductance (G) in parallel. The resistance and conductance contribute
to the loss in a transmission line.
The total loss of power in a transmission line is often specified in decibels per meter (dB/m),
and usually depends on the frequency of the signal. The manufacturer often supplies a chart
showing the loss in dB/m at a range of frequencies. A loss of 3 dB corresponds
approximately to a halving of the power.
High-frequency transmission lines can be defined as those designed to carry electromagnetic
waves whose wavelengths are shorter than or comparable to the length of the line. Under
these conditions, the approximations useful for calculations at lower frequencies are no
longer accurate.

8. Capacitor Bank
There are several reasons for large capacitor banks and the oldest usage is to act as a
reactance balancing component. Both large coils, inductors that look like transformers,
and large capacitors can be used to ensure that the Power Factor at any point on the grid is
balanced out.

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 9. DC Rectifier
A rectifier is an instrument/circuit that changes AC into DC. In the grid station it is
used for several purposes i.e.

 It charges batteries
 Provide DC supply to the load
 Shares load with battery during overload condition.

The rectifier used in grid has a voltmeter and an ammeter for incoming AC
and another voltmeter and ammeter for outgoing DC.

It also have control switches like

 ON/OFF
 Auto/manual
 Boost/float (for boost and normal charging of battery)
 Load/battery.

10. Distance Relays

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 The SIPROTEC 7SA522 relay provides full-scheme distance protection and
incorporates all functions usually required for the protection of a power line. The
relay is designed to provide fast and selective fault clearance on transmission and sub
transmission cables and overhead lines with or without series capacitor compensation.
The power system star point can be solid or resistance grounded (earthed), resonant-
earthed via Peterson coil or isolated. The SIPROTEC 7SA522 is suitable for single-
pole and three-pole tripping applications with and without tele (pilot) protection
schemes.

Distance relays in grid

11. DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

It is basically used to detect fault from CT of transformer
to CT of Incoming panel . It includes Over current trip which trips if the current is exceeding
beyond its limit . Differential trip activates when there is a fault between the CT of Power
Transformer till the CT of incoming . Oil temperature trip is a trip used to for tripping when
temperature of transformer exceeds .Buchholz Relay operates if there is a fault or spark in
windings of the transformer. Due to that gases are produced. These gases pass through
Buchholz Relay then it trips . Trip coil 1 trip when there is fault is primary winding of
transformer . Trip coil 2 trip when there is fault in secondary winding of transformer .
Winding temp trip when there temperature of winding of transformer exceeds its limits . Tape
changer Buchholz when then is fault in tape changer due to some type of sparking .

t, there aren’t many high-voltage lines that go to the places where renewable energy is
most abundant (e.g., the Southwest for solar, the Midwest for wind).
Second, right now there are (depending on how you count) anywhere from three to
seven distinct regional grids that make up the national grid, and they aren’t very well

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 connected. While juice circulates relatively freely within these grids, it’s difficult to
get juice from one grid to another.
The wide grid refers to the effort to build a truly national transmission system: a new
high-voltage backbone, with lines spanning the length and breadth of the country, able
to carry electricity from anywhere it’s generated to anywhere it’s needed. Wide grid
advocates argue that linking the entire nation together would mitigate the problem of
intermittency — the fact that sun and wind are variable (as opposed to baseload
sources that can be turned on and off at will). The more intermittent energy sources
are linked together, the more stable and reliable the whole system becomes.
 Some of the best work on the wide grid (from an unabashedly pro-expansionist
viewpoint) has come out of the conservative Manhattan Institute. In particular, see
Peter Huber’s report, The Million Volt Answer to Oil.

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