Int. J. Engng Ed. Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 657±662, 2003 0949-149X/91 $3.00+0.

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Printed in Great Britain. # 2003 TEMPUS Publications.

Characteristics of Problem-Based
Learning*
ERIK DE GRAAFF
Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands
ANETTE KOLMOS
Aalborg University, Denmark
Problem-based learning (PBL) is widely regarded as a successful and innovative method for
engineering education. Since the development of the PBL model at McMaster University in
Canada in the late 1960s, many different varieties have emerged. This paper highlights the Dutch
approach of directing the learning process through problem analysis and the Danish model of
project-organised learning. Various definitions of the concept PBL identify characteristics at the
levels of theoretical learning principles, educational models and educational practices. The
McMaster±Maastricht PBL model and the Aalborg model of project work share characteristic
features such as the theoretical principle of the problem analysis at the basis of the learning process,
integration of knowledge and practice, collaboration and group work. Notable differences were
found with respect to the type of assignments, assessment methods and organisation of the group
work. In comparison to traditional engineering curricula, the PBL models appear to inspire a
higher degree of involvement in study activities and, consequently, a higher level of complex
comprehension. A possible drawback is the risk of gaps in specific knowledge areas. Therefore, it is
crucial that the students in a PBL curriculum become lifelong learners who have learned to take
responsibility for their own learning process.

INTRODUCTION PBL AS THEORY, MODEL AND PRACTICE

TYPE THE WORDS `problem-based learning' or Many attempts have been made to define
the letters `PBL' into any search engine and the concept `problem-based learning'. Howard
you will find hundreds of sites dedicated to this Barrows, who was involved in the early stages of
educational method. The online database of the development of PBL at McMaster University
PROBLARC in Australia contains more than in Canada, defines the concept in terms of specific
12,000 references to articles on PBL. Evidently, attributes as being student-centred, taking place in
problem-based learning now has enormous popu- small groups with the teacher acting as a facil-
larity all over the world. At the same time, there is itator, and being organised around problems. [1].
a considerable lack of clarity regarding the concept However, the actual design will be very different
of problem-based learning. As even superficial from institution to institution [2±5]. Gijselaers [6]
inspection of a few of the available sources can defines PBL in relation to theoretical learning
reveal, the label `PBL' is used to cover an amazing principles, such as learning as the construction of
diversity of educational practices, ranging from knowledge, meta-learning and contextual learning.
problem-oriented lectures to completely open Savin-Baden describes five different models of
experiential learning environments aimed at PBL resting on five different views of the objective
improving interpersonal relations. Without chal- of PBL, including the perception of knowledge,
lenging any of such claims to problem-based learn- learning, problems, students, teacher roles, and
ing, the objective of this article is to identify the assessment. Savin-Baden refers to these five PBL
essential characteristics which explain the success models as: attainment of knowledge, PBL for
of PBL. Within the context of a model of problem- professional work, PBL for interdisciplinary
based learning which was developed at McMaster comprehension, PBL for cross-discipline learning
University in Canada, we will focus in particular and PBL for critical competence [7].
on the Dutch approach of directing the learning In the various definitions of PBL, the following
process through problem analysis and the Danish three levels can be distinguished:
model of project-organised learning. . central theoretical learning principles;
* Accepted 25 August 2003. . specific educational models based on PBL
principles; and
657
. different practices within the guidelines of
traditional educational models.
658 E. de Graaff and A. Kolmos
 motivation, because it relates to the opinions
PBL, therefore, refers to theory, models, and
practice. To further complicate this matter, PBL
has been developed first and foremost on the basis
of practice. This is in spite of the fact that there
were many theoretical considerations behind the
establishment of PBL models such as those prac-
tised at the universities of LinkoÈping, Maastricht,
Roskilde and Aalborg. The development of PBL
through the 1970s and 1980s has been charac-
terised by small adjustments for pragmatic
reasons. Teachers have developed their own
routines and, if something does not work, they
have simply changed it.
The theoretical roots of PBL began to receive
serious consideration in the 1990's. In Denmark,
the PBL tradition builds on the experiential learn-
ing that was more or less formulated by Dewey,
along with Negt/Kluge's theories of the develop-
ment of work education and the development of
political consciousness formulated at the beginning
of the 1970's. More recently, researchers have
related PBL concepts to a variety of theoretical
notions, such as experiential learning (Kolb), the
reflective practitioner (SchoÈn) constructivism and
social learning (Piaget, Vygotsky, Lave and
Wenger) [6, 8, 9, 10]. The following are typical
theoretical learning principles mentioned by these
writers on PBL:
. Problem-based learning is an educational
approach whereby the problem is the starting-
point of the learning process. The type of prob-
lem is dependent on the specific organisation.
Usually, the problems are based on real-life
problems which have been selected and edited
to meet educational objectives and criteria.
However, it could also be a hypothetical prob-
lem. It is crucial that the problem serves as the
basis for the learning process, because this
determines the direction of the learning process
and places emphasis on the formulation of a
question rather than on the answer. This also
allows the learning content to be related to the
context, which promotes student motivation and
comprehension. It is essential that the directing
force is consistent with the way the assessment
drives the educational method [11].
. Who formulates the problem statement and who
is responsible for the main decisions is dependent
on the next principle, participant-directed learn-
ing processes, or `self-directed learning', which
has a far more individual-oriented focus. In the
vast majority of cases, students have the oppor-
tunity to determine their own problem formula-
tion within the given subject area guidelines. In
other cases, the teacher defines the problem and
the student uses this as a starting-point.
. Experience learning is also an implicit part of the
participant-directed learning process, where the
student builds from his/her own experiences and
interests. To link the formulation of the problem
to the individual's world of experience increases
 whereby the majority of the learning process
and understandings previously formed by the takes place in groups or teams. Personal
student. competencies are thereby developed, so that
. Activity-based learning is a central part of the students learn to handle the process of group
PBL learning process, requiring activities co-operation in all its stages [12].
involving research, decision-making and writing. The above principles are drawn from various
This can motivate and give the student the learning theories, and, from an abstract theoretical
opportunity to acquire deeper learning. perspective, act as a `point of reference' for design-
. Inter-disciplinary learning relates to problem ing the specific course. The principles cover tradi-
orientation and participant-directed processes, tional PBL models as they are practised at the
in that the solution of the problem can extend universities in Maastricht and LinkoÈping, but they
beyond traditional subject-related boundaries also cover the project models as they are practised
and methods. This principle is critical for in Aalborg and Roskilde.
organising the teaching, so that teachers do EDUCATIONAL MODELS
not just consider objectives within the known The didactical principles of PBL encompass
subject-oriented framework, but also consider all curriculum development elements: objectives,
problems or real situations. teacher and student learning strategies, choice of
. Exemplary practice is concerned with ensuring content, learning methods, ICT, teachers' roles,
that the benefits derived by the student are
organisation, culture and assessment. Changes in
exemplary in terms of the objectives. This is a
one of the elements involves changes in all the
central principle, as the student must gain a
other elements [13]. It is not enough to change the
deeper understanding of the selected complex
educational framework of ordinary class teaching
problem. However, there is an inherent risk with
if, for example, changes are not also made in the
PBL that a sufficiently broad overview of the
format of the exams or the principles of material
subject area is not provided. The students must
selection. In this way, the model represents a
therefore acquire the ability to transfer know-
coherent structural practice.
ledge, theory, and methods from previously
Problem-based learning as a model
The PBL models, as they are practised at the
learned areas to new ones.
universities in Maastricht, LinkoÈping, McMaster
. Group-based learning is the last principle,
(Ontario) and Newcastle (Australia), share a
 Characteristics of Problem-Based Learning 659

number of characteristics [14±15], of which we Project-organised learning as a model

have singled out the following: Project work is problem-based by definition. In
identifying how to reach the project goal, the
. Curriculum structure
members of a team have to learn to co-operate
The curriculum is structured in thematic blocks, in effectively. This creates good conditions for learn-
which the semester is divided into a series of
ing, as it involves both individual and co-operative
periods of approximately six weeks, and each
activities, interactive discussions and a writing
period focuses on a particular theme. A series of
process (mostly in the form of a project report).
cases are planned for the students to work on in
Project work teaches competencies such as project
each period. The students themselves choose to
management and co-operation. Project assign-
analyse one of the cases, which in turn can be done
ments are also highly challenging. The more the
both orally and in writing. task reflects reality, the more the students feel
The subject disciplines are integrated through
motivated, so working on a project can be seen
relating the case to professional practice. For
as a way of organising various simultaneous
example, in the field of medicine, the starting-
and/or integrated learning processes.
point is often a description of the patient. In
The original idea of using project work as a
Maastricht, the `Seven Step' method was developed
teaching method has been attributed to the
to help students analyse the problem: American author William Killpatrick [17]. In
1. clarify the concepts; Denmark, this educational model gained popular-
2. define the problem; ity in the 1970s, when it was established and
3. analyse the problem; developed at Roskilde University and Aalborg
4. find the explanation; University. The extent of the project work can
5. formulate the learning objective; vary. At Aalborg University, project work
6. search for further information; and accounts for 50% of the students' time, but many
7. report and test new information. other institutions only allocate around 20% of the
. The learning process students' time to project work. The main charac-
Self-directed study groups discuss and analyse teristic of project work is that the students write
selected cases. The typical study group (8±12 together and are assessed together in groups.
students) meets once or twice a week. Each indivi- The extent of the students' involvement will
dual student in the study group presents his/her determine the project's broadness and complexity.
work. It is then discussed and the group decides The broader and more complex the project is, the
who will continue with what tasks. Often students more students will be challenged to spend time on
organise their work in such a way that their it. In addition, the more complex the project is, the
individual work supplements the work of the broader the approach to the project needs to be,
group, enabling them to develop a broader and this is directly related to the degree of freedom
perspective of the related themes [1]. students have to find alternative solutions [18]. The
The role of the teacher who attends the opportunity for students to make critical choices is
meetings is primarily to facilitate the learning a prerequisite to gaining ownership of the project,
process (i.e. to facilitate the group's work and and this is an important motivational factor.
internal communication). Group co-operation can be difficult, and it is
. Assessment one of the elements that students find most diffi-
The assessment methods must be compatible with cult in the first years [19]. One of the major
the objectives of the learning process. With PBL findings in a study on the progression of process
this means progress testing to establish the indivi- competencies [12, 20] suggests that developing the
dual's knowledge and testing for competence ability to work co-operatively involves a number
rather than for isolated factual knowledge [11]. of skills, such as dealing with problems within one
Different PBL models organise the didactic discipline, the ability to show understanding and
elements quite differently, allowing for variation respect for one another, reflection on personal
within the general framework. However, there are development, and communication and listening
limits to this flexibility. It is, for instance, not skills. Students' personal skills develop and, in
enough to simply change the educational format particular, their skills in co-operation and project
within the framework of ordinary class teaching. management increase.
This is one of the classic `mistakes' made when Types of projects
changing to PBL. Changes in the educational The basis for the organisation of the project
format must be consistent with the form of the work lies in the subject-oriented nature of the
examinations or with the principles of material process, where learning objectives related to
selection. Otherwise, the students will soon figure subject matter exist that must be satisfied within
out the `examination code' and single that out as a an educational programme. The experiences,
learning goal instead of completing the PBL interests and guidelines for participant-directed
process [16]. projects do not necessarily meet these objectives,
and the typical `why-why' approach to problem
660 E. de Graaff and A. Kolmos
 but lack the playing regulations and a marked
formulation goes beyond the specified subject area playing field. A considerable amount of the work
within technical educational programmes. This
means that the degree of `freedom' to choose the
problem is also very dependent on didactic con-
siderations in that subject. On the other hand,
some considerations are related to learning,
where the students' motivation is dependent on
the degree of participationÐthe more decisions the
students are able to make, the greater their motiva-
tion. [21]. Even though there are specific learning
objectives, the student must have enough freedom
to get the maximum enjoyment from the work.
This is a very central didactic consideration.
The degree of teacher-centred planning and
direction of the student's learning activities in
relation to the desired objective varies along a
sliding scale. Three fundamental types of project
work can be distinguished: the task project, the
discipline project, and the problem project [22].
The task project is characterised by a very high
degree of planning and direction on the part of the
teacher (teaching objectives) involving a large task
that has to be solved. Both the problem and the
subject-oriented methods are chosen in advance, so
that, for the student, the primary concern is to
complete the project according to the guidelines
provided. At times there can be such a narrow
framework that students do not have the oppor-
tunity to make their mark on the starting-point or
the process, but instead follow a strictly directed
process in which the choices are made for them in
advance. This is especially unfortunate, given that
the defining factor for student motivation is that
they should feel that the project belongs to them
(and not the teacher). Therefore, this type of
project cannot be recommended.
The discipline project is usually, though not
necessarily, characterised by a fairly high degree
of direction from the teacher (study programme
requirements), in that the disciplines and the
methods are chosen in advance. It may,
however, still allow the groups to identify and
define the problem within the guidelines of the
described disciplines (which are described in the
theme descriptions). Metaphorically, this type of
project can be compared to a football game in
which the playing field is specified. Similarly,
some overriding guidelines are given for the
game, but the ball has not been kicked off and
thus the group must enter the field and set the
game into play.
The problem project is a full-scale project in
which the course of action is not planned in
detail by the teachers. The problem formulation
directs the choice of disciplines and methods and
the problem itself arises from the problem-oriented
theme. In other words, within the same work
environment theme, the group can actually work
with widely different disciplines and subject
methods. In terms of the analogy of a football
game, this means that the students have the ball
 the issue of problem formulation: how the student
therefore involves marking the field and defining and the teacher handle the process of transferring
the playing rules, before the game can be started. methodological experiences from one problem
area to another. Experiences gathered from
teachers show that students can have extreme
PBL AND OBJECTIVES
difficulty with this areaÐfor example, with trans-
PBL education is based on the students' back- ferring subject-related theoretical/methodological
ground, expectations, and interests. It is a very principles from the discipline courses to the project
common experience that students are more moti- work. On the other hand, students indicate that
vated and work much harder with the PBL model teachers have difficulty in delegating responsibility
than with traditional teaching methods. They also (for the outcomes) to the students and that this
spend a great deal of time on PBL work. makes it difficult for students to exercise their
There is a connection between the teaching independence when formulating learning goals
method and the depth and complexity of the [23].
learning, as the student may be expected to reach When planning themes for PBL and the project
a level of analytically complex comprehension proposals, the formation of objectives can occur
through the problem-based work that would not on various levels. The facilitator can train the
be possible in conventional classes. However, while students in induction and deduction by helping
students can be expected to reach this deep level of them to relate their project objectives to the overall
learning, it is still possible that they may miss parts objectives. Furthermore, in the evaluation, the
of the broader perspective or breadth of know- focus should not only be on testing the students'
ledge. It is therefore an important part of PBL depth and breadth of learning, but also on their
pedagogy to ensure that the student is in a position ability to `fill in the subject area gaps'.
to fill in any potential `subject area gaps', if or In the planning, implementation and evaluation
when there is a need for that at a later point [15]. phases, it is useful to consider objectives at three
Over the years, this has come to be described as levels:
exemplary practice or methodological cognisance . the overall subject framework;
(awareness). Many of the introductory books to . themes and types of problems; and
problem-based learning, especially those on . proposals for the PBL work.
project work, outline this methodological part of The objectives should preferably be formulated in
the project. However, only a few attempt to grasp such a way that they are flexible and allow room
Characteristics of Problem-Based Learning 661
for the formulation of themes, choice of problem both similarities and differences can be found. In
types, and formulation of the PBL proposals. particular, characteristics such as the pedagogical
Thus, the first step in the deduction and induction idea of problem analysis serving as the basis for the
process involves getting these three levels to match learning process, interdisciplinary features, parti-
up with one another. It may be easiest to begin cipation direction and group work are shared.
with the specific proposal, but it is also important However, there are differences with regard to
to ensure that the overriding objectives which these assignments, assessment and group work. Each
PBL proposals must fulfil are formulated. When of these aspects represent very critical elements in
something `misfires' in the course of the actual the process, both in terms of the formal and
project, both the student and the teacher must informal learning processes, so there are important
reconsider the project in relation to the general differences at the educational model level.
objectives and assessment criteria. However, the two educational models share the
While it is important to consider the objectives same basic learning principles.
when planning the teaching, it is equally important PBL education builds on the students' back-
in the implementation of the project and, last but ground, expectations, and interests. It is common
by no means least, in the evaluation. The objectives for students to be motivated to work much
are also important in the daily supervision of the harder with the PBL model than with traditional
project, both in the preparation of the student± teaching methods. In general, students spend
facilitator meetings and as a component of the more time on their studies when working with
shared summarising of the facilitation of these a PBL model than with traditional models.
meetings. The objectives are the frame of reference Student participation is much less in conven-
for questions such as: Where will the project lead? tional courses, where the students have no say
Which dominant goals does it fulfil? Which does it in the problem formulation.
not fulfil? Is it necessary to make any modifica- There is a connection between the teaching
tions? In addition, it is an extremely good exercise method and the depth and complexity of the
for the students to relate their specific project to learning, as the student may be expected to reach
more general objectives: What are they learning? an analytically complex level of comprehension
What is the project an example of? Could they through the project work, which would not be
have learned this in another way? This is a way to possible in conventional classes. However, while
practise the inductive and deductive thought students are reaching this deeper level of learning,
processes, or to provide a link between the specific they may miss part of the broader perspective or
experience and the more general level. breadth of knowledge. It is therefore an important
DISCUSSION part of PBL pedagogy to ensure that the student is
In comparing the McMaster±Maastricht PBL in a position to fill in any potential `subject area
model to the Aalborg model of project work, gaps', if or when at a later point the need arises.
This is a necessary skill for all students, especially
as an overstuffed curriculum has long dominated
engineering education.

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Erik de Graaff trained as a psychologist and holds a Ph.D. in Social Sciences. From 1989 to
1990 he was involved in the development of the problem-based curricula of medicine and
health sciences at the University of Limburg in Maastricht. Since 1990, he has been
attached to Delft University of Technology as an educational adviser where he was
appointed as Associate Professor in the field of educational innovation in 1994. He has
also been part-time Guest Professor attached to the Videncenter for Lñreprocesser (VCL),
University of Aalborg, Denmark, since 1999. He has published articles on problem-based
learning, project-organised learning, assessment of learning results, evaluation and educa-
tional innovation. Dr. de Graaff is an active member of several professional bodies in
higher education and engineering education.
Anette Kolmos was recently appointed as Professor and Vice-Director of the Centre for
Problem Based Learning, a satellite centre of the UNESCO International Centre for
Engineering Education, Aalborg University. She has been Associate Professor in educa-
tional research in engineering education since 1994, and head of the Centre for University
Teaching and Learning from 1995 to 2002. Dr. Kolmos has been responsible for developing
and implementing several research and development projects. She holds a Ph.D. in Gender,
Technology and Education (1989). During the last eight years, she has researched the
following areas, primarily within engineering education: the development and evaluation of
project-organised and problem-based curricula, changing from traditional to project-
organised and problem-based curricula, development of transferable skills in PBL and
project work, methods of implementing ICT in an educational context, methods for staff
development, development of work-based learning models for continuing university
education, co-operative skills in product development and in engineering education. Dr.
Kolmos is a member of several editorial boards for international journals and of several
international advisory boards for faculty development programmes and EU programmes.