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Objects for Eternity

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES FROM THE
W. ARNOLD MEIJER COLLECTION

Edited by
Carol A.R. Andrews and Jacobus van Dijk

With contributions by

Carol A.R. Andrews CA

Edith Bernhauer EB
Jacobus van Dijk JvD
Martin von Falck MvF
Wolfram Grajetzki WG
Julia Harvey JH
W. Raymond Johnson WRJ
Robert A. Lunsingh Scheurleer RLS
W. Arnold Meijer AM
Maarten J. Raven MJR
Birgit Schlick-Nolte BSN
Hans D. Schneider HDS

Advisors
Barbara G. Aston (stone)
Birgit Schlick-Nolte (faience and glass)

Translator
Julia Harvey

Line drawings
Julia Harvey and William Schenck

VERLAG PHILIPP VON ZABERN • MAINZ AM RHEIN

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Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom 53

1.33 Squatting figure from

a boat model
Wood.
Middle Kingdom (c. 2040 – 1640 BC).
H. 5.7 cm, W. 2.9 cm, D. 3.3 cm.

This small figure is originally from a wooden model of a

boat. The man is squatting and is completely wrapped
in a white cloak from just below the neck. His black hair
is cut short and there is a patch of damage on top of his
head. The head is slightly skewed to the left. The details
of the eyes and eyebrows are painted in black and white.
There are no further paint traces on the face. The ears
are relatively large. The general outline of the arms and
feet is visible under the all-encompassing white cloak.
There is some slight damage on the left side of the back
and at the bottom. Traces of plaster on the bottom con-
firm that this figure was once attached to a model of a
boat.
Boats and shipping played a major role in Ancient
Egyptian society.1 Boat models and tomb scenes in
relief or painting involving boats are particularly com-
mon during the Middle Kingdom. One of the most
famous works of Middle Egyptian literature, the Story
of the Shipwrecked Sailor, also has a nautical theme.
The boat models included among the burial equipment
fall into two main categories: (1) boats to ensure that the
deceased could continue his activities in the afterlife,
such as fishing, travelling up and down the country and suggested that they may be the forerunners of the later
across the Nile, etc., and (2) boats with a ritual purpose, block statues, which also appear for the first time in the
such as the pilgrimage to Abydos2 or transporting the Middle Kingdom.5
mummy across the river. As in many other cultures, the JH
symbolic crossing of the river was equated with passing
from this life into the next.
Figures like this are often referred to in the literature as
pilots, i.e. the person who sat in the bows of the boat
and directed the helmsman in the stern. However, sim- 1
On Egyptian boats in general see B. Landström, Ships of the
ilar figures are also found in the stern and in the centre
Pharaohs. 4000 Years of Egyptian Shipbuilding (London 1970);
of boat models.3 When in the bows, they are sometimes S. Vinson, Egyptian Boats and Ships (Princes Risborough 1994);
next to standing figures holding what seems to be a D. Jones, Boats (London 1995).
weight to plumb the depth of the water. These figures 2
For a two-dimensional representation see e.g. P.E. Newberry,
are also referred to as pilots. Both types occur separate- Beni Hasan I (London 1893), Pl. XXIX (left: boats for travel-
ly as well as together. What is more likely, however, is ling, right: funerary boats on the voyage to Abydos).
3
that we are dealing here with a figure of the deceased on See for example the two boat models in W.M.F. Petrie, Gizeh
and Rifeh (London 1907), Pl. X C. In the upper one there are
the pilgrimage to Abydos, or perhaps with a son or other
three similar figures gathered around the cabin; in the lower
companion of the mummy on the ritual journey across there is one in the bows and one in the stern.
the river.4 They are clearly not involved with the actions 4
Cf. R. Schulz, Die Entwicklung und Bedeutung des kuboiden
of sailing or rowing the boat; on the contrary, they Statuentypus II (Hildesheim 1992), 755 – 759.
5
never have their arms or legs visible. It has also been Schulz, Entwicklung, 757.
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54 Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom

Wood and Woodworking

The ancient Egyptians used wood for a wide range of craftsmen. Up to and including the Predynastic Period,
applications from predynastic times, despite a severe wood was worked with knives and saws made of flint,
paucity of suitable indigenous trees. Native species like and simple copper tools also began to be manufactured.
acacia, sycomore fig and tamarisk were only able to Even with these simple tools, the quality of the finished
produce short planks and the wood was often poor in products is eloquent evidence of the skill of the crafts-
quality. The importation of cedar wood from the men. The earliest actual tools were found by W.B.
Lebanon began as early as the 1st Dynasty and imports Emery at Saqqara in the 1930s. He discovered a cache
of ebony from regions south of Egypt, such as Ethiopia, of copper implements including woodworking tools in a
are known from the Old Kingdom onwards. Wood was mastaba dating to the reign of King Djer of the First
used to make furniture, flagpoles, doors, boats and arte- Dynasty.3 The saw blades were between 25 and 40 cm in
facts.1 length, and look rather like large knives. The edges were
Egyptian carpenters early developed a range of tech- beaten to increase their strength. Unlike the teeth of a
niques for making the best of the wood they had at their modern saw, which stick out in both directions, the
disposal. The valuable imported varieties were mainly teeth of these saws were all punched out the same side.
confined to objects for temples and the tombs of the This would have made sawing planks a difficult task as
pharaohs and highest officials so the indigenous woods the blade would have had a tendency to jam. Emery also
were often all that was available. By means of skilful found several wooden adze shafts and a large number of
handling, from felling the timber, cutting it and then copper adze blades. The blades were attached to the
seasoning it, every part of a tree could be utilized. Many shafts by means of leather thongs, strips of linen or cord.
different types of joints were employed to make timbers By the 3rd Dynasty, great advances in woodworking
longer, and to form corners and other joins between two techniques had been achieved. The tomb of Hesire at
or more pieces of wood. Box-and-frame corner joints, Saqqara, discovered during the mid-nineteenth century
mitre joints, mortise-and-tenon joints and dovetail by Auguste Mariette and dating to the reign of Djoser,
joints are all known from furniture and statues from as proved to contain several wooden panels carved in
early as the Old Kingdom. The techniques of applying beautiful raised relief. The tomb was rediscovered by
inlay, or a layer of painted plaster, enabled such joins to J.E. Quibell in 1911, and proved further to contain sev-
be hidden from view, giving the impression that the eral paintings of typical furniture of the time showing
object was made from a single piece. Nowadays we are the technical details. Perhaps the most significant find
often able to see the workmanship because much of the dating to the Old Kingdom, however, was the furniture
painted plaster layers or the inlays have fallen off, of Queen Hetepheres, the mother of Khufu, the builder
revealing the construction below. of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Her burial was found by
Much of our knowledge of woodworking techniques the American Egyptologist G.A. Reisner at the bottom
comes from the illustrations of workshops in tomb of a shaft close to this pyramid. The furniture is cur-
paintings and reliefs from all periods of Egyptian histo- rently in the Cairo Museum, with replicas on display in
ry, as well as from actual artefacts. One of the most the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The tools used at this
informative sources is the tomb of Rekhmire from the period are illustrated in the tomb of Ti at Saqqara,
New Kingdom. The entire woodworking process is which dates to the 5th Dynasty. The reliefs show sever-
depicted, ranging from chopping down trees with axes, al carpenters at work: some are smoothing the grain of
sawing planks and planing them with a chisel, polishing timbers with sandstone blocks, others are using bow-
them and then varnishing them before they move on to drills to make handle holes. Above their heads are illus-
the workshops where they are turned into furniture and trations of other tools, including an adze and a saw. The
other objects.2 shape of the saw has changed – it now has a straight
The illustrations on tomb walls and actual surviving back and a distinct curved cutting edge. The handle has
artefacts also tell us a lot about the tools used by the also been modified to better fit the carpenter’s hand.
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Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom 55

During the Middle Kingdom we first find tools made of

bronze in addition to copper ones. Bronze is an alloy of
copper and tin and is harder than copper. As a result the
quality of carpentry again improved. More and more
complicated pieces of furniture appear, and boxes seem
to have been particularly popular at this time. They were
used to store linen and jewellery, but also toilet articles,
perfumes and oils. We also have a wonderful model of
a workshop from the tomb of Meketre of the 11th
Dynasty, now in the Cairo Museum.4
New Kingdom carpenters had a wide range of tools to
work wood. In addition to axes and adzes, they also
used pull saws and handsaws, bow-drills, mortise and
firmer chisels, mallets and awls. The blades were kept
sharp by honing. Actual hones have been found with
holes bored in them, probably to hang them somewhere
handy in the workshop. In the New Kingdom, carpen-
ters began to sit on low stools whereas before they had
always worked squatting or cross-legged on the ground.
This happened at the same period that stools and even
chairs become popular for sitting on. The wooden
objects from the tomb of Tutankhamun reveal a won-
derful range of chairs, stools, beds, boxes, statues and
other artefacts, all displaying magnificent craftsman-
ship.
There is much less information about woodworking
from the periods after the New Kingdom. One excep-
tion is an illustration from the tomb of Petosiris at
Tuna el-Gebel.5 It shows two carpenters working with
a simple vertical lathe for turning a chair leg. The few
surviving examples of furniture from the later periods
indeed show that turned elements began to be widely
used to make chairs, stools and beds.
JH

1 3
For more general information about wood in Ancient Egypt, Killen, Egyptian Woodworking, 19 – 21.
4
see R. Gale, P. Gasson, N. Hepper, G. Killen, “Wood”, in M. Saleh and H. Sourouzian, The Egyptian Museum Cairo.
P.T. Nicholson and I. Shaw (ed.), Ancient Egyptian Materials Official Catalogue (Mainz am Rhein 1987), no. 78.
5
and Technology (Cambridge 2000), 334 – 371, and G. Killen, Killen, Egyptian Woodworking, 54, fig. 62.
Egyptian Woodworking and Furniture (Princes Risborough
1994).
2
N. de G. Davies, The Tomb of Rekh-mi-re at Thebes II (New
York 1943), Pl. LV.
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56 Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom

1.34 Torso of a man also traces of red-painted plaster around the socket
for the right arm. The nipples were probably originally
Wood. painted black on this layer of red plaster, something
Old Kingdom, end of Dynasty 6, c. 2150 BC. known on many other statues of the period. The break
H. 13.9 cm, W. 7.5 cm, D. 6.2 cm. at the waistline is slightly higher in front than behind,
which means that it is probably not along the skirt line
– skirts and kilts in the Old Kingdom were always lower
This torso of a man is missing its arms and is broken off in front and higher at the back. There is a small patch of
at the waistline. The man is wearing a black-painted superficial damage on the crown of the head.
skullcap or his own hair cut very short, as is shown by On the basis of parallels from the corpus of wooden
the traces of black paint. These are particularly visible statues of the Old Kingdom,1 we can postulate that the
around the ears, despite a layer of dark varnish which statue was originally a standing or striding figure, wear-
now covers the statue. The right ear is intact and much ing an apron-fronted kilt and probably holding the front
of the inner detail of the auricle is carved. Although the flap of the kilt in his right hand. The left arm would also
left ear is damaged, some details of the auricle are still have been pendent but there is no way of knowing
clearly visible. whether the hand was clenched or open. The arms were
The facial features are relatively large for the size of the originally attached to the body with pegs that fitted into
head, but this is not unknown on wooden statues of this the holes visible on the shoulders. The original height
period. The brows are carved very prominently over would have been somewhere around 30 cm.
large eyes and heavy eyelids. The lower lids even impose Carbon 14 analysis has dated the wood to the Old King-
into the cheek area, resulting in rounded “apple” dom period.2 The parallels for the style of the face3 sug-
cheeks. The cosmetic lines at the inside and outside gest a date towards the end of the 6th Dynasty, in the
corners of the eyes are also clearly indicated. The nose period of the reign of Pepi II.
is well shaped with a slight blunting at the tip. Although JH
the nostrils are not hollowed out, the curl around the
outside is clearly indicated. The contours of the mouth,
like those of the eyes, are rather too large for the face.
1
They impose on the area of the chin, resulting in the J. Harvey, Wooden Statues of the Old Kingdom (Leiden 2001),
chin being rather small with a tendency to recede. The Cat. Nos. A 76 (Cairo CG 506), B17 (Hildesheim RPM 67),
lips are carefully outlined with clear corners; they are B 39 (Berlin Inv. 1363).
2
See Appendix B.
slightly pursed. The head is set on a short, stocky neck. 3
The best parallels are provided by the statues from a group
The collarbone is carved but there is no trace of nipples, found in tomb 24 at Dahshur: Harvey, Wooden Statues,
either carved or painted. A 70–A 76, and the statues from the Tjeteti group: A 83 –
There is a thin layer of plaster visible in traces on the A 102. Of this group, A 96 is Cat. No. 1.36 in the present
back of the statue despite the varnish layer. There are catalogue.
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60 Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom

1.36 Statue of Tjeteti above and below the eyes, those below giving the
impression that Tjeteti has bags under his eyes. The
Wood. nose is well carved with a straight bridge and the curve
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6, end of the reign of Pepi II, of the nostrils is very pronounced. The cheeks are
c. 2150 BC. rounded, with sharply defined lower edges. The mouth
H. 38.8 cm, Base: H. 4.1 cm, W. 9.3 cm, D. 20.8 cm. is very large and wide, with clearly outlined lips. The
chin is small but well shaped. The neck is set onto
straight shoulders and the collarbone is only indicated
This wooden statue of a man called Tjeteti is one of a on the left shoulder. The chest and waist are narrow;
group of wooden statues found in his tomb at Saqqara,1 unlike many other statues of the period, the nipples on
the necropolis associated with the city of Memphis, the this statue are not carved but only indicated in black
capital of ancient Egypt, about 25 km south of present- paint, faint traces of which can still be discerned. The
day Cairo. The tomb was found in the excavation season kilt is the half-goffered type with a carved tab up onto
1921 – 22 by Cecil Firth in the Teti Pyramid Cemetery, the belly to the left-hand side of the navel. The goffers
the area next to the pyramid of King Teti, the first king are indicated by vertical carved lines on the front right
of the 6th Dynasty. The cemetery continued to be used side of the kilt. The arms are pendent, and still attached
for the interments of officials long after the death of to the thigh at wrist level. The fists are clasped with
Teti, and the tomb of Tjeteti is one of these later burials. long, extended thumbs. The thumbnails are indicated,
In line with a common practice of the time, which has but the right hand is much more delicately carved than
long since been abandoned, items from the tomb were the left. The left leg is extended, giving the impression
given to the people or institutions who had sponsored that the statue is taking a step. The right leg is very
the excavations in return for their assistance. In this way slightly to the rear. The knees are clearly and naturalis-
the contents of the tomb, which numbered twenty tically carved and the ankles are also pronounced. The
wooden statues, one of them female, three female offer- feet are large and the toes and toenails are clearly
ing bearers, several model groups and a seated lime- defined. The left leg is slightly slimmer than the right;
stone statue of the tomb owner, became dispersed. this is probably due to the difficulties of carving from a
Most of the objects ended up in museum collections, single piece of wood.
and in 1985 an attempt was made to reconstruct the The original thin painted plaster layer that would have
contents of the tomb by Bengt Peterson of the Medel- covered the statue is now missing. There are traces of
havsmuseet in Stockholm, which houses three of the black on the wig and the base and around the right eye;
male statues.2 He was able to publish some of the origi- traces of red can be discerned on the face and under the
nal excavation photographs and eventually was able to right arm. The skin of males was usually painted red,
relocate 14 of the original 19 male statues. During re- whereas that of females was usually yellow, perhaps a
search for a catalogue of Old Kingdom wooden statues, reference to the difference in the amount of time spent
a further two statues belonging to the tomb group were outside in the sun by males and females. The statue has
identified, one of which is this statue.3 The three re- a slight twist to the left, particularly obvious when
maining male statues and the female statue are still viewed from behind, which is probably due to the ne-
unlocated.4 cessity of following the grain of the wood.
This Tjeteti statue is carved from a single piece of wood, The figure is standing on a base which has a short verti-
even including the front part of the left foot, which is cal column of inscription in front of the right foot. It
usually a separate piece. Although the general condition was also originally covered in painted plaster, remains of
of the statue is good, there are several minor cracks which can be seen around the feet. The inscription
down the front and a wider split on the left side of the reads “The Overseer of the Two Granaries, Tjeteti”.
face; a large knothole is visible on the chest. Tjeteti is This title is a very high administrative one, with a cer-
wearing the so-called echelon-curl wig with one long tain honorific character as well. It is first known from
layer to the level of the forehead and then several short- the reign of Nyuserre of the 5th Dynasty.5 One other
er overlapping layers, covering the ears. The facial fea- statue from the tomb, now in the Boston Museum of
tures have been well defined. The brow ridge is clearly Fine Arts,6 has the same title. Some of the titles on the
but unobtrusively carved; the details of the eyebrows other statues of Tjeteti also seem to have agricultural
were originally painted black. The eyes are rounded connotations, ranging from “Overseer of the Fields”
with very extended canthi. The eyelids are full both and “Overseer of Milkers” to “Overseer of the Labour
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62 Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom

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Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom 63

Establishment”. There are also some titles which have customer just walk in and choose his statues off the
to do with proximity to the king, such as “Overseer of shelf? This question becomes particularly interesting
the Sealed Document”, a scribal title, and the honor- when we compare this Tjeteti figure with the next
ific title “Sole Friend”. He is also “Overseer of the statue in the catalogue. We know almost for certain that
House of the Master of Largess”, the department in the anonymous male does not belong to the original
charge of the provisioning of the King’s table – a very Tjeteti tomb group, despite the obvious visual similari-
important function.7 ties, because he does not appear in any of the original
In the Old Kingdom, the variety of objects placed in excavation photographs. What is equally certain, how-
tombs began to increase. Whereas previously only the ever, is that the figure must come from the same period
king and his immediate family could provide themselves and workshop, otherwise the similarities cannot be ex-
with a rich tomb and lavish burial goods, by the 6th plained. Sadly, too many of the wooden statues placed
Dynasty many more levels of society were in a position in burials at the end of the Old Kingdom have not sur-
to do so. Among the many objects placed in the tombs vived the ravages of time, making it virtually impossible
were statues of the tomb owner and of his wife, in both for us to gather together a sufficiently large sample from
stone and wood. These statues were designed as sub- one location to identify individual hands or even work-
stitutes for the physical body, should something happen shops. It is easy to posit the same hand at work in a
to it. single tomb group; what would be really interesting,
The earliest surviving nonroyal wooden statues date however, would be if we could spot that same hand at
from the 4th Dynasty,8 when only one or two statues work in a different group.
were provided for a tomb. By the 6th Dynasty, however, The wood used to make the statues was nearly always
tombs were equipped with many more statues, and indigenous, i.e. from trees that grew naturally in the
often these were made of wood. In tomb groups with Nile valley. However, very few statues have actually had
both wood and stone statues, the stone statues are their wood tested.10 The most common types of wood
always seated and the wooden statues are striding or were sycomore and acacia, with tamarisk popular for
standing. The few seated wooden statues that are known the bases. If a foreign wood was used then it was usual-
are always part of a larger group of wooden statues. The ly ebony, from further south in the continent of Africa,
tomb group of Tjeteti also includes a seated wooden or cedar, from the Lebanon. This statue may well be
statue, now in Neuchatel.9 made of acacia.
An interesting characteristic of the Tjeteti group is that JH
all the male statues have their arms carved from the
same piece of wood as the torsos, something that is
unique to this group. It is more usual for one or both
1
arms to be attached to the shoulders by internal pegs J. Harvey, Wooden Statues of the Old Kingdom. A Typological
Study (Leiden 2001), Cat. Nos. A 83 – 102.
which may or may not be visible on the surface. The 2
B. Peterson, “Finds from the Theteti Tomb at Saqqara”,
statue on display here is the only one of the group to be
Medelhavsmuseet Bulletin 20 (1985), 3 – 24.
made entirely from a single piece of wood – the fronts 3
Harvey, Wooden Statues, Cat. No. A 96.
of the feet of the others are separately carved and 4
Harvey, Wooden Statues, Cat. Nos. 74 – 78.
5
attached with pegs to their bases. What is particularly N. Strudwick, The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom
interesting about the statues from the tomb of Tjeteti is (London 1985), 337.
6
the wide range of quality in the carving, and the range Boston MFA 24.606; see Harvey, Wooden Statues, Cat. No. A 85.
7
of groups and sub-groups of styles. At least two sculp- A.H. Gardiner, “The House of Life and the Master of the
King’s Largess”, JEA 24 (1938), 83 – 91. On Tjeteti’s titles see
tors must have been involved in the carving, which in
also Peterson, Medelhavsmuseet Bulletin 20, 3 – 4.
turn implies that there must have been a workshop of 8
Harvey, Wooden Statues, Cat. Nos. A 1 and A 2.
some sort in the area. 9
Neuchatel, Musée d’Ethnographie, Eg. 329; see Harvey,
We know very little about workshops from this period. Wooden Statues, Cat. No. A 101.
10
Did the artisans work to order, or could a prospective For C 14 readings see Appendix B.
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64 Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom

1.37 Statue of an unknown man to be elongated slightly, a tendency that may indicate a
slightly later date than the Tjeteti group.
Wood. JH
Old Kingdom, Dynasty 6, end of the reign of Pepi II,
c. 2150 BC.
H. as preserved 26.5 cm (base modern).

This figure of a man is strikingly similar to the statue of

Tjeteti, no. 1.36, and very probably comes from the
same time and place, i.e. Saqqara at the end of the Old
Kingdom. It may well have been a product of the same
workshop. Despite the similarities, the figure does not
seem to have formed part of the Tjeteti tomb group –
this statue does not figure in the excavation photo-
graphs of that tomb.
The statue is striding with its left leg advanced. Most of
the original painted layer covering the surface is now
missing, but there are traces of red on the shoulders and
back. The echelon-curl wig looks as if it is perched on
top of the head. It has one long layer stretching from the
crown of the head to the forehead and then four short
layers covering the ears. There are traces of black paint
on the wig. On the top of the head there is an indenta-
tion but it is uncertain whether this is damage or delib-
erate. The sharp, narrow face appears to be thrusting
forwards. The features are blurred due to the loss of the
surface layer, but there are traces of black and white
paint in the right eye.
The arms are held pendent with clasped fists. They have
been carved free of the body above the elbows but still
remain attached by the wrists at the level of the hips.
The hands are carved free. The left arm is slightly longer
than the right. The figure is wearing a short plain kilt
with faint traces of white paint or plaster. A hole in the
middle of the stomach may indicate where the knot of
the kilt would have been inserted. This was often a sepa-
rately carved knob of wood. The front of the left leg of
the statue is missing below mid shin. The foot is also
missing although the heel is still extant. The shin and
the foot are modern restorations and the foot is turned
slightly too far out. There are faint traces of plaster
around the inside of the right foot.
The statue appears to be in poor condition due to all the
cracks and fissures on the surface. These, however,
appear to follow the lines of the grain. The statue was
originally made from one single piece of wood,
although as the left foot is now missing, we cannot tell
whether it was originally a separate piece pegged on.
From behind, the head of the statue appears to be tilted
slightly to the left. The proportions of the statue appear
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Predynastic periods, Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom 65

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270

Appendix D: Drawings of stone vessels

All drawings scale 1:2.

1.01

1.02 a

1.02 b

1.02 c
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Appendix D: Drawings of stone vessels 271

1.03 1.04

1.05 1.06

1.07 1.08

1.09 1.10
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272 Appendix D: Drawings of stone vessels

1.11

1.12 1.13

1.14
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Appendix D: Drawings of stone vessels 273

1.15

1.16

1.17
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274 Appendix D: Drawings of stone vessels

1.20 a

1.18 1.20 b

1.19